1 s2.0 S0378377407001400 Main

agricultural water management 92 (2007) 111125
available at www.sciencedirect.com
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/agwat
Review
Twenty-ve years modeling irrigated and drained soils: State of the art
W.G.M. Bastiaanssen a,b,*, R.G. Allen c, P. Droogers d, G. DUrso e, P. Steduto f
a
WaterWatch, Wageningen, The Netherlands Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands c University of Idaho, Kimberly, USA d FutureWater, Wageningen, The Netherlands e University of Naples, Italy f FAO, Rome, Italy
b
article info
Article history: Accepted 18 May 2007 Published on line 20 July 2007 Keywords: Soil water ow models Unsaturated zone Irrigation Drainage Data management SWOT analysis
abstract
Half of the world food production originates from irrigated and drained soils. Advanced soil water ow simulation models have the potential to contribute to the solution of relatively complex problems in irrigation and drainage science and management, provided that eld data are available to calibrate and run them. Besides providing a literature review, this paper emphasizes on calibration and mathematical optimization procedures using GIS and remote sensing techniques. Unfortunately, the required level of expertise of integrated GIS, remote sensing and models make the application of sophisticated tools highly dependent on modeling experts. This is one of the chief reasons that soil water ow models have a low operational focus, especially in less developed countries with irrigation systems where they are most needed. The gap between the supply of various advanced models and the application by the irrigation and drainage community needs to be closed. The likelihood of adoption by a broader model user community will increase if models become more userand data-friendly (or -tolerant) and heterogeneity-aware. During the next 10 years, simulation model development and application should focus on agricultural water savings, understanding recycling of water in the basin context, increase crop water productivity, bring groundwater-overexploitation to a halt and control the build up of soil salinity. # 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Contents
1. 2. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The unsaturated-zone modeling plaza . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1. The demand side of soil water ow models . . 2.2. The supply side of soil water ow models . . . 2.3. What can soil water ow models really add? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 113 113 114 115
* Corresponding author at: WaterWatch, Wageningen, The Netherlands. Tel.: +31 317 423401; fax: +31 344 693 827. E-mail addresses: w.bastiaanssen@waterwatch.nl, w.g.m.bastiaanssen@tudelft.nl (W.G.M. Bastiaanssen), rallen@kimberly.uidaho.edu (R.G. Allen), p.droogers@futurewater.nl (P. Droogers), durso@unina.it (G. DUrso), pasquale.steduto@fao.org (P. Steduto). 0378-3774/$ see front matter # 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2007.05.013
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3. 4.
5.
Progress in solution of technical and scientic issues . . . . . . . . . . . Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) analysis 4.1. Strengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2. Weaknesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3. Opportunities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4. Threats. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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1.
Introduction
The natural conditions for crop growth often deviate from the ideal, and irrigation and drainage techniques can potentially help to maintain soil moisture within a desirable range. These human manipulations increase the food production and raise income and boost the economic development of poor rural areas. Worldwide approximately 350 million hectare of land is under irrigation. Irrigation in developing countries (39%) and developed countries (11%) produces 50% of the worlds cereal production. The rain-fed agricultural systems in developed countries will be responsible for 20% of the cereal production, of which a large portion has drainage systems. Smedema et al. (2000) estimated that areas equipped with irrigation and drainage techniques are responsible for approximately 40% of the global food production, and areas equipped with drainage systems alone contribute another 10%. In a recent compilation of World Bank experiences and strategies, Ward et al. (2006) describe the urgency to recognize agricultural water management as a key mechanism of solving water resources problems. The unsaturated soil is a complicated system governed by highly non-linear processes and interactions. These ow processes can be described by means of physicalmathematical models. These unsaturated-zone models can be used to simulate the timing of irrigations and irrigation depths, drain spacing and drain depth, and system behavior and response. The role of numerical models during the last 25 years has increased our understanding of irrigation and drainage processes in the context of the soilplantatmosphere continuum systems. Progress in modeling can be attributed to merging separated theories of inltration, plant growth, EvapoTranspiration (ET), solute transfer and ow to drain pipes into a single numerical code. Modeling of soil moisture and solute transport in the unsaturated zone has been under development since the 1970s (e.g. Toksoz and Kirkham, 1971; Neuman et al., 1974; Zaradny and Feddes, 1979). Early soil water ow models were further extended with routines for specic phenological and physiological crop development and solute transfer. The later developments for solute transfer came as a consequence of public environmental concern towards non-source point pollution and widespread salinization as a consequence of unsustainable irrigation practices. The majority of models are one-dimensional, although two- and three-dimensional models exist. After being involved for more than 25 years in this profession, Feddes et al. (2004) recently summarized the progress, challenges and applications in unsaturated-zone modeling.
Intercomparison studies have assessed the performance of some soil water ow models and have provided guidelines to the potential user community on various to do and not to do aspects of specic models (e.g. McLin and Gelhar, 1979; Feddes et al., 1988; Workman and Skaggs, 1989; Clemente et al., 1994; Lorre et al., 1994; Faria et al., 1994; Bastiaanssen et al., 1996; Ines et al., 2001). In general, most models perform well, provided detailed eld and experimental data are available to calibrate them. The most complete and systematic collections of modeling examples have been compiled by special workshops dedicated to CropWaterEnvironment models under the auspices of the International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID), e.g. Amer (1990), Pereira et al. (1992), Lorre (1993), Pereira et al. (1995), Ragab et al. (1996), Musi et al. (1999). Wagenet (1993) and later Corwin et al. (1999), compiled an excellent review on the calibration and uncertainty aspects of solute-transfer models for the vadose zone. Their work emphasizes leaching of fertilizers and pesticides and the treatment of the soil system parameters in particular, which can also be utilized in modeling for irrigation and drainage systems. Olioso et al. (2005) compiled an excellent review paper describing the parallel development, calibration and operational aspects of several SoilVegetationAtmosphereTransfer (SVAT) models for irrigation and drainage studies. The coupling of slow transport processes in soil with SVAT type of uxes in the atmosphere is common for climatic studies (e.g. Van den Hurk et al., 1997), and rather new for irrigation and drainage studies. Despite the promising progress made and the steady growth in modeling capacity and capability, the implementation of numerical models in irrigation and drainage systems has not really materialized to any substantial degree, neither in the irrigation research community and consultancy services, nor in the operation and evaluation of irrigation and drainage systems. Some of this underutilization is due to (i) poor education of agricultural water management professionals, (ii) insufcient awareness of technical capabilities of numerical tools, (iii) insufcient access to computers, (iv) absence of required soil, weather and crop data to operate these models, (v) steep learning curve for the rst application, (vi) natural unbelief that computer-based technology is useful for tackling practical irrigation and drainage problems, (vii) low priority assigned to technical solutions because social and institutional issues are more compelling, (viii) absence of validation opportunities, (ix) lack of calibration protocol so that multiple and contrasting results are often obtained, (x) poor justication for model use and wrong model selection in historic studies, (xi) models are not specic enough for solving site-specic problems and questions, (xii) assumptions and
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simplications undertaken in the model are inadequate to sufciently capture the intrinsic structure of the system being modeled, and (xiii) placement of more trust in eld measurements than in model predictions. The objective of this state of the art paper is to make a StrengthsWeaknessesOpportunitiesThreats (SWOT) analysis of soil water ow models and their applications dealing with irrigation and drainage systems. The paper aims at describing the types of solutions that advanced models can provide and argues that with growing needs for more precise water management, model solutions should receive more attention from responsible water managers. The SWOT analysis is made to highlight the chances to improve agricultural water management in irrigated river basins (e.g. Molden and Oweis, 2007), and the need to quantify and adapt to water scarcity (e.g. Rijsberman, 2006). Because of the importance of crop yield response to water in irrigation and drainage management, some crop yield models and studies are reviewed as well. Modeling pesticide leaching and applications in rain-fed agriculture are outside the scope of this paper, except for salinization problems as they directly hamper opportunities in agriculture. Hydraulic type of models that simulate the water distribution inside irrigation schemes are excluded because they are not encompassing eld scale irrigation processes. Many models are developed and papers are published presenting simulation results. This review paper can therefore never be complete.
2.
2.1.
The unsaturated-zone modeling plaza

The demand side of soil water ow models
Fig. 1 Combined effects of groundwater level, salinity of irrigation water expressed as electric conductivity (EC) and crop water deficit expressed as relative transpiration (Ta/ Tp) on the economic productivity of water (WP) in Sirsa District, India. These diagrams are created by means of a soil water flow model (after Droogers et al., 2003).
In many irrigation schemes on alluvial plains with unconned aquifers, leakage of irrigation water diverted from rivers or streams is a welcome feature to replenish declining aquifer levels. The percolation of water is not a loss per se but only a displacement in time and space (Allen et al., 1997). The introduction of drip and micro-sprinkler irrigation technology can help to reduce return ow with unprecedented water quality levels, albeit it also diminishes recharge. Precision irrigation will for environmental reasons become a prerequisite in many parts of this world. The interest in irrigation management is currently shifting from the supply side of water, where water supply should be managed to match the gross crop water requirement, to a system where the yield return and economic benets to water use is maximized, i.e. the concept of water productivity (e.g. Molden and Sakthivadivel, 1999; Seckler et al., 2003). This paradigm shift requires new insights and analytical relationships between, for instance, irrigation supply, evaporative and transpirative components, deep percolation and crop yield (e.g. Droogers and Kite, 2001). For example, Droogers et al. (2003) used the combined swapwofost model to compute analytical relationships between groundwater level, salinity of the irrigation water, crop water stress and water economics (productivity $ m3 and gross return in $ ha1). Soil physics and basic economics in agricultural water management need to be combined to produce optimal management solutions (see Fig. 1).
Water conservation programs in irrigation will, by denition, tend to make the root zone drier. The amount of empirical evidence is growing that decit irrigation and regulated decit irrigation increases the water productivity for many crops (e.g. Al-Khaisi et al., 1997; Zhang et al., 2004). Zhang et al. (1999) found empirical evidence in four irrigation schemes on the North-China plain that crop water productivity (crop yield per unit of depleted water) of wheat may increase from 0.95 to 1.35 kg m3 if the irrigation application is reduced from 400 to 150 mm per season. Zwart and Bastiaanssen (2004) summarized nine experiments in India, Turkey, China, Niger and USA, and showed that generally water productivity per unit depletion in wheat increases from 0.6 to 1.4 kg m3 if irrigation supply is reduced from approximately 500 to 200 mm per season. Similar values for maize are 1.12.4 kg m3 increase at a reduction of applied water of 700300 mm. Conjunctive use of groundwater and surface water is an accepted practice under water-short conditions. However, the safe yield of groundwater and disposal of any saline efuent
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Fig. 2 Process chain between irrigation water supply, water productivity and opportunities to recycle water. A plus sign indicates a positive relationship between the two combined processes and a negative sign implies a negative relationship.
from irrigated areas requires a long-term solution. The salinity of drainage systems and tube wells needs to be well described, especially in situations where water quality deteriorates with depth so that tube wells must be managed to skim fresh water to prevent salts from coming up. Solutions for these problems can be based on multiple-dimensional theory and require numerical models that solve both water and solute transport processes (e.g. Kelleners et al., 2000). The complex interactions between root zone soil moisture ow, salinity build up, dry-matter production, water quality degradation and opportunities to recycle water according to prevailing geo-hydrological and drainage conditions (see Fig. 2), can no longer be appraised by simple (steady-state) concepts and FAO-type of analytical solutions and look-up tables. Whereas in earlier FAO concepts water productivity was simply modelled by a crop yield response factor ky (Doorenbos and Kassam, 1979), the new model concept is a function of biomass production and reference evapotranspiration (Steduto et al., 2007). The real contribution of irrigation to overall water productivity and irrigation efciency is unpredictable without detailed understanding of the system. Hence, there is a clear demand for use of complex deterministic models that aid in the decision-making processes for basins struggling with competition for water (e.g. DUrso et al., 1999).
2.2.
The supply side of soil water ow models
The FAO has played a prominent role in providing practical solutions to agricultural water management problems by assembling pieces of technology from numerous research laboratories and universities. This assemblage has culminated in the well-known series of Irrigation and Drainage Papers, out of which the FAO#24 (Doorenbos and Pruitt, 1977), FAO#29 (Ayers and Wescot, 1985), FAO#33 (Doorenbos and Kassam, 1979) and FAO#56 (Allen et al., 1998) papers are most often cited and found useful. These sets of FAO tools have proven to be of high relevance and practical benet because they are easy to understand and have a at learning curve. The required data to operate these models can be obtained from simple eld measurements (e.g. electric conductivity of
irrigation water; soil water retention at eld capacity). The critical question to be posed is whether these solutions are good enough for solving our future challenges in terms of sustainable food production in a growing world with less water resources available for the agricultural sector, and a threat of soil physical and chemical degradation. A simulation model can be generally categorized into classes referred to as mechanistic, stochastic, empirical and functional. Some major names and categories of deterministic models are summarized in Table 1. Most of these models are dedicated to a certain process, such as drainmod to assist in drainage design, leachm for pesticide movement, enwatbal for distinguishing between soil evaporation, wet-leaf evaporation and crop transpiration, and dssat for cropnutrient interactions. Each model has its strengths, weaknesses and data requirements and a universally appropriate and versatile model does not exist. The selection of a certain model should depend on the specic task. Exactly the same is true for climate research on SoilVegetationAtmosphere-Transfer models (Henderson-Sellers et al., 1995). SVAT models include descriptions of the relatively rapid turbulent exchanges between vegetation and the atmosphere (e.g. Choudhury and Monteith, 1988). Although SVAT models are meant for coupling with atmospheric models, they can be employed as well to study irrigation and ET processes in an off-line mode (e.g. Lascano et al., 1987; Brisson et al., 2003; Boegh et al., 2004). The coupled energy and water balances computed for small time increments make SVAT models suitable for linkage to remotely sensed data and techniques (Olioso et al., 1999). Some models combine processes originally held in separate models, such as the combination of ceres (Tsuji et al., 1994) and dssat (Ritchie, 1998) to form a complementary model. Other examples are the extension of drainmod with options for nitrogen (N) and salinity (S) modeling (Abdel Dayem and Skaggs, 1990) and the combination of swatre (Feddes et al., 1978; Belmans et al., 1983) and wofost (Van Keulen and Wolf, 1986) into swap (Van Dam et al., 1997). For applications at the regional scale, one-dimensional soil water ow models are often combined with an irrigation-water distribution model and a groundwater model to specify or control the upper and
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Table 1 A selection of various categories of deterministic models for the unsaturated zone that are suitable to describe irrigation and drainage processes (the models and corresponding authors are listed in chronological sequence) Model category
Bucket model Pseudo-dynamic Richards equation
Example models
sowatet, cropwat, wsbm, opdm, cropsim must, simgro, faids swatre, drainmod, unsat2, worm, leachm, drainmod-s, isareg, opus, drainet, hyswasor, wave, mozart, swap, hydrus, dssat, cropgro, cropsyst, swms_3d, swat, simodis
Sources
Hanks and Cui (1991); Smith (1992a); Allen et al. (1998); Droogers et al. (2001b); Merkley (1996); Prajamwong et al. (1997) Laat de (1976); Roest et al. (1993) Feddes et al. (1978); Belmans et al. (1983); Skaggs (1978); Neuman et al. (1974); Van Genuchten (1987); Wagenet and Hutson (1989); Abdel Dayem and Skaggs (1990); Kandil et al. (1993); Teixeira and Pereira (1992); Smith (1992b); Hundertmark et al. (1993); Yang and Zhang (1993); Dirksen et al. (1993); Vanclooster et al. (1994); Leeuw and Arnold (1996); Van Dam et al. (1997); Simunek et al. (1998); Ritchie (1998); Hoogenboom et al. (1992); Stockle et al. (1994); Simunek et al. (1995); Arnold et al. (1999); DUrso (2001) Goudriaan (1977); Norman (1982); Lascano et al. (1987); Allen and Ahmad (1992); Calvet et al. (1998); Brisson et al. (2003); RZWQM Team (1998) Nour-el-Din et al. (1987); Kiwan et al. (1993); Kamra et al. (1991); Zimmer and Lorre (1993); Scientic Software Group (2000); Kelleners (2001) Van Keulen and Wolf (1986); Spitters et al. (1989); Porter et al. (1993); Tsuji et al. (1994); Kroff et al. (1993); Berghe ten et al. (1995)
SVAT model
micro-weather, cupid, enwatbal, unsat2e, isba, isba-ags, stics, rzwqm biwasa, sidra, cssri, hydrogeochem, sutra
Multi-dimensional drainage models Crop production models
wofost, sucros, ceres, dssat, epic, oryza, sawah
lower boundary conditions, respectively (e.g. Arnold et al., 1999; Kupper et al., 2002). The conditions for switching from simple solutions to advanced numerical models depend on the problem to be solved in relation to the data and expertise available or that can be afforded relative to the economic cost posed by the problem. Or, as posed by Menenti (1994) Do irrigation agencies and farmers need computational decision support tools? Farmers who live and survive under the circumstances encountered in the eld, have an objective (income generation and keep the soil healthy) that differs from the water policymaker (sharing resources equally and productively). Menentis view is that the debate about the practical relevance of computational tools should focus on the costs and added value for advanced decision-support systems versus higher costs for water and loss of income. A good example was recently demonstrated in the Sirsa Irrigation District, where Van Dam et al. (2005) used remote sensing, Geographic Information System (GIS) and numerical models to show that the current gross return in a large irrigation system in Northwestern India is US$501 million per year, and that postponement of drainage interventions to arrest a rising groundwater table will reduce the gross return to $452 million per year. Under these circumstances, comprehensive tools are economically viable to appraise drainage investments, and by doing that, increase the marginal benets of irrigated agriculture.
2.3.
What can soil water ow models really add?
This section presents a selected compilation of examples of the diversity of problems that can be evaluated using deterministic soil water ow models. We will present a few striking examples, rather than attempting to be complete. Baars and van Lochem (1993) investigated means to quantify farmers desires regarding irrigation-water distribution in the Lower Tunuyan irrigation system in Argentina. Marketing techniques were used to develop a procedure in which farmers
can actually participate in the design of an intervention. This client-oriented marketing approach consists of perception analysis, preference analysis and utility analysis. The outcome was a denition of an alternative system for water distribution, including irrigation interval, ow rate and allocation rules supported by farmers. The impacts of these user preferences and technical limitations in Argentina were studied using the swap model (Van den Hoven, 1997). The model was able to determine that there were no hydrologic restrictions concerning proposed irrigation intervals. Jacobs et al. (1997) quantied water-user preferences by head-end and tail-end farmers in India located along water courses having shallow groundwater table and proneness to soil salinity. Farmers, executive Irrigation Department staff, the State Government and academic agro-hydrologists were interviewed regarding remedial actions to be taken. Physical criteria (crop yield, salinity, waterlogging), social criteria (equity in inter-distributary water quality, equity in intradistributary waterlogging) and institutional criteria (O&M efforts, O&M costs) were associated with (i) exible rotation distributary canals, (ii) shorter intervals between xed rotation schedules, (iii) canal lining and (iv) construction of sub-surface drainage systems. The various scenarios, and optimum solutions were simulated using the swap model and the multi-objective analysis package electre. Construction of sub-surface drainage systems was identied as the most desirable and cost-effective solution for meeting the physical, social and institutional criteria. Management efforts to restore equilibrium between rainfall and ET at the basin scale must introduce ET-reduction programs that include decit irrigation, changing planting dates, planting shorter-season crops or varieties, sowing crops at lower density, introduction of greenhouses, breeding water stress-tolerant varieties, reducing consumptive non-transpirative losses, and reducing planted areas (Olson, 2005). ET-reduction programs should ultimately translate into sustainable groundwater tables and more discharge to natural
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streams, resulting in more surface water to coastal zones for maintaining aquatic ecology. The impact of each intervention on the groundwater table can be studied with a numerical transient ow model. Sarwar and Bastiaanssen (2001) used the swap model to predict the long-term effects of water-savings programs in the Punjab, Pakistan. The results indicate that, with good-quality irrigation-water supply, applications of 195 mm to wheat and 260 mm to cotton are minimally required to maintain agricultural sustainability under both drained and undrained conditions. When farmers have no option other than conjunctive use or use of saline groundwater from tube wells, they should apply more water (325 mm for both wheat and cotton), assuming that there are no drainage constraints. If drainage systems are not present or are not performing well, then only salt-tolerant species should be cultivated. The conclusion of the Pakistan study is that it is not possible to implement water-savings programs, not even in the wheat belt of Asia, if subsurface drainage systems are not introduced on a large scale. Water conservation practices under saline soil conditions are less effective, and practically infeasible to realize across large time frames incorporating the real weather variabilities. The outcome of these numerical modeling exercises can assist the local policymakers in their decisions on the formulation and introduction of water conservation plans. It is believed that properly chosen and calibrated models can replace laborsome eld experiments.
3. Progress in solution of technical and scientic issues

At the present time, research efforts are focusing on determining operational procedures for calibrating and validating soil water ow models. Ahmad et al. (2002) calibrated the swap model in a groundwater recharge study in Recha Doab, Pakistan, by comparing against in situ measured soil moisture content at 35 cm depth intervals. They obtained root mean square error (RMSE) values ranging from 0.022 to 0.027 cm3 cm3. They calibrated the soil and crop parameters by means of ET uxes measured by a Bowen ratio energy-balance station which is an uncommon but valuable dataset for calibration. Soil water ow models have been calibrated against measured stratications of soil electric conductivity by Smets et al. (1997) and Van Dam (2000). Sarwar and Feddes (2000) calibrated swap against in situ measurements of soil water potential. The deviation of soil moisture was 0.019 cm3 cm3 for layers 30 cm thick. Bastiaanssen et al. (1996) calibrated swap against 25 cm depth intervals of soil moisture and salinity of an irrigated and drained vineyard near Mendoza, Argentina. The RMSE values for moisture and salinity were 0.03 cm3 cm3 and 1.0 mg cm3, respectively. System parameter estimation through data assimilation procedures has been studied extensively in hydrology (Moradkhani et al., 2005). The problem in operational applications is that the required eld measurements are often not available. The availability of remote sensing, including surface temperature, ET, dry-matter production, LAI and soil moisture, makes it feasible to apply data assimilation techniques. References to data assimilation studies are Houser et al. (1998), Schultz et al. (1999), Franks and Beven (1999), Olioso et al.
(1999), Boegh et al. (2004), Moradkhani et al. (2005), and Ines et al. (2006). Soil water ow models have limited use in operational irrigation and drainage applications at the farm level. At larger aggregated levels, i.e. communities of farmers, irrigation agencies and advisory services, the required technical capacity and competence are more easily found. However, application of soil water ow models to composite areas such as regional districts, poses three different challenges: (i) collection of data can be costly and time consuming, (ii) models are not suitable to any spatial scale, and (iii) spatial variability of model parameters must be correctly represented. It is more and more evident that models as such are not the limiting component nowadays, but the lack of reliable and accurate data is the constraining factor. Inverse modeling is one of the promising procedures where a physically based model is used to estimate the soilwatercrop parameters required by the model. Two examples are presented in this section to demonstrate the power of innovative inversemodeling approaches to data collection: (i) a procedure to estimate soil hydraulic functions, and (ii) an inverse-modeling approach to mimic agricultural and irrigation practices. Cahill et al. (1999) modeled the eld drainage using Richards equation by optimizing unsaturated soil hydraulic conductivity. Jhorar et al. (2004) studied the 23,000 ha Kheri Distributary irrigation canal, which is part of the Bhakra Irrigation system in Haryana (India), and derived sets of van Genuchten Mualem parameters (ures, usat, n, a, ksat) that describe the irrigation hydrologic behavior for seven soil types in the area using relative transpiration (Tact/Tpot) as input. Each soil type had 45 horizons. Aerial average evaporation (E), transpiration (T) and EvapoTranspiration ux from the seven individual soil types and associated irrigation regime was computed according to soil type occurrence in the command area. Jhorar et al. (2004) concluded that it was possible to represent the regional average T-uxes with an equivalent single homogeneous soil prole and an empirical solution for the bare soil evaporation. This nding is of critical importance to applications in irrigation schemes at the subregional scale with heterogeneous soils. In an investigation by Droogers and Bastiaanssen (2002), the model swap was used to explore options for improving irrigation water management in the Gediz Basin of Western Turkey, where cotton and grape crops cover more than 80% of the study area. One of the limiting factors in the study was the availability of accurate data on soils, planting dates and irrigation delivery schedules. The swap model contains several standard options for automatic irrigation scheduling, including supplying water when relative transpiration (Tact/Tpot) falls below a predened threshold (Van Dam et al., 1997). The model automatically computes the timing and amount of water application. Spatial distribution of actual ET from the study area was obtained from the sebal remote-sensing algorithm for two Landsat image dates in 1999 (Bastiaanssen, 2000), and these data were input to the inverse-modeling process for parameter development. By increasing the standard deviation for the date of emergence from the original 1030 days, the ET patterns for swap and sebal became similar. Results of the parameter adjustment showed that average irrigation
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Fig. 3 Compartmentalization of a one-dimensional water balance model in terms of a boundary condition problem (after DUrso et al., 1999).
system was modeled (Ines and Droogers, 2002b). Comparison between simulated ET and ET derived from remote sensing was used to inversely obtain the spatial distribution of apparent salinity levels of irrigation water. This approach demonstrated clearly the value of inverse modeling and the approach for obtaining non-observable data. Following the population of the distributed model with data and boundary denitions, the spatial distribution of soil water decit and corresponding irrigation water demands can be estimated. Scenario simulations in a case study in Italy have shown that the performance of an on-demand irrigation system near Naples could be signicantly improved by reducing the average amount of water applied at the eld level by 20% (DUrso, 2001). If such a strategy were to be adopted by all farmers, the seasonal amount of water demanded by the entire district would be reduced by 6%, releasing important volumes of water to other competing uses. The simodis procedure linking a distributed swap and a hydraulic model of the distribution system has been developed (DUrso and Santini, 2002). In the application of this procedure to the 3000 ha Gromola Irrigation District in the vicinity of Naples (Southern Italy), the application day and best application volume were identied by comparing measured irrigation-water volumes to simulated values. The analysis
applications were between 400 and 600 mm for the season (Fig. 3). Dorji (2003) also used the swapsebal combination to elucidate the water balances and irrigation performances for two large farms in Southern Portugal where crops of grapes, olive, cotton, wheat and maize were irrigated. Dorji (2003) calibrated the Van GenuchtenMualem parameters using the pest (Doherty et al., 1995) parameter estimation model against ET observed by sebal for three dates during the growing season. Dorji estimated irrigation practices (timing and amounts) on the basis of farmer interviews. Soil physical properties were calibrated based on data for 2001, and subsequently held constant. The irrigation regime was thereafter tted using pest and limited farm records of accumulated ow readings from the drip-irrigation systems from 2002. The result was a calibrated irrigation-scheduling criterion for use in swap based on Tact/Tpot. The calibrated criterion was then compared against a theoretically optimal irrigation regime, and a new irrigation calendar specied by day number and application depth was given to the farmers for adapting irrigation attitudes. The advice resulted in an increase in seasonal irrigation applications to grapes from 123 to 265 mm, to olives from 125 to 213 mm, and to wheat from 147 to 165 mm, and to reduce the seasonal applications to maize from 772 to 662 mm and to cotton from 407 to 354 mm. These advices were only possible from combining a mechanistic model with remote sensing measurements. For the Bhakra Irrigation System in the vicinity of Karnal, Northwest India, the spatial distributions for soil characteristics, irrigation practices and salinity of irrigation water were unknown. The swap model was applied to and validated for some representative elds, after which the entire irrigation
Fig. 4 Comparison between simulated and measured irrigation volumes (a) for an irrigation unit of 6.5 ha and (b) for an irrigation subdistrict with service area of 228 ha. The cumulative error in the first case is 54%, in the second case S12%.
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indicated that irrigation volumes corresponded to 50% soil water decit between 10 and 50 cm depths in the soil prole. Irrigation was applied when the soil water pressure was lower than a critical value corresponding to water stress for the specic crop type. As shown in Fig. 4, the behavior and the habits of farmers in irrigation practice deviated from simulated daily values at the single eld or irrigation unit level. These differences, which can be considered to follow a stochastic pattern, were much reduced when aggregated values in time or space were compared (i.e. for a time interval of one month or by combining irrigation applications of several irrigation units). Olioso et al. (2005) used a SVAT model to dene iteratively the irrigation attitudes of farmers in France using remotely sensed ET uxes and LAI development as primary variables. In conclusion, inverse modeling and also data assimilation are promising techniques to derive soil parameters and irrigation-system management in heterogeneous systems. Obviously, remote sensing and inverse modeling have accelerated data collection substantially because remote sensing can cover scales from 30 m pixels to complete irrigation systems and inverse modeling can efciently create data sets for large numbers of soil families.
4. Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) analysis

4.1. Strengths
Despite the fact that water ow in unsaturated soils beneath irrigated crops is highly dynamic due to large variations in inltration rates and potentially fast subsurface drainage outow, advanced computation tools can now predict, with relatively high accuracy, the transient soil moisture and soil salinity proles. Although computational power of computing
systems has for a long time been a serious constraint for the application of advanced models, most countries now have sufcient in-house information technology and capacity. With the ability to describe physical processes more fully, it has become more affordable to quantify current irrigated system functioning and to assess effects of alternative management options in a deterministic way. Simulation models can be used in conjunction with measurement tools both in situ and via remote sensing, to (inversely) calibrate system properties such as soil properties, irrigation-scheduling patterns, groundwater extractions and dates of planting (see Table 3). Spatially variable information describing ET, LAI and dry-matter production as derived from remote-sensing techniques can be used to populate the stochastic input data for onedimensional column models across an irrigated region. ET is the major component of the water balance and is an integrator of the processes of the soilwaterplantatmosphere continuum. ET estimates from remote sensing can be highly accurate (e.g. Kustas et al., 2003). Combined sensor-model methodologies have reached sufcient reliability to be applied for strategic evaluation of agricultural water management (see examples of India, Pakistan, Turkey and Iran) and in some cases for routine real-time irrigation scheduling (see example of Italy and France). SVAT models supported and driven by large spatial databases would be a primary vehicle of use. A strength of unsaturated SVAT models having a diurnal variation in surface uxes is that they are more suitable for the evaluation of precision irrigation practices and the ET response and carbon assimilation for time periods in the order of hours, than are daily soil water ow models. The energy balance from SVAT models can be readily coupled with instantaneous ET uxes derived from remote-sensing data. However, the uncertainties (perceived or real) associated with the various spatial and temporal data required to operate the SVAT models can be daunting, and may increase the appeal of the
Table 2 Literature examples of applications of unsaturated-zone models in irrigation and drainage studies Purpose
Irrigation supply and management
Country of application
Pakistan, India, Zimbabwe, Egypt, Thailand, Argentina, Argentina, India, Italy, Iran, The Netherlands, Turkey Egypt, India, Pakistan Australia, India, Pakistan, Italy, California Pakistan, California Argentina, India Egypt, Pakistan, California Israel, Argentina, Louisiana The Netherlands Texas Minnesota, Louisiana
Source
Smets et al. (1997); Singh and Singh (1997); MacRobert and Savage (1998); Merkley (1996); Prajamwong et al. (1997); Kupper et al. (2002) Menenti et al. (1995); Singh and Singh (1996); DUrso et al. (1999); Droogers et al. (2001a); Hack-ten Broeke (2001); Singh et al. (2003); Singh (2005); Van Dam et al. (2005); Wesseling and Feddes (2006) Abdel Gawad et al. (1990); Agarwal and Roest (1996); Kuper (1997); Droogers et al. (2003) Cox et al. (1994); Kamra et al. (1995); Kelleners et al. (2000); Sarwar et al. (2000); Tedeschi and Menenti (2002); Ali et al. (2000) Beekma et al. (1995); Ahmad et al. (2002); Ruud et al. (2004) Baars and van Lochem (1993); Van den Hoven (1997); Jacobs et al. (1997) Feddes and Bastiaanssen (1992); Sarwar and Bastiaanssen (2001); Burt et al. (2002) Boers et al. (1986); Menenti (1994); Saleh (1994) Feddes and van Wijk (1990) Thompson (1997) Ayars et al. (1981); Fouss et al. (1987); Pohll and Guitjens (1994); Randall and Iragavarapu (1995); Manguerra and Garcia (1995)
Irrigation performance and water productivity Irrigation strategic planning Drainage of salt-affected soils Groundwater recharge from irrigated land Farmer perceptions Water conservation Water harvesting and runoff Land evaluation Irrigation system losses Tile drainage outow
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Table 3 Selected examples of inverse-modeling studies in an irrigation and drainage context for acquaintance of soil hydraulic properties Source
Tyagi et al. (2000) Jhorar et al. (2002, 2004) Jhorar (2002) Ines and Droogers (2002a, b) Droogers and Bastiaanssen (2002) Dorji (2003)
Numerical case
ET, soil moisture E, T, ET, soil moisture
Experimental case
ET, soil moisture
Country
India India India India Turkey
Soil hydraulic properties

Van GenuchtenMualem Van GenuchtenMualem Soil water-holding capacity; saturated hydraulic conductivity Van GenuchtenMualem None
Agricultural water management

None None Groundwater extraction Irrigation supply, salinity irrigation water Dates of sowing, irrigation supply, maximum LAI Irrigation supply
ET, groundwater table ET, soil moisture ET, LAI
ET, LAI, soil moisture
Portugal
Van GenuchtenMualem
traditional, single-layer models that rely on simple crop coefcients or on single-layer ET equations. Often the reduced predictive accuracy in both ET and crop yield by simpler models is considered to be adequate when compared to their reduced data requirements. The primary attraction to using simulation techniques lies in the possibility of varying one or more parameters and evaluating the results. Unsaturated soil water ow models form the core of decision support systems for irrigation management at both local and regional scales. Simulation of different scenarios representing alternative water resource management criteria makes it possible to identify which strategy best matches project objectives. The wide range of available models presents an almost luxurious situation for users during the selection of a tool for a specic application. Customers are, however, rarely guided during their selection process, and frequently select the wrong model, resulting in poor satisfaction in the end. For example, an agronomist may derive more benet from a SVAT model containing detailed carbon assimilation than from a solute transport model. A one-stop shop type of repository on the Worldwide web supported with expert assistance by the international user community could facilitate the exchange of experience and provide guidance to new users. The IrriSoft database is a good example to promote such exchange.
4.2.
Weaknesses
(see for instance Metselaar (1999) for a method to quantify predictive quality), one should select a simpler model. The application of the most advanced irrigation and drainage models is only useful if sufcient in situ or remote-sensing data are available to calibrate them. Remote sensing data can indeed be a proper substitute of eld data when they are scarce. Assumptions in the expected spatial variability may induce sufcient uncertainty in outputs of advanced models to reduce their applicability to the management under consideration. Simplied models, having fewer assumptions, may provide a comparable degree of certainty, but with less effort. An appropriate model conguration in terms of structure, parameters and complexity is required to advocate the more advanced model. In order to promote the advanced model, the expected accuracies in its use under the different boundary and working conditions must be established. It is difcult to afx costbenet values to the use of simulation tools within the context of irrigation systems. The implementation of these tools within real-time irrigation processes is considered to be feasible for high-value crops and high cost for irrigation water. Presently, however, irrigation water is not yet fully regarded as an economic good, even in areas with serious water scarcity. Nevertheless, development of rural economies rely entirely on water resources availability, at it is key to determine the most productive use of it in an agricultural context.
In contrast with the denition of upper boundary conditions in models, the description of lower boundary conditions for soil water ow has not progressed far enough. There is a general lack of understanding on the ow processes in the subsoil that dictate the vadoze zone water conditions. The largest weakness in unsaturated ow modeling is that models are often over-parameterized. The number of soil and plant parameters is often too high to permit obtaining a robust t, and the solution of the calibrated parameter set is often nonunique. This holds especially true when combined crop growth and soil moisture ow models are considered. Considerable expertise is required to assess the type and amount of parameters that can be xed a priori, and which parameters can be calibrated through numerical optimization. If a particular model cannot fulll certain calibration criteria
4.3.
Opportunities
Irrigation-water policymakers must accept the paradigm shift from managing abundant water supplies (with the focus on conveyance and distribution systems) to benecial use of scarce water resources (with the emphasis on decit irrigation, sustainable groundwater exploitation and crop water productivity). With the availability of new technology and a better understanding of the physical processes involved in the different components of irrigation systems, we can describe the operation of such systems in an integrated and deterministic way using unsaturated soil water ow models. These methodologies have reached a sufcient degree of reliability to be utilized in practical applications. The availability of highcapacity and high-speed computing systems and high-speed
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internet has made access to data bases, remotely sensed data, software and experts possible from various locations around the globe. The main attractiveness in using simulation techniques lies in the possibility of tuning one or more management variables and evaluating the results. Unsaturated soil water ow models should represent the core of decision-support systems for irrigation management at both the local and regional scale. Simulating different scenarios representing alternative water resource management criteria makes it possible to identify which strategy best improves the level of satisfaction for all stakeholders. Considering the huge worldwide water management problems, one can conclude that socio-technical analyses and technology-based policy making, in regard to implementation of water conservation improving water productivity and sustainable groundwater exploitation, are in their infancy and must grow. Another opportunity is to participate in the development of electronic modeling plazas that contain guides for model selection and directions for obtaining more information; not only on the supply side of the chain, but also describing good model practices. The unsaturated-zone hydrologic model as a strategic instrument for planning, design, operation and management needs to be better marketed. A known repository is the IrriSoft database and on-line applications in irrigation, drainage and hydrology (www.irrisoft.org). Irrisoft provides freely accessible quality controlled software descriptions as well as on-line versions of applications in the wider eld of agricultural water management. The groundwater modeling community is well organized and has general information centers with web sites (e.g. http://www.mines.edu/igwmc/) that provide a broad range of illustrations of applied model studies. The unsaturated soil water ow community is encouraged to proudly present their efforts on the internet.
technologies. A workable solution is one that will establish (or re-establish) extensive training programs and develop long-term relationships between model developers, modelers and recipient irrigation countries having fewer resources. These efforts should get a similar amount of attention as the development of the model itself. Apart from the economicpolitical problem, the threshold for initiating an extensive model application can be high and taxing, as in many cases a personal relationship with the model developer must be cultivated to support and facilitate the local implementation of the technology. There is little public support for obtaining self-reliance in the eld of unsaturated-zone modeling. If model developers in universities do not work to change these requirements and ceilings, they may continue to create products primarily for their own objectives. The challenge nowadays is to make soil water ow models more versatile for different social economicphysical conditions and for environments having poor or limited data availability. Otherwise, the irrigation and drainage community will continue to largely ignore some relatively powerful tools due to the high application threshold. A primary threat to closing the gap between developer and user, however, is that those who devote time and effort to improving model implementation are not rewarded and valued to the same extent as those who develop the models.
5.
Conclusions
4.4.
Threats
One of the major threats to the application of models to evaluate irrigation and drainage related processes are data. The number of reliable simulation models is growing while at the same time focus on data collection is diminishing. Moreover, data collection is often focused towards gathering information useful for more traditional analysis techniques rather than on model requirements (e.g. qualitative soil description versus quantitative soil hydraulic data). A giant leap forward would be however the combined use of various data collection methods, strongly supported by remotely sensed techniques, and combining this with innovative datamining methods. Tremendous effort must be invested to close the huge gap between complex expert systems in place in Western universities and research organizations and the application of these tools to irrigation and drainage systems in poor and water-short countries. There is a steep learning curve for many of the deterministic models, and the duration of the learning and adoption process is expressed more in years than in months. This accessibility distance together with a lack of socialtechnical eld data by which to populate soil water ow models is a direct hindrance to the operation of these
Models have progressed through advances in mathematics, science, and computer and information technology towards more accurate solution of increasingly complex equations, interactions between system parameters and difcult boundary conditions. Technical advances include more rigorous treatment of soil water ow, soil heat transport, solute and pesticide movement, energy uxes, CO2 assimilation and subsurface drainage, as well as their many interactions and the impact on crop production and contamination of groundwater systems. The technical advances represent a major achievement. Modern unsaturated soil water ow models can simulate the performance of various irrigation and drainage designs and scenarios over long periods of time according to social and cultural traditions and needs, and can evaluate specied objective functions such as conserving water resources, recognizing farmer perceptions, tempering groundwater pumping, increasing crop water productivity and preserving the environment. In the brief overview represented in this paper, we have highlighted how existing knowledge and methodologies can favorably impact the application of unsaturated soil water ow models to the analysis of drainage and irrigation problems. If technicians and managers of irrigation and drainage agencies are encouraged to follow this application track, they may become more motivated to monitor and better measure disposition of water within their systems. In other words, they will learn, in a more objective and quantitative way, how their system works. The benets will be an immediate positive feedback to management, where subjective perceptions that currently govern decisions in
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irrigation and drainage problems both at eld and regional scales are replaced by a measurement mentality followed by a modeling mentality. The authors feel that model development except for SVAT models has reached a sufcient level at the beginning of the 21st century that more and better models are no longer an issue. Most theories in irrigation and drainage have been programmed into numerical codes. A wide spectrum of numerical models of the unsaturated zone are now available (see Table 1), and efforts should focus on making these models trustworthy and easy to use by outsiders who have critical attitudes toward purely technical solutions. Equally important is to focus on data to feed these models and to obtain a reliable estimate of the accuracy of the models applied. Tremendous opportunities exist for model applications within social and economic studies that attempt to describe and improve the interaction between rural development, institutional arrangements, hydrology, decision makers and livelihoods. The analytical descriptions required by social and technical evaluations can be greatly supported by appropriately calibrated models. Because water is a public and economic good that affects us all, it is unacceptable for any of us to ignore the potential and benet of modeling applications to the irrigation sector. The irrigation and drainage-engineering profession must work more closely with the academic hydrologists, economists, sociologists and policymakers to establish this goal. Good examples of utilizing numerical simulation models to solve complex issues exist (see for instance Table 2), but the overall track record of implementation during the last 25 years is poor. The rural communities indigenous knowledge is often more nely tuned to the local conditions than is a numerical model. Nevertheless, the anticipated changes required for managing future scarce and expensive water resources in irrigated agriculture cannot be determined using common sense alone, and the technical capacity for optimal solutions will become a necessity.
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agricultural water management 92 (2007) 111125

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/agwat

agricultural water management 92 (2007) 111125

116 118 118 119 119 120 120 121

agricultural water management 92 (2007) 111125

The unsaturated-zone modeling plaza

agricultural water management 92 (2007) 111125

The supply side of soil water ow models

agricultural water management 92 (2007) 111125

Multi-dimensional drainage models Crop production models

wofost, sucros, ceres, dssat, epic, oryza, sawah

What can soil water ow models really add?

agricultural water management 92 (2007) 111125

3. Progress in solution of technical and scientic issues

agricultural water management 92 (2007) 111125

agricultural water management 92 (2007) 111125

4. Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) analysis

agricultural water management 92 (2007) 111125

Soil hydraulic properties

Agricultural water management

ET, groundwater table ET, soil moisture ET, LAI

ET, LAI, soil moisture

agricultural water management 92 (2007) 111125

agricultural water management 92 (2007) 111125

agricultural water management 92 (2007) 111125

agricultural water management 92 (2007) 111125

agricultural water management 92 (2007) 111125

agricultural water management 92 (2007) 111125

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