ABSTRACT

In this paper, a detailed dynamic model and simulation of a solar cell/wind turbine/fuel cell hybrid power system is Developed using a novel topology to complement each other and to alleviate the effects of environmental variations. Comparing with the nuclear energy and thermal power, the renewable energy is inexhaustible and has non-pollution Characteristics. The solar energy, wind power, hydraulic power and tide energy are natural resources of the interest to generate electrical sources. As the wind turbine output power varies with the wind speed and the solar cell output power varies with both the ambient temperature and radiation, a FC system with an UC bank can be integrated to ensure that the system performs under all conditions. Excess wind and solar energies when available are converted to hydrogen using electrolysis for later use in the fuel cell. In this paper Dynamic modeling of various components of this isolated system is presented. Transient responses of the system to step changes in the load, ambient temperature, radiation, and wind speed in a number of possible situations are studied. The recent commercial availability of small PEMFC units has created many new opportunities to design hybrid energy systems for remote applications with energy storage in hydrogen form. Here Ultra-capacitors are used in power applications requiring short duration peak power. The voltage variation at the output is found to be within the acceptable range. The output fluctuations of the wind turbine varying with wind speed and the solar cell varying with both environmental temperature and sun radiation are reduced using a fuel cell. Therefore, this system can tolerate the rapid changes in load and environmental conditions, and suppress the effects of these fluctuations on the equipment side voltage. The proposed system can be used for off-grid power generation in non interconnected areas or remote isolated communities. Modeling and simulations are conducted using MATLAB/Simulink software packages to verify the effectiveness of the proposed system. The results show that the proposed hybrid power system can tolerate the rapid changes in natural conditions and suppress the effects of these fluctuations on the voltage within the acceptable range.

CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION
Comparing with the nuclear energy and thermal power, the renewable energy is inexhaustible and has non-pollution characteristics. The solar energy, wind power, hydraulic power and tide energy are natural resources of the interest to generate electrical sources. Extensive and generalized usage of renewable energy is very popular to reduce the pollutions we have cause on earth. The wind and solar energy are welcome substitution for many other energy resources because it is natural, inexhaustible resource of sunlight to generate electricity. The main disadvantage of wind turbines is that naturally variable wind speed causes voltage and power fluctuation problems at the load side. This problem can be solved by using appropriate power converters and control strategies. Another significant problem is to store the energy generated by wind turbines for future usage when no wind is available but the user demand exists. The solar cell depends on the weather factors, mainly the irradiation and the cell temperature. Therefore, the weather factors such as the irradiation and the temperature are utilized for the estimation of the maximum power in this paper. After many technological advances, proton exchange membrane fuel cell technology has now reached the test and demonstration phase. The recent commercial availability of small PEMFC units has created many new opportunities to design hybrid energy systems for remote applications with energy storage in hydrogen form. By using an electrolyzer, hydrogen conversion allows both storage and transportation of large amounts of power at much higher energy densities. Furthermore, coupling a wind turbine, a solar cell, fuel cells and electrolyzers is efficacious to improve environment pollution because of by using natural energy. In this paper, a detailed dynamic model and simulation of a solar cell/wind turbine/fuel cell hybrid power system is developed using a novel topology to complement each other and to alleviate the effects of environmental variations. Modeling and simulations are conducted using MATLAB/Simulink software packages to verify the effectiveness of the proposed system. The results show that the proposed hybrid power system can tolerate the rapid changes in natural conditions and suppress the effects of these fluctuations on the voltage within the acceptable range.

1.1 MATLAB INTRODUCTION MATLAB (Matrix Laboratory)

MATLAB is developed by The Math Works, Inc. MATLAB is a high-level technical computing language and interactive environment for algorithm development, data visualization, data analysis, and numeric computation. MATLAB can be install on Unix, Windows MATLAB is a high-level language and interactive environment that enables you to perform computationally intensive tasks faster than with traditional programming languages such as C, C++, and FORTRAN.

History of MATLAB
Fortran subroutines for solving linear (LINPACK) and eigenvalue (EISPACK) problems Developed primarily by Cleve Moler in the 1970s Later, when teaching courses in mathematics, Moler wanted his students to be able to use LINPACK and EISPACK without requiring knowledge of Fortran MATLAB developed as an interactive system to access LINPACK and EISPACK MATLAB gained popularity primarily through word of mouth because it was not officially distributed In the 1980s, MATLAB was rewritten in C with more functionality (such as plotting routines) The Math works, Inc. was created in 1984 The Math works is now responsible for development, sale, and support for MATLAB The Math works is located in Natick The Math works is an employer that hires co-ops through our co-op program

Strengths of MATLAB
MATLAB is relatively easy to learn.

 MATLAB code is optimized to be relatively quick when performing matrix operations. MATLAB may behave like a calculator or as a programming language. MATLAB is interpreted, errors are easier to fix. Although primarily procedural, MATLAB does have some object-oriented elements.

Other Features
2-D and 3-D graphics functions for visualizing data Tools for building custom graphical user interfaces Functions for integrating MATLAB based algorithms with external applications and languages, such as C, C++, Fortran, Java, COM, and Microsoft Excel

Weakness of MATLAB
MATLAB is NOT a general purpose programming language. MATLAB is an interpreted language (making it for the most part slower than a compiled language such as C++). MATLAB is designed for scientific computation and is not suitable for some things (such as parsing text).

Components of MATLAB interface

Workspace Current Directory Command History

Command Window

1.2 SIMULINK
It is a commercial tool for modeling, simulating and analyzing multidomain systems. Its primary interface is a graphical block diagramming tool and a customizable set of block libraries. Simulink is widely used in control theory and digital signal processing for multidomain simulation and Model-based design Generally there are three ways to open Simulink By using start in Matlab By typing Simulink in Command prompt By clicking Simulink icon in toolbar

1.3 HYBRID POWER SYSTEMS Electrical energy requirements for many remote applications are too large to allow the cost-effective use of stand-alone or autonomous PV systems. In these cases, it may prove more feasible to combine several different types of power sources to form what is known as a "hybrid" system. To date, PV has been effectively combined with other types of power generators such as wind, hydro, thermoelectric, petroleumfueled and even hydrogen. The selection process for hybrid power source types at a given site can include a combination of many factors including site topography, seasonal availability of energy sources, cost of source implementation, cost of energy storage and delivery, total site energy requirements, etc. Hybrid power systems use local renewable resource to provide power. Village hybrid power systems can range in size from small household systems (100Wh/day) to ones supplying a whole area (10s MWh/day). They combine many technologies to provide reliable power that is tailored to the local resources and community. Potential components include: PV, wind, micro-hydro, river-run hydro, biomass, batteries and conventional generators.

Hybrid power systems combine two or more energy conversion devices, or two or more fuels for the same device, that when integrated, overcome limitations inherent in either. Hybrid systems can address limitations in terms of fuel flexibility, efficiency, reliability, emissions and / or economics. Hybrid systems can produce synergistic benefits in which the "whole is greater than the sum of its parts." Hybrid systems are potentially very cost-effective solutions to rural AC electricity needs. Configuration of hybrid system Figure shows the basic configuration of hybrid system discussed in this study. The hybrid system was consisted of reduction gear, main-motor (EM1), sub- motor (EM2), engine, power controller and battery. It was supposed that a double-motor system was prepared for the driving system discussed in this study. At first, acceleration was assisted by was applied only by main motor when the driving speed was low, while the corporation by two motors was often achieved to drive the system. If the SOC (state of charge) of battery was decreased below the specific threshold, the battery was charged by sub-motor. This operation was priority to over other actions. Figure 2 shows the modified configuration of hybrid system proposed in this study. In the modified system, CVT was utilized to keep constant revolution numbers of the sub-motor when the sub-motor contributed to assist the system.

Schematic view of double motor hybrid system

1.4 RENEWABLE ENERGY

Renewable energy sources also called non-conventional energy are sources that are continuously replenished by natural processes. For example, solar energy, wind energy, bio-energy - bio-fuels grown sustain ably, hydropower etc., are some of the examples of renewable energy sources. A renewable energy system converts the energy found in sunlight, wind, fallingwater, sea-waves, geothermal heat, or biomass into a form, we can use such as heat or electricity. Most of the renewable energy comes either directly or indirectly from sun and wind and can never be exhausted, and therefore they are called renewable. However, most of the world's energy sources are derived from conventional sources fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gases. These fuels are often termed nonrenewable energy sources. Although, the available quantity of these fuels are extremely large, they are nevertheless finite and so will in principle run out at some time in the future.Due to industrializations and population growth our economy and technologies today largely depend upon natural resources, which are not replaceable. Approximately 90% of our energy consumption comes from fossil fuels. The another advantage using renewable resources is that they are distributed over a wide geographical area, ensuring that developing regions have access to electricity generation at a stable cost for the long-term future.Renewable energy sources are essentially flows of energy, whereas the fossil and nuclear fuels are, in essence, stocks of energy. Various forms of renewable energy Solar energy Wind energy Bio mass energy Geothermal energy Tidal energy Fuel cell

Renewable energy is an alternative to fossil fuels and nuclear power, and was commonly called alternative energy in the 1970s and 1980s. Scientists have advanced a plan to power 100% of the world's energy with wind, hydroelectric, and solar power by the year 2030, recommending renewable energy subsidies and a price on carbon reflecting its cost for flood and related expenses

Difference between Renewable and Non-Renewable Sources. RENEWABLE NON-RENEWABLE

1. Renewable energy is energy 1. The energy produced from which comes from natural resources fossil fuels is non renewable such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides energy (coal, oil.) and geothermal heat. 2. The energy can be produced 2. A non-renewable resource is again and again (continuous). a natural resource which cannot be produced, grown, generated, or used on a scale which can sustain its consumption rate. 3. The advantage of renewable 3. The disadvantage of non-

energy sources is that they are renewable energy sources is ready, cheap, and they are difficult costly to extract. easy to use. 4. There is no expiration, it is 4. They are finite and will continuous. 5. No pollution, energy is clean. expire sometime in the future. 5. Lot of pollution, energy is filled with carbon elements. 6. Initially taking energy cost is 6. Energy cost is low very high. 7. Energy produced is low Ex: wind,tidal,solar 7. Energy produced is high Ex: coal, oil,(fossil fuels)

CHAPTER-2 DYNAMIC SYSTEM MODELS

2.1 SOLAR CELL The photovoltaic effect was first reported by Edmund Bequerel in 1839 when he observed that the action of light on a silver coated platinum electrode immersed in electrolyte produced an electric current. Forty years later the first solid state photovoltaic devices were constructed by workers investigating the recently discovered photoconductivity of selenium. In 1876 William Adams and Richard Day found that a photocurrent could be produced in a sample of selenium when contacted by two heated platinum contacts. The photovoltaic action of the selenium deferred from its photoconductive action in that a current was produced spontaneously by the action of light. No external power supply was needed. In this early photovoltaic device, a rectifying junction had been formed between the semiconductor and the metal contact. In 1894, Charles Fritts prepared what was probably the first large area solar cell by pressing a layer of selenium between gold and another metal. In the following years photovoltaic effects were observed in copper{copper oxide thin film structures, in lead sulphide and thallium sulphide. These early cells were thin film Schottky barrier devices, where a semitransparent layer of metal deposited on top of the semiconductor provided both the asymmetric electronic junction, which is necessary for photovoltaic action, and access to the junction for the incident light. The photovoltaic effect of structures like this was related to the existence of a barrier to current own at one of the semiconductor {metal interfaces (i.e., rectifying action) by Goldman and Brodsky in 1914. Later, during the 1930s, the theory of metal{semiconductor barrier layers was developed by Walter Schottky, Neville Mott and others. However, it was not the photovoltaic properties of materials like selenium which excited researchers, but the photoconductivity. The fact that the current produced was proportional to the intensity of the incident light, and related to the wavelength in a definite way meant that photoconductive materials were ideal for photographic light meters. The photovoltaic effect in barrier structures was an added benefit, meaning that the light meter could operate without a power supply. It was not until the 1950s, with the development of good quality silicon wafers for applications

in the new solid state electronics, that potentially useful quantities of power were produced by photovoltaic devices in crystalline silicon. In the 1950s, the development of silicon electronics followed the discovery of a way to manufacture pn junctions in silicon. Naturally n type silicon wafers developed a p type skin when exposed to the gas boron trichloride. Part of the skin could be etched away to give access to the n type layer beneath. These p{n junction structures produced much better rectifying action than Schottky barriers, and better photovoltaic behaviour. The first silicon solar cell was reported by Chapin, Fuller and Pearson in 1954 and converted sunlight with an efficiency of 6%, six times higher than the best previous attempt. That was to rise significantly over the following years and decades but, at an estimated production cost of some $200 per Watt, these cells were not seriously considered for power generation for several decades. Nevertheless, the early silicon solar cell did introduce the possibility of power generation in remote locations where fuel could not easily be delivered. The obvious application was to satellites where the requirement of reliability and low weight made the cost of the cells unimportant and during the 1950s and 60s, silicon solar cells were widely developed for applications in space. Also in 1954, a cadmium sulphide p{n junction was produced with an efficiency of 6%, and in the following years studies of p{n junction photovoltaic devices in gallium arsenide, indium phosphide and cadmium telluride were stimulated by theoretical work indicating that these materials would over a higher efficiency. However, silicon remained and remains the foremost photovoltaic material, benefitting from the advances of silicon technology for the microelectronics industry. Short histories of the solar cell are given elsewhere [Shive, 1959; Wolf, 1972; Green, 1990]. In the 1970s the crisis in energy supply experienced by the oil-dependent western world led to a sudden growth of interest in alternative sources of energy, and funding for research and development in those areas. Photovoltaics was a subject of intense interest during this period, and a range of strategies for producing photovoltaic devices and materials more cheaply and for improving device efficiency were explored. Routes to lower cost included photoelectrochemical junctions, and alternative materials such as polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, other `thin film' materials and organic conductors. Strategies for higher efficiency included tandem and other multiple band gap designs. Although none of these led to

widespread commercial development, our understanding of the science of photovoltaics is mainly rooted in this period. During the 1990s, interest in photovoltaics expanded, along with growing awareness of the need to secure sources of electricity alternative to fossil fuels. The trend coincides with the widespread deregulation of the electricity markets and growing recognition of the viability of decentralized power. During this period, the economics of photovoltaics improved primarily through economies of scale. In the late 1990s the photovoltaic production expanded at a rate of 15{25% per annum, driving a reduction in cost. Photovoltaics first became competitive in contexts where conventional electricity supply is most expensive, for instance, for remote low power applications such as navigation, telecommunications, and rural electrification and for enhancement of supply in grid-connected loads at peak use [Anderson,2001]. As prices fall, new markets are opened up. An important example is building integrated photovoltaic applications, where the cost of the photovoltaic system is onset by the savings in building materials. There are several types of solar cells. However, more than 90 % of the solar cells currently made worldwide consist of wafer-based silicon cells. They are either cut from a single crystal rod or from a block composed of many crystals and are correspondingly called mono-crystalline or multi-crystalline silicon solar cells. Wafer-based silicon solar cells are approximately 200 m thick. Another important family of solar cells is based on thin-films, which are approximately 1-2 m thick and therefore require significantly less active, semiconducting material. Thin-film solar cells can be manufactured at lower cost in large production quantities; hence their market share will likely increase in the future. However, they indicate lower efficiencies than wafer-based silicon solar cells, which mean that more exposure surface and material for the installation is required for a similar performance. A number of solar cells electrically connected to each other and mounted in a single support structure or frame is called a photovoltaic module. Modules are designed to supply electricity at a certain voltage, such as a common 12 volt system. The current produced is directly dependent on the intensity of light reaching the module. Several modules can be wired together to form an array. Photovoltaic modules and arrays produce direct-current electricity. They can be connected in both series and parallel electrical arrangements to produce any required voltage and current combination.

A solar cell (also called photovoltaic cell) is a solid state device that converts the energy of sunlight directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect. Assemblies of cells are used to make solar modules, also known as solar panels. The energy generated from these solar modules, referred to as solar power, is an example of solar energy. The term "photovoltaic" comes from the Greek (phs) meaning "light", and "voltaic", meaning electric, from the name of the Italian physicist Volta, after whom a unit of electro-motive force, the volt, is named. The solar cell works in three steps: 1. Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semiconducting materials, such as silicon. 2. Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose from their atoms, allowing them to flow through the material to produce electricity. Due to the special composition of solar cells, the electrons are only allowed to move in a single direction. 3. An array of solar cells converts solar energy into a usable amount of direct current (DC) electricity.

Solar panels use light energy (photons) from the sun to generate electricity through the photovoltaic effect. The structural (load carrying) member of a module can either be the top layer (superstrate) or the back layer (substrate). The majority of

modules use wafer-based crystalline silicon cells or thin-film cells based on cadmium telluride or silicon. Crystalline silicon is a commonly used semiconductor. ELECTRICAL CONNECTION OF THE CELLS The electrical output of a single cell is dependent on the design of the device and the Semi-conductor material(s) chosen, but is usually insufficient for most applications. In order to provide the appropriate quantity of electrical power, a number of cells must be electrically connected. There are two basic connection methods: series connection, in which the top contact of each cell is connected to the back contact of the next cell in the sequence, and parallel connection, in which all the top contacts are connected together, as are all the bottom contacts. In both cases, this results in just two electrical connection points for the group of cells. Series connection Figure shows the series connection of three individual cells as an example and the resultant group of connected cells is commonly referred to as a series string. The current output of the string is equivalent to the current of a single cell, but the voltage output is increased, being an addition of the voltages from all the cells in the string (i.e. in this case, the voltage output is equal to 3Vcell).

Fig. Series connection of cells, with resulting currentvoltage characteristic. It is important to have well matched cells in the series string, particularly with respect to current. If one cell produces a significantly lower current than the other cells (under the same illumination conditions), then the string will operate at that lower current level and the remaining cells will not be operating at their maximum power points.

Parallel connection Figure shows the parallel connection of three individual cells as an example. In this case, the current from the cell group is equivalent to the addition of the current from each cell (in this case, 3 Icell), but the voltage remains equivalent to that of a single cell. As before, it is important to have the cells well matched in order to gain maximum output, but this time the voltage is the important parameter since all cells must be at the same operating voltage. If the voltage at the maximum power point is substantially different for one of the cells, then this will force all the cells to operate off their maximum power point, with the poorer cell being pushed towards its opencircuit voltage value and the better cells to voltages below the maximum power point voltage. In all cases, the power level will be reduced below the optimum.

Fig. Parallel connection of cells, with resulting currentvoltage characteristic.

THE PHOTOVOLTAIC ARRAY A PV array consists of a number of PV modules, mounted in the same plane and electrically connected to give the required electrical output for the application. The PV array can be of any size from a few hundred watts to hundreds of kilowatts,

although the larger systems are often divided into several electrically independent sub arrays each feeding into their own power conditioning system. Advantages of Solar cell: This system of energy conversion is noise less and cheap. Maintenance cost is low. They have long life. Pollution free. Highly reliable. Disadvantages of Solar cell: Large area is required to collect the solar energy. Direction of rays changes continuously. Energy is not uniform during cloudy weather and not available during nights. Energy storage is essential. High initial cost. Low efficiency. Applications: Water pumping in agriculture. For low-power portable electronics, like calculators or small fans. Industrial applications. Developing remote areas.

2.2 WIND TURBINES A wind turbine is a device that converts kinetic energy from the wind into mechanical energy. If the mechanical energy is used to produce electricity, the device may be called a wind generator or wind charger. If the mechanical energy is used to drive machinery, such as for grinding grain or pumping water, the device is called a windmill or wind pump.Kinetic energy from the wind is used to turn the generator inside the wind turbine to produce electricity. There are several factors that contribute to the efficiency of the wind turbine in extracting the power from the wind. Wind

turbine works on the basis of Bernoullis principle. The power in the wind is proportional to: The area of windmill being swept by the wind. The cube of the wind speed. The air density - which varies with altitude.

Wind Turbine Wind Turbine types: There are two types of wind turbine in relation to their rotor settings. They are: Horizontal-axis rotors, and Vertical-axis rotor Horizontal axis wind turbine: Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) have the main rotor shaft and electrical generator at the top of a tower, and must be pointed into the wind. Small turbines are pointed by a simple wind vane, while large turbines generally use a wind sensor coupled with a servo motor. Most have a gearbox, which turns the slow rotation of the blades into a quicker rotation that is more suitable to drive an electrical generator.

Horizontal axis wind turbine Vertical axis wind turbine: Vertical-axis wind turbines (or VAWTs) have the main rotor shaft arranged vertically. Key advantages of this arrangement are that the turbine does not need to be pointed into the wind to be effective. This is an advantage on sites where the wind direction is highly variable. With a vertical axis, the generator and gearbox can be placed near the ground, so the tower doesn't need to support it, and it is more accessible for maintenance.

Vertical axis wind turbine In this report, only the horizontal-axis wind turbine will be discussed since the modeling of the wind driven electric generator is assumed to have the horizontal-axis rotor. The horizontal-axis wind turbine is designed so that the blades rotate in front of the tower with respect to the wind direction i.e. the axis of rotation are parallel to the wind direction. These are generally referred to as upwind rotors. Another type of horizontal axis wind turbine is called downwind rotors which has blades rotating in

back of the tower. Nowadays, only the upwind rotors are used in large-scale power generation and in this report, the term horizontal-axis wind turbine refers to the upwind rotor arrangement. The main components of a wind turbine for electricity generation are the rotor, the transmission system, the generator, and the yaw and control system. The following figures show the general layout of a typical horizontal-axis wind turbine, different parts of the typical grid-connected wind turbine, and cross-section view of a nacelle of a wind turbine.

(a)

(b)

(c) Figs: (a) Main Components of Horizontal-axis Wind Turbine (b) Cross-section of a Typical Grid-connected Wind Turbine (c) Cross-section of a Nacelle in A Grid-connected Wind Turbine

Main Components of a wind turbine

The main components of a wind turbine can be classified as Tower Rotor System Generator Yaw Control System and transmission system

Tower: It is the most expensive element of the wind turbine system. The lattice or tubular types of towers are constructed with steel or concrete. Cheaper and smaller towers may be supported by guy wires. The major components such as rotor brake, gearbox, electrical switch boxes, controller, and generator are fixed on to or inside nacelle, which can rotate or yaw according to wind direction, are mounted on the tower. The tower should be designed to withstand gravity and wind loads. The tower has to be supported on a strong foundation in the ground. The design should consider the resonant frequencies of the tower do not coincide with induced frequencies from the rotor and methods to damp out if any. If the natural frequency of the tower lies above the blade passing frequency, it is called stiff tower and if below is called soft tower.

Rotor: The aerodynamic forces acting on a wind turbine rotor is explained by aerofoil theory. When the aerofoil moves in a flow, a pressure distribution is established around the symmetric aerofoil shown in Fig (a).

Zones of low and high pressure an aerofoil section in an air stream

Forces acting on the rotor blade A reference line from which measurements are made on an aerofoil section is referred to as chord line and the length is known as chord. The angle, which an aerofoil makes with the direction of airflow measured against the chord line is called the angle of attack . The generation of lift force L on an aerofoil placed at an angle of attack to an oncoming flow is a consequence of the distortion of the streamlines of the fluid passing above and below the aerofoil. When a blade is subjected to unperturbed wind flow, the pressure decreases towards the center of curvature of a streamline. The consequence is the reduction of pressure (suction) on the upper surface of the aerofoil compared to ambient pressure, while on the lower side the pressure is positive or greater. The pressure difference results in lift force responsible for rotation of the blades. The drag force D is the component that is in line with the direction of oncoming flow is shown in above Figure These forces are both proportional to the energy in the wind. To attain a high efficiency of rotor in wind turbine design is for the blade to have a relatively high liftto-drag ratio. This ratio can be varied along the length of the blade to optimize the turbines energy output at various wind speeds. The lift force, drag force or both extract the energy from wind. For aerofoil to be aerodynamically efficient, the lift force can be 30 times greater than the drag force. Cambered or asymmetrical aerofoils have curved chord lines. The chord line is now defined as the straight line joining the ends of the camber line and is measured from this chord line. Cambered aerofoil is preferred to symmetrical aerofoil because they have higher lift/drag ratio for positive angles of attack. It is observed that the lift at zero angle of attack is no longer zero and that the zero lift occurs at a small negative angle of attack of approximately 4 o. The center of pressure, which is at the

 chord position on symmetrical aerofoil has at the chord position on cambered aerofoil and moves towards the trailing edge with increasing angle of attack. Arching or cambering a flat plate will cause it to induce higher lift force for a given angle of attack and blades with a cambered plate profile work well, under the conditions experienced by high solidity, multi bladed wind turbines. For low solidity turbines, the use of aerofoil section is more effective. The characteristics of an aerofoil, the angle of attack, the magnitude of the relative wind speed are the prime parameters responsible for the lift and drag forces. These forces acting on the blades of a wind turbine rotor are transformed into a rotational torque and axial thrust force. The useful work is produced by the torque where as the thrust will overturn the turbine. This axial thrust should be resisted by the tower and foundations. Rotor speed: Low speed and high-speed propeller are the two types of rotors. A large design tip speed ratio would require a long, slender blade having high aspect ratio. A low design tip speed would require a short, flat blade. The low speed rotor runs with high torque and the high-speed rotor runs with low torque. The wind energy converters of the same size have essentially the same power output, as the power output depends on rotor area. The low speed rotor has curved metal plates. The number of blades, weight, and difficulty of balancing the blades makes the rotors to be typically small. They get self-started because of their aerodynamic characteristics. The propeller type rotor comprises of a few narrow blades with more sophisticated airfoil section. When not working, the blades are completely stalled and the rotor cannot be self-started. Therefore, propeller type rotors should be started either by changing the blade pitch or by turning the rotor with the aid of an external power source (such as generator used as a motor to turn the rotor). Rotor is allowed to run at variable speed or constrained to operate at a constant speed. When operated at variable speed, the tip speed ratio remains constant and aerodynamic efficiency is increased. Rotor alignment: The alignment of turbine blades with the direction of wind is made by upwind or downwind rotors. Upwind rotors face the wind in front of the vertical tower and have

the advantage of somewhat avoiding the wind shade effect from the presence of the tower. Upwind rotors need a yaw mechanism to keep the rotor axis aligned with the direction of the wind. Downwind rotors are placed on the lee side of the tower. A great disadvantage in this design is the fluctuations in the wind power due to the rotor passing through the wind shade of the tower which gives rise to more fatigue loads. Downwind rotors can be built without a yaw mechanism, if the rotor and nacelle can be designed in such a way that the nacelle will follow the wind passively. This may however include gyroscopic loads and hamper the possibility of unwinding the cables when the rotor has been yawing passively in the same direction for a long time, thereby causing the power cables to twist. Upwind rotors need to be rather inflexible to keep the rotor blades clear of the tower, downwind rotors can be made more flexible. The latter implies possible savings with respect to weight and may

contribute to reducing the loads on the tower. The vast majority of wind turbines in operation today have upwind rotors. Number of rotor blades: The three bladed rotors are the most common in modern aero generators. Compared to three bladed concepts, the two and one bladed concepts have the advantage of representing a possible saving in relation to cost and weight of the rotor. However, the use of fewer rotor blades implies that a higher rotational speed or a larger chord is needed to yield the same energy output as a three bladed turbine of a similar size. The use of one or two blades will also result in more fluctuating loads because of the variation of the inertia, depending on the blades being in horizontal or vertical position and on the variation of wind speed when the blade is pointing upward or downward. Therefore, the two and one bladed concepts usually have so-called teetering hubs, implying that they have the rotor hinged to the main shaft. This design allows the rotor to teeter in order to eliminate some of the unbalanced loads. One bladed wind turbines are less widespread than twobladed turbines. This is because they in addition to a higher rotational speed, more noise and visual intrusion problems, need a counter weight to balance the rotor blade. Generator: Electricity is an excellent energy vector to transmit the high quality mechanical power of a wind turbine. Generator is usually 95% efficient and transmission losses should

be less than 10%.

The frequency and voltage of transmission need not be

standardized, since the end use requirements vary. There are already many designs of wind/ electricity systems including a wide range of generators. features of wind/electricity generating systems are: Wind turbine efficiency is greatest if rotational frequency varies to maintain constant tip speed ratio, yet electricity generation is most efficient at constant or near constant frequency. Mechanical control of turbine to maintain constant frequency increases complexity and expense. An alternative method, usually cheaper and more efficient is to vary the electrical load on the turbine to control the rotational frequency. The optimum rotational frequency of a turbine in a particular wind speed decreases with increase in radius in order to maintain constant tip speed ratio. Thus, only small turbines of less than 2 m radius can be coupled directly to generators. Larger machines require a gearbox to increase the generator drive frequency. Gearboxes are relatively expensive and heavy. They require maintenance and can be noisy. To overcome this problem, generators with a large number of poles are being manufactured to operate at lower frequency. The turbine can be coupled with the generator to provide an indirect drive through a mechanical accumulator (weight lifted by hydraulic pressure) or chemical storage (battery). Thus, generator control is independent of turbine operation. Wind Turbine Generator System (WTGS): A wind turbine generator system (WTGS) transforms the energy present in the blowing wind into electrical energy. As wind is highly variable resource that cannot be stored, operation of a WTGS must be done according to this feature. The general scheme of a WTGS is shown in Figure. The distinctive

General scheme of a WTGS where three types of energy states are presented wind, mechanical, and electrical Wind energy is transformed into mechanical energy by a wind turbine that has several blades. It usually includes a gearbox that matches the turbine low speed to the higher speed of the generator. Some turbines include a blade pitch angle control for controlling the amount of power to be transformed. Wind speed is measured with an anemometer. The electrical generator transforms mechanical energy into electrical energy. Commercially available wind generators installed at present are squirrel cage induction generator, doubly fed induction generator, wound field synchronous generator (WFSG), and permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG). Based on rotational speed, in general, the wind turbine generator systems can be split into two types. Fixed speed WTGS Variable speed WTGS

Schematic diagram of a fixed speed WTGS

Schematic diagram of VSWT-DFIG

The generators used with wind machines are Synchronous AC generator Induction AC generator Variable speed generator

Synchronous AC generator: The Synchronous speed will be in the range of 1500 rpm 4 pole, 1000 rpm 6 pole or 750 rpm, - 8 pole for connection to a 50 Hz net work. The ingress of moisture is to be avoided by providing suitable protection of the generator. Air borne noise is reduced by using liquid cooling in some wind turbines. An increase of the damping in the wind turbine drive train at the expense of losses in the rotor can be obtained by high slip at rated power output. Synchronous generators run at a fixed or synchronous speed, N s . We have N s 120 f p , where p the number of poles is, f is the electrical frequency and N s is the speed in rpm.

Induction AC generator: They are identical to conventional industrial induction motors and are used on constant speed wind turbines. The torque is applied to or removed from the shaft if the rotor speed is above or below synchronous. The power flow direction in wires is the factor to be considered to differentiate between a synchronous generator and induction motor. Some design modifications are to be incorporated for induction generators considering the different operating regime of wind turbines and the need for high efficiency at part load, etc.

Variable speed generator: Electrical variable speed operation can be approached as: All the output power of the wind turbine may be passed through the frequency converters to give a broad range of variable speed operation. A restricted speed range may be achieved by converting only a fraction of the output power.

Yaw system: It turns the nacelle according to the actuator engaging on a gear ring at the top of the tower. Yaw control is the arrangement in which the entire rotor is rotated horizontally or yawed out of the wind. During normal operation of the system, the wind direction should be perpendicular to the swept area of the rotor. The yaw drive is controlled by a slow closed- loop control system. The yaw drive is operated by a wind vane, which is usually mounted on the top of the nacelle sensing the relative wind direction, and the wind turbine controller. In some designs, the nacelle is yawed to attain reduction in power during high winds. In extremity, the turbine can be stopped with nacelle turned such that the rotor axis is at right angles to the wind direction. One of the more difficult parts of a wind turbine designs is the yaw system, though it is apparently simple. Especially in turbulent wind conditions, the prediction of yaw loads is

uncertain.

Control systems: A wind turbine power plant operates in a range of two characteristic wind speed values referred to as Cut in wind speed u in and Cut out wind speed u out . The turbine starts to produce power at Cut in wind speed usually between 4 and 5 m/s. Below this speed, the turbine does not generate power. The turbine is stopped at Cut out wind speed usually at 25 m/s to reduce load and prevent damage to blades. They are designed to yield maximum power at wind speeds that lies usually between 12 and 15 m/s. It would not be economical to design turbines at strong winds, as they are too rare. However, in case of stronger winds, it is necessary to waste part of the excess energy to avoid damage on the wind turbine. Thus, the wind turbine needs some sort of automatic control for the protection and operation of wind turbine. The functional capabilities of the control system are required for: i Controlling the automatic startup

ii Altering the blade pitch mechanism iii Shutting down when needed in the normal and abnormal condition iv Obtaining information on the status of operation, wind speed, direction and power production for monitoring purpose As can be seen in figure, the nacelle consists of several components. They are the generator, yaw motor, gearbox, tower, yaw ring, main bearings, main shaft, hub, blade, clutch, brake, blade and spinner. Other equipment that is not shown in the figure might include the anemometer, the controller inside the nacelle, the sensors and so on. The generator is responsible for the conversion of mechanical to electrical energy. Yaw motor is used power the yaw drive to turn the nacelle to the direction of the wind. The gearbox is used to connect the low-speed shaft (main shaft in the figure) to the high-speed shaft which drives the generator rotor. The brake is used to stop the main shaft from over speeding. The blades are used to extract the kinetic power from the wind to mechanical power i.e. lifting and rotating the blades. The tower is made from tubular steel or steel lattice and it is usually very high in order to expose the rotor blades to higher wind speed. Anemometer: Measures the wind speed and transmits wind speed data to the controller.

Blades: Most turbines have either two or three blades. Wind blowing over the blades causes the blades to "lift" and rotate. Brake: A disc brake which can be applied mechanically, electrically, or hydraulically to stop the rotor in emergencies. Controller: The controller starts up the machine at wind speeds of about 8 to 16 miles per hour (mph) and shuts off the machine at about 65 mph. Turbines cannot operate at wind speeds above about 65 mph because their generators could overheat. Gear box: Gears connect the low-speed shaft to the high-speed shaft and increase the rotational speeds from about 30 to 60 rotations per minute (rpm) to about 1200 to 1500 rpm, the rotational speed required by most generators to produce electricity. The gear box is a costly (and heavy) part of the wind turbine and engineers are exploring "direct-drive" generators that operate at lower rotational speeds and don't need gear boxes. Generator: Usually an off-the-shelf induction generator that produces 60-cycle AC electricity. High-speed shaft: Drives the generator. Low-speed shaft: The rotor turns the low-speed shaft at about 30 to 60 rpm. Nacelle: The rotor attaches to the nacelle, which sits atop the tower and includes the gear box, low- and high-speed shafts, generator, controller, and brake. A cover protects the components inside the nacelle. Some nacelles are large enough for a technician to stand inside while working. Pitch: Blades are turned, or pitched, out of the wind to keep the rotor from turning in winds that are too high or too low to produce electricity. Rotor: The blades and the hub together are called the rotor. Tower: Towers are made from tubular steel (shown here) or steel lattice. Because wind speed increases with height, taller towers enable turbines to capture more energy and generate more electricity. Wind direction: This is an "upwind" turbine, so-called because it operates facing into the wind. Other turbines are designed to run "downwind", facing away from the wind. Wind vane: Measures wind direction and communicates with the yaw drive to orient the turbine properly with respect to the wind. Yaw drive: Upwind turbines face into the wind; the yaw drive is used to keep the rotor facing into the wind as the wind direction changes. Downwind turbines don't require a yaw drive; the wind blows the rotor downwind.

Yaw motor: Powers the yaw drive. TamilNadu, Andhra and Gujarat are considered suitable for wind power generation. The location of wind turbines is a very important factor, which influences the performance of the machine. The Wind power potential of the country is estimated as 20,000 MW and India now ranks FOURTH in the world. Wind mills are operated at wind speed normally not less than 3 mph. To avoid turbulence from one turbine affecting the wind flow at others it is located at 5-15 times blades diameter. Wind turbines will not work in winds below 13 km an hour. Advantages of Wind turbine: Improving price competitiveness Modular installation Rapid construction Complementary generation Improved system reliability and Non-polluting. Disadvantages of wind turbine: These are noisy Construction can be very expensive and costly

Applications:
Used as coolant Used in water pumping

2.3 FUEL CELL

A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts a source fuel into an electrical current. It generates electricity inside a cell through reactions between a fuel and an oxidant, triggered in the presence of an electrolyte. The reactants flow into the cell, and the reaction products flow out of it, while the electrolyte remains within it. Fuel cells can operate continuously as long as the necessary reactant and oxidant flows are maintained. Fuel cells are different from conventional electrochemical cell batteries in that they consume reactant from an external source, which must be replenished a

thermodynamically open system. By contrast, batteries store electrical energy chemically and hence represent a thermodynamically closed system. Many combinations of fuels and oxidants are possible. A hydrogen fuel cell uses hydrogen as its fuel and oxygen (usually from air) as its oxidant. Other fuels include hydrocarbons and alcohols. Other oxidants include chlorine and chlorine dioxide. Fuel cells come in many varieties; however, they all work in the same general manner. They are made up of three segments which are sandwiched together: the anode, the electrolyte, and the cathode. Two chemical reactions occur at the interfaces of the three different segments. The net result of the two reactions is that fuel is consumed, water or carbon dioxide is created, and an electrical current is created, which can be used to power electrical devices, normally referred to as the load.

Fuel cell At the anode a catalyst oxidizes the fuel, usually hydrogen, turning the fuel into a positively charged ion and a negatively charged electron. The electrolyte is a substance specifically designed so ions can pass through it, but the electrons cannot. The freed electrons travel through a wire creating the electrical current. The ions travel through the electrolyte to the cathode. Once reaching the cathode, the ions are reunited with the electrons and the two react with a third chemical, usually oxygen, to create water or carbon dioxide.

DESIGN FEATURES IN A FUEL CELL ARE:

The electrolyte substance. The electrolyte substance usually defines the type of fuel cell. The fuel that is used. The most common fuel is hydrogen. The anode catalyst, which breaks down the fuel into electrons and ions. The anode catalyst is usually made up of very fine platinum powder. The cathode catalyst, which turns the ions into the waste chemicals like water or carbon dioxide. The cathode catalyst is often made up of nickel. A typical fuel cell produces a voltage from 0.6 V to 0.7 V at full rated load. Voltage decreases as current increases, due to several factors: Activation loss Ohmic loss (voltage drop due to resistance of the cell components and interconnects) Mass transport loss (depletion of reactants at catalyst sites under high loads, causing rapid loss of voltage). To deliver the desired amount of energy, the fuel cells can be combined in series and parallel circuits, where series yields higher voltage, and parallel allows a higher current to be supplied. Such a design is called a fuel cell stack. The cell surface area can be increased, to allow stronger current from each cell.

Types of fuel cells:

Proton exchange Fuel cell High temperature Fuel cell Molten Carbonate Fuel cell

Proton exchange fuel cell: There are different fuel cell technologies that have been successfully used. Among others, the polymer electrolyte (PE) fuel cell, also named proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell, can be considered a good alternative for the use aboard of electric Vehicles in which simplicity, high specific power and rapid start-up at different temperatures have a significative importance.

Structure of a PEM fuel cell (a) Bipolar plate; (b) Gas flow channel; (c) Electrode layer; (d) Catalyst layer and (e) polymer layer.

A PEM fuel cell is constituted by a stack with a central membrane able to conduct protons. The external layers work as two electrodes. The set of layers is pressed by two conductive plates containing some channels in which the reactants flow. A basic diagram showing the structure of the cell is shown in Fig. The main elements inside the cell are: conductor plates, electrodes and membrane. The electrodes are composed by a gas diffusion layer and a catalyst layer. Both layers have a porous, partially hydrophobic, structure. Air is fed to the cathodic layer, and

hydrogen is fed to the anodic one. The central membrane works as a electrolyte that performs both the functions of transferring H+ from the anode to the cathode and reactant separation. The electrochemical reactions involved are summarized below, H2 2H+ + 2e 2H+ +1/2O2 + 2e H2O H2 +1/2O2 H2O

(1) (2) (3)

Eq. (1) describes the chemical reaction at the anode. The electrons are transferred to the platinum layer and protons to the central membrane. Eq. (2) shows what happens at the cathode. The oxygen reacts with the protons coming from the membrane and with the electrons fed by the catalyst. The result is water. Finally, eq. (3) shows the overall reaction. In the archetypal hydrogenoxygen proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) design, a proton-conducting polymer membrane, (the electrolyte), separates the anode and cathode sides. This was called a "solid polymer electrolyte fuel cell" (SPEFC) in the early 1970s, before the proton exchange mechanism was wellunderstood. (Notice that "polymer electrolyte membrane" and "proton exchange mechanism" result in the same acronym.) On the anode side, hydrogen diffuses to the anode catalyst where it later dissociates into protons and electrons. These protons often react with oxidants causing them to become what is commonly referred to as multi-facilitated proton membranes. The protons are conducted through the membrane to the cathode, but the electrons are forced to travel in an external circuit (supplying power) because the membrane is electrically insulating. On the cathode catalyst, oxygen molecules react with the electrons (which have traveled through the external circuit) and protons to form water. The materials used in fuel cells differ by type. In a typical membrane electrode assembly (MEA), the electrodebipolar plates are usually made of metal, nickel or carbon nanotubes, and are coated with a catalyst (like platinum, nano iron powders or palladium) for higher efficiency. Carbon paper separates them from the electrolyte. The electrolyte could be ceramic or a membrane.

Proton exchange membrane fuel cell design issues: Many companies are working on techniques to reduce cost in a variety of ways including reducing the amount of platinum needed in each individual cell. Ballard Power Systems have experiments with a catalyst enhanced with carbon silk which allows a 30% reduction (1 mg/cm to 0.7 mg/cm) in platinum usage without reduction in performance. Monash University, Melbourne uses PEDOT as a cathode. The production costs of the PEM (proton exchange membrane). The Nafion membrane currently costs $566/m. In 2005 Ballard Power Systems announced that its fuel cells will use Sholapur, a porous polyethylene film patented by DSM. Water and air management (in PEMFCs). In this type of fuel cell, the membrane must be hydrated, requiring water to be evaporated at precisely the same rate that it is produced. If water is evaporated too quickly, the membrane dries, resistance across it increases, and eventually it will crack, creating a gas "short circuit" where hydrogen and oxygen combine directly, generating heat that will damage the fuel cell. If the water is evaporated too slowly, the electrodes will flood, preventing the reactants from reaching the catalyst and stopping the reaction. Temperature management. The same temperature must be maintained throughout the cell in order to prevent destruction of the cell through thermal loading. This is particularly challenging as the 2H2 + O2 -> 2H2O reaction is highly exothermic, so a large quantity of heat is generated within the fuel cell. Durability, service life, and special requirements for some type of cells. Stationary fuel cell applications typically require more than 40,000 hours of reliable operation at a temperature of -35 C to 40 C (-31 F to 104 F), while automotive fuel cells require a 5,000 hour lifespan (the equivalent of 150,000 miles) under extreme temperatures. Current service life is 7,300 hours under cycling conditions. Automotive engines must also be able to start reliably at -30 C (-22 F) and have a high power to volume ratio (typically 2.5 kW per liter). Limited carbon monoxide tolerance of the cathode.

High temperature fuel cell:

Solid oxide fuel cell: A solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) is extremely advantageous because of a possibility of using a wide variety of fuel. Unlike most other fuel cells which only use hydrogen, SOFCs can run on hydrogen, butane, methanol, and other petroleum products. The different fuels each have their own chemistry. For methanol fuel cells, on the anode side, a catalyst breaks methanol and water down to form carbon dioxide, hydrogen ions, and free electrons. The hydrogen ions move across the electrolyte to the cathode side, where they react with oxygen to create water. A load connected externally between the anode and cathode completes the electrical circuit. Below are the chemical equations for the reaction: Anode Reaction: CH3OH + H2O CO2 + 6H+ + 6eCathode Reaction: 3/2 O2 + 6H+ + 6e- 3H2O Overall Reaction: CH3OH + 3/2 O2 CO2 + 2H2O + electrical energy At the anode SOFCs can use nickel or other catalysts to break apart the methanol and create hydrogen ions and CO2. A solid called yttrium stabilized zirconia (YSZ) is used as the electrolyte. Like all fuel cell electrolytes YSZ is conductive to ions, allowing them to pass from the anode to cathode, but is non-conductive to electrons. YSZ is a durable solid and is advantageous in large industrial systems. Although YSZ is a good ion conductor, it only works at very high temperatures. The standard operating temperature is about 950oC. Running the fuel cell at such a high temperature easily breaks down the methane and oxygen into ions. A major disadvantage of the SOFC, as a result of the high heat, is that it places considerable constraints on the materials which can be used for interconnections. Another disadvantage of running the cell at such a high temperature is that other unwanted reactions may occur inside the fuel cell. It is common for carbon dust, graphite, to build up on the anode, preventing the fuel from reaching the catalyst. Much research is currently being done to find alternatives to YSZ that will carry ions at a lower temperature. Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) offer a clean, low-pollution technology to electrochemically generate electricity at high efficiencies; since their efficiencies are not

limited the way conventional heat engine's is. These fuel cells provide many advantages over traditional energy conversion systems including high efficiency, reliability, modularity, fuel adaptability, and very low levels of polluting emissions. Quiet, vibration-free operation of SOFCs also eliminates noise usually associated with conventional power generation systems. Up until about six years ago, SOFCs were being developed for operation primarily in the temperature range of 900 to 1000oC (1692 to 1832oF); in addition to the capability of internally reforming hydrocarbon fuels (for example, natural gas), such high temperature SOFCs provide high quality exhaust heat for cogeneration, and when pressurized, can be integrated with a gas turbine to further increase the overall efficiency of the power system. However, reduction of the SOFC operating temperature by 200 oC (392oF) or more allows use of a broader set of materials, is less demanding on the seals and the balance-of-plant components, simplifies thermal management, aids in faster start up and cool down, and results in less degradation of cell and stack components. Because of these advantages, activity in the development of SOFCs capable of operating in the temperature range of 650 to 800oC (1202 to 1472oF) has increased dramatically in the last few years. However, at lower temperatures, electrolyte conductivity and electrode kinetics decrease significantly; to overcome these drawbacks, alternative cell materials and designs are being extensively investigated.

Structure of Solid Oxide Fuel cell

Figure 1: Operating principle of a solid state fuel cell

An SOFC essentially consists of two porous electrodes separated by a dense, oxide ion conducting electrolyte. The operating principle of such a cell is illustrated in Figure 1. Oxygen supplied at the cathode (air electrode) reacts with incoming electrons from the external circuit to form oxide ions, which migrate to the anode (fuel electrode) through the oxide ion conducting electrolyte. At the anode, oxide ions combine with hydrogen (and/or carbon monoxide) in the fuel to form water (and/or carbon dioxide), liberating electrons. Electrons (electricity) flow from the anode through the external circuit to the cathode. The materials for the cell components are selected based on suitable electrical conducting properties required of these components to perform their intended cell functions; adequate chemical and structural stability at high temperatures encountered during cell operation as well as during cell fabrication; minimal reactivity and inter diffusion among different components; and matching thermal expansion among different components.

Molten-Carbonate fuel cell:

Molten-carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) are high-temperature fuel cells, that operate at temperatures of 600C and above.

Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) are currently being developed for natural gas and coal-based power plants for electrical utility, industrial, and military applications. MCFCs are high-temperature fuel cells that use an electrolyte composed of a molten carbonate salt mixture suspended in a porous, chemically inert ceramic matrix of betaalumina solid electrolyte (BASE). Since they operate at extremely high temperatures of 650C (roughly 1,200F) and above, non-precious metals can be used as catalysts at the anode and cathode, reducing costs.

Structure of Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell Improved efficiency is another reason MCFCs offer significant cost reductions over phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs). Molten carbonate fuel cells can reach efficiencies approaching 60 percent, considerably higher than the 37-42 percent efficiencies of a phosphoric acid fuel cell plant. When the waste heat is captured and used, overall fuel efficiencies can be as high as 85 percent. Unlike alkaline, phosphoric acid, and polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells, MCFCs don't require an external reformer to convert more energy-dense fuels to hydrogen. Due to the high temperatures at which MCFCs operate, these fuels are converted to hydrogen within the fuel cell itself by a process called internal reforming, which also reduces cost. The primary disadvantage of current MCFC technology is durability. The high temperatures at which these cells operate and the corrosive electrolyte used accelerate component breakdown and corrosion, decreasing cell life. Scientists are currently

exploring corrosion-resistant materials for components as well as fuel cell designs that increase cell life without decreasing performance.

Fuel cell efficiency:

The efficiency of a fuel cell is dependent on the amount of power drawn from it. Drawing more power means drawing more current, which increases the losses in the fuel cell. As a general rule, the more power (current) drawn, the lower the efficiency. Most losses manifest themselves as a voltage drop in the cell, so the efficiency of a cell is almost proportional to its voltage. For this reason, it is common to show graphs of voltage versus current (so-called polarization curves) for fuel cells. A typical cell running at 0.7 V has an efficiency of about 50%, meaning that 50% of the energy content of the hydrogen is converted into electrical energy; the remaining 50% will be converted into heat. (Depending on the fuel cell system design, some fuel might leave the system unreacted, constituting an additional loss.) For a hydrogen cell operating at standard conditions with no reactant leaks, the efficiency is equal to the cell voltage divided by 1.48 V, based on the enthalpy, or heating value, of the reaction. For the same cell, the second law efficiency is equal to cell voltage divided by 1.23 V. (This voltage varies with fuel used, and quality and temperature of the cell.) The difference between these numbers represents the difference between the reaction's enthalpy and Gibbs free energy. This difference always appears as heat, along with any losses in electrical conversion efficiency. Fuel cells do not operate on a thermal cycle. As such, they are not constrained, as combustion engines are, in the same way by thermodynamic limits, such as Carnot cycle efficiency. At times this is misrepresented by saying that fuel cells are exempt from the laws of thermodynamics, because most people think of thermodynamics in terms of combustion processes (enthalpy of formation). The laws of thermodynamics also hold for chemical processes (Gibbs free energy) like fuel cells, but the maximum theoretical efficiency is higher (83% efficient at 298K in the case of hydrogen/oxygen reaction) than the Otto cycle thermal efficiency (60% for compression ratio of 10 and specific heat ratio of 1.4).

Comparing limits imposed by thermodynamics is not a good predictor of practically achievable efficiencies. Also, if propulsion is the goal, electrical output of the fuel cell has to still be converted into mechanical power with another efficiency drop. In reference to the exemption claim, the correct claim is that the "limitations imposed by the second law of thermodynamics on the operation of fuel cells are much less severe than the limitations imposed on conventional energy conversion systems". Consequently, they can have very high efficiencies in converting chemical energy to electrical energy, especially when they are operated at low power density, and using pure hydrogen and oxygen as reactants. It should be underlined that fuel cell (especially high temperature) can be used as a heat source in conventional heat engine (gas turbine system). In this case the ultra high efficiency is predicted (above 70%).

In practice:
For a fuel cell operating on air, losses due to the air supply system must also be taken into account. This refers to the pressurization of the air and dehumidifying it. This reduces the efficiency significantly and brings it near to that of a compression ignition engine. Furthermore, fuel cell efficiency decreases as load increases. The tank-to-wheel efficiency of a fuel cell vehicle is greater than 45% at low loads and shows average values of about 36% when a driving cycle like the NEDC (New European Driving Cycle) is used as test procedure. The comparable NEDC value for a Diesel vehicle is 22%. In 2008 Honda released a fuel cell electric vehicle (the Honda FCX Clarity) with fuel stack claiming a 60% tank-to-wheel efficiency. It is also important to take losses due to fuel production, transportation, and storage into account. Fuel cell vehicles running on compressed hydrogen may have a power-plant-to-wheel efficiency of 22% if the hydrogen is stored as high-pressure gas, and 17% if it is stored as liquid hydrogen. In addition to the production losses, over 70% of US electricity used for hydrogen production comes from thermal power, which only has an efficiency of 33% to 48%, resulting in a net increase in carbon dioxide production by using hydrogen in vehicles.

Fuel cells cannot store energy like a battery, but in some applications, such as stand-alone power plants based on discontinuous sources such as solar or wind power, they are combined with electrolyzes and storage systems to form an energy storage system. The overall efficiency (electricity to hydrogen and back to electricity) of such plants (known as round-trip efficiency) is between 30 and 50%, depending on conditions. While a much cheaper lead-acid battery might return about 90%, the electrolyze/fuel cell system can store indefinite quantities of hydrogen, and is therefore better suited for longterm storage. Solid-oxide fuel cells produce exothermic heat from the recombination of the oxygen and hydrogen. The ceramic can run as hot as 800 degrees Celsius. This heat can be captured and used to heat water in a micro combined heat and power (m-CHP) application. When the heat is captured, total efficiency can reach 80-90% at the unit, but does not consider production and distribution losses. CHP units are being developed today for the European home market. Stationary fuel cell applications (or stationary fuel cell power systems) are stationary that are either connected to the electric grid (distributed generation) to provide supplemental power and as emergency power system for critical areas, or installed as a grid-independent generator for on-site service. Codes and standards Stationary fuel cell applications is a classification in FC Hydrogen codes and standards and fuel cell codes and standards. The other main standards are Portable fuel cell applications and Fuel cell vehicle. Fuel cell gas appliances up to 70 kW Installation permitting guidance for hydrogen & fuel cells stationary applications Standard for the installation of stationary fuel cell power systems

Emergency power systems:

Emergency power systems are a type fuel cell system, which may include lighting, generators and other apparatus, to provide backup resources in a crisis or when regular systems fail. They find uses in a wide variety of settings from residential homes to hospitals, scientific laboratories, data centers, telecommunication equipment and modern naval ships.

Uninterrupted power supply:

An uninterrupted power supply (UPS) provides emergency power and, depending on the topology, provide line regulation as well to connected equipment by supplying power from a separate source when utility power is not available. It differs from an auxiliary power supply or standby generator, which does not provide instant protection from a momentary power interruption.

Cogeneration
Cogeneration can be used when the fuel cell is sited near the point of use, its waste heat can be captured for beneficial purposes. Micro combined heat and power (MicroCHP) is usually less than 5 kWe for a home fuel cell or small business.

Materials and cell designs Electrolyte

Yttrium-doped zirconium oxide (YSZ) remains the most widely used material for the electrolyte in SOFCs because of its sufficient ionic conductivity, chemical stability, and mechanical strength. The only drawback of stabilized YSZ is the low ionic conductivity in the lower cell operation temperature regime, below about 750oC (1382oF). Two solutions that have been tried to resolve this problem are to decrease the thickness of the YSZ electrolyte and to find other materials to replace the yttrium. Scandium-doped zirconium oxide has higher conductivity than YSZ but high cost of scandium and detrimental ageing effects in scandium doped zirconium oxide make it less attractive in commercializing SOFCs. Gadolinium- or samarium-doped cerium oxide materials possess higher oxide ion conductivity compared to zirconium based materials. However, cerium oxide based materials, under reducing conditions at high temperatures, exhibit significant electronic conductivity and dimensional change. Operation at temperatures below about 600oC (1112oF) overcomes this problem, and cerium oxide based materials are successfully being used as electrolyte in SOFCs by Ceres Power Limited (UK). In addition to the traditionally used oxides of zirconium and cerium, other mixed oxides also provide an opportunity to develop oxide ion conducting electrolytes. One mixture, containing among others gallium oxide, has attracted attention as an

electrolyte. However, it has two drawbacks: uncertain cost of gallium, and uncertain chemical and mechanical stability of the oxide. In spite of these drawbacks, Mitsubishi Materials Corporation (Japan) is using this as the electrolyte in its SOFCs and has successfully built and tested up to 10-kW size SOFC power systems.

Cathode
The oxidant gas is air or oxygen at the SOFC cathode, and the electrochemical reduction of oxygen requires a series of elementary reactions and involves the transfer of multiple electrons. The SOFC cathode must meet the requirements of high catalytic activity for oxygen molecule dissociation and oxygen reduction, high electronic conductivity, chemical and dimensional stability in environments encountered during cell fabrication and cell operation, thermal expansion match with other cell components, and compatibility and minimum reactivity with the electrolyte and the interconnection. Finally, the cathode must have a stable, porous microstructure so that gaseous oxygen can readily diffuse through the cathode to the cathode/electrolyte interface. These stringent electrochemical and mechanical requirements greatly restrict the number of suitable candidate materials. Lanthanum manganite, which, when substituted with low valence elements such as calcium or strontium, has good electronic conduction. Moreover, it possesses adequate electrocatalytic activity, a reasonable thermal expansion match to YSZ, and stability in the SOFC cathode operating environment. For SOFCs operating at substantially lower temperatures, such as 650 to 800oC (1202 to 1472oF), alternative cathode materials, typically containing transition metals such as cobalt, iron, and/or nickel, have been developed and optimized for better performance. In general, these materials offer higher oxide ion diffusion rates and exhibit faster oxygen reduction kinetics at the cathode/electrolyte interface compared with lanthanum manganite. However, the thermal expansion coefficient of cobaltites is much higher than that of the YSZ electrolyte, and the electrical conductivities of ferrites and nickelites are low. Nevertheless, promising results have been reported using these materials, though in many cases the improved cathodic performance is found to decrease during the cell lifetime as a result of chemical or microstructural instability. Minimization of cathodic polarization losses is one of the biggest challenges to be overcome in obtaining high, stable power densities from lower temperature SOFCs. However, these

materials are very reactive toward YSZ. Therefore, a thin layer, generally of a cerium oxide based material, is used to reduce the chemical reaction between the cathode and YSZ. Microstructure also plays a major role in the cathode polarization; this is particularly true when a composite cathode, which shows a better performance compared to a single composition cathode, is used. It has been shown that polarization resistance depends upon the grain size of the ionic conductor in the composite electrode and the volume fraction of porosity.

Anode
The anode must be an excellent catalyst for the oxidation of fuel (hydrogen, carbon dioxide), stable in the reducing environment of the fuel, electronically conducting, and must have sufficient porosity to allow the transport of the fuel to and the transport of the products of fuel oxidation away from the electrolyte/anode interface where the fuel oxidation reaction takes place. The other requirements include matching of its thermal expansion coefficient with that of the electrolyte and interconnect; integrity of porosity for gas permeation; chemical stability with the electrolyte and interconnect; and applicability to use with versatile fuels and impurities. In addition, cost effectiveness is always a factor for commercialization. Nickel-YSZ composites are the most commonly used anode materials for SOFCs. Nickel is an excellent catalyst for fuel oxidation; however, it possesses a high thermal expansion coefficient, and exhibits coarsening of microstructure due to metal aggregation through grain growth at cell operation temperatures. YSZ in the anode constrains nickel aggregation and prevents sintering of the nickel particles, decreases the effective thermal expansion coefficient bringing it closer to that of the electrolyte, and provides better adhesion of the anode with the electrolyte. In these anodes, nickel has dual roles of the catalyst for hydrogen oxidation and the electrical current conductor. In addition, it is also highly active for the steam reforming of methane. This catalytic property is exploited in the so-called internal reforming SOFCs that can operate on fuels composed of mixtures of methane and water. Although nickel is an excellent hydrogen oxidation and methanesteam reforming catalyst, it also catalyzes the formation of carbon from hydrocarbons under reducing conditions. Unless sufficient amounts of steam are present along with the hydrocarbon to remove carbon from the nickel surface, the anode may be destroyed. As a

result, even when using methane as the fuel, relatively high steam-to-carbon ratios are needed to suppress this deleterious reaction. Unfortunately, due to the high catalytic activity of nickel for hydrocarbon cracking, this approach does not work for higher hydrocarbons, and it is generally not possible to operate nickel-based anodes on higher hydrocarbon-containing fuels without pre-reforming with steam or oxygen. In spite of this drawback, nickel-YSZ composite remains the most commonly utilized anode material for SOFCs and are satisfactory for cells operating on clean, reformed fuel. However, advanced SOFC designs place additional constraints on the anode, such as tolerance of oxidizing environments and/or the ability to tolerate significant quantities of sulphur and/or hydrocarbon species in the fuel stream. Alternative materials, such as cerium oxide or strontium titanate/cerium oxide mixtures, have yielded some promising results in these designs, but the benefits obtained in terms of sulphur, hydrocarbon and/or redox tolerance are counterbalanced by other limitations (such as the difficulty of integrating such materials with existing cell and stack fabrication processes and materials). Copper based anodes have also been proposed for intermediate temperature (<800oC; <1472oF) SOFCs intended to operate directly on hydrocarbon fuels without prior reformation, but the lack of catalytic activity for oxidation of fuel in copper and sintering of copper at the cell operating temperatures have limited their use in practical SOFCs.

Interconnect
Since a single cell only produces voltage less than 1 V and power around 1 W/cm2, many cells are electrically connected together in a cell stack to obtain higher voltage and power. To connect multiple cells together, an interconnection is used in SOFC stacks. The requirements of the interconnection are the most severe of all cell components and include: nearly 100 percent electronic conductivity; stability in both oxidizing and reducing atmospheres at the cell operating temperature since it is exposed to air (or oxygen) on the cathode side and fuel on the anode side; low permeability for oxygen and hydrogen to minimize direct combination of oxidant and fuel during cell operation; a thermal expansion coefficient close to that of the cathode and the electrolyte; and non-reactivity with other cell materials. To satisfy these requirements, doped

lanthanum chromite is used as the interconnection for cells intended for operation at about 1000oC (1832oF). In cells intended for operation at lower temperatures (<800oC; <1412oF), it is possible to use oxidation-resistant metallic materials for the interconnection. Compared to lanthanum chromite ceramic interconnects, metallic alloys offer advantages such as improved manufacturability, significantly lower raw material and fabrication costs, and higher electrical and thermal conductivity. But to be useful for the interconnect application, the metallic alloys must satisfy additional requirements, including resistance to surface oxidation and corrosion in a dual atmosphere (simultaneous exposure to oxidizing and reducing atmospheres), thermal expansion matching to other stack components (particularly for stacks using a rigid seal design), chemical compatibility with other materials in contact with the interconnect, such as seals and cell materials, high electrical conductivity not only through the bulk material but also in in-situ-formed oxide scales, mechanical reliability and durability at the cell operating temperature, and strong adhesion between the as-formed oxide scale and the underlying alloy substrate. Ferritic stainless steels are the most promising candidates, owing to the fact that some alloys in this family offer a protective and conductive chromium-based oxide scale, appropriate thermal expansion behavior, ease of manufacturing and low cost. Several new ferritic stainless steels have been developed specifically for SOFC interconnects. Although these alloys demonstrate improved performance over traditional compositions, several critical issues remain; among these are chromium oxide scale evaporation and subsequent poisoning of cathodes; scale electrical resistivity in the long term; corrosion and spalling under interconnect exposure conditions; and compatibility with the adjacent components such as seals and electrical contact layers. To overcome some of these problems, some surface coatings can be applied onto metallic interconnects to minimize scale growth, electrical resistance and chromium volatility. Advantages of Fuel Cell: Non pollutant. Environmental friendly.

Disadvantages of Fuel Cell: Durability. Hydration. Infrastructure. Fuel cell applications: POWER: Fuel cells are very useful as power sources in remote locations, such as spacecraft, remote weather stations, large parks, rural locations, and in certain military applications. A fuel cell system running on hydrogen can be compact and lightweight, and have no major moving parts. Because fuel cells have no moving parts and do not involve combustion, in ideal conditions they can achieve up to 99.9999% reliability. This equates to around one minute of down time in a two year period. Since electrolyses systems do not store fuel in themselves, but rather rely on external storage units, they can be successfully applied in large-scale energy storage, rural areas being one example. In this application, batteries would have to be largely oversized to meet the storage demand, but fuel cells only need a larger storage unit (typically cheaper than an electrochemical device). One such pilot program is operating on Stuart Island in Washington State. There the Stuart Island Energy Initiative has built a complete, closed-loop system: Solar panels power an electrolyzer which makes hydrogen. The hydrogen is stored in a 500 gallon tank at 200 PSI, and runs a ReliOn fuel cell to provide full electric back-up to the off-thegrid residence.

Cogeneration:
Micro combined heat and power (MicroCHP) systems such as home fuel cells and cogeneration for office buildings and factories are in the mass production phase. The system generates constant electric power (selling excess power back to the grid when it is not consumed), and at the same time produces hot air and water from the waste heat. MicroCHP is usually less than 5 kWe for a home fuel cell or small business. A lower fuel-to-electricity conversion efficiency is tolerated (typically 15-20%), because most of the energy not converted into electricity is utilized as heat. Some heat is

lost with the exhaust gas just as in a normal furnace, so the combined heat and power efficiency is still lower than 100%, typically around 80%. In terms of energy however, the process is inefficient, and one could do better by maximizing the electricity generated and then using the electricity to drive a heat pump. Phosphoric-acid fuel cells (PAFC) comprise the largest segment of existing CHP products worldwide and can provide combined efficiencies close to 90% (35-50% electric + remainder as thermal) Moltencarbonate fuel cells have also been installed in these applications, and solid-oxide fuel cell prototypes exist. Other applications: Providing power for base stations or cell sites Off-grid power supply Distributed generation Fork Lifts Emergency power systems are a type of fuel cell system, which may include lighting, generators and other apparatus, to provide backup resources in a crisis or when regular systems fail. They find uses in a wide variety of settings from residential homes to hospitals, scientific laboratories, data centers,

telecommunication equipment and modern naval ships. An uninterrupted power supply (UPS) provides emergency power and, depending on the topology, provide line regulation as well to connected equipment by supplying power from a separate source when utility power is not available. Unlike a standby generator, it can provide instant protection from a momentary power interruption. Base load power plants Electric and hybrid vehicles. Notebook computers for applications where AC charging may not be available for weeks at a time. Portable charging docks for small electronics (e.g. a belt clip that charges your cell phone or PDA). Smartphone with high power consumption due to large displays and additional features like GPS might be equipped with micro fuel cells.

 Small heating appliances. Fuel cells are a technology that both the public and private sectors are increasingly turning to for both primary and back-up power needs. Although the understanding of the chemistry of fuel cells goes back more than a century, they are very much a 21st century technology. The basic design and electrochemical principle behind fuel cells is straightforward. A fuel cell stack requires only hydrogen (or a similar energy carrier), oxygen, and an electrolytic solution.

Hydrogen and ambient air flow into the fuel cell, which contains an anode and a cathode. At the anode, the hydrogen separates into a proton and an electron. The proton migrates to the cathode, where it reacts with the oxygen to form water. The electrons, which cannot pass through the membrane, flow from the cell to provide useful electrical power. Fuel cells are quiet, have no moving parts, and produce no particulate emissions. They are virtually maintenance free and can be both tested and operated remotely. Because they are modular, they can be configured for any size power needs, from a few kilowatts for a remote telecommunications tower to megawatt-scale for hospitals and airports. Hydrogen is safely stored on-site or produced within the fuel cell itself.

2.4 Ultra Capacitors

An Electric Double Layer Capacitor (EDLC),also known as Super capacitor, Super condenser, Pseudo capacitor, Electro chemical double layer capacitor, or Ultra capacitor, is an electrochemical capacitor with relatively high energy density. Compared to conventional electrolytic capacitors the energy density is typically on the order of thousands of times greater. In comparison with conventional batteries or fuel cells, EDLCs also have a much higher power density. Compared to conventional electrolytic capacitors the energy density is typically on the order of thousands of times greater. In comparison with conventional batteries or fuel cells, EDLCs also have a much higher power density. The amount of charge stored per unit voltage is essentially a function of the size, the distance, and the material properties of the plates and the material

in between the plates (the dielectric), while the potential between the plates is limited by breakdown of the dielectric. Capacitors store electric charge. Because the charge is stored physically, with no chemical or phase changes taking place, the process is highly reversible and the discharge-charge cycle can be repeated over and over again, virtually without limit. Electrochemical capacitors (ECs), variously referred to by manufacturers in promotional literature as Super capacitors also called ultra capacitors and electric double layer capacitors (EDLC) are capacitors with capacitance values greater than any other capacitor type available today. Capacitance values reaching up to 400 Farads in a single standard case size are available. Ultra capacitors have the highest capacitive density available today with densities so high that these capacitors can be used to applications normally reserved for batteries. Ultra Capacitors are not as volumetrically efficient and are more expensive than batteries but they do have other advantages over batteries making the preferred choice in applications requiring a large amount of energy storage to be stored and delivered in bursts repeatedly. The most significant advantage super capacitors have over batteries is their ability to be charged and discharged continuously without degrading like batteries do. This is why batteries and super capacitors are used in conjunction with each other. The super capacitors will supply power to the system when there are surges or energy bursts since super capacitors can be charged and discharged quickly while the batteries can supply the bulk energy since they can store and deliver larger amount energy over a longer slower period of time.

U C construction:
What makes Ultra capacitors different from other capacitors types are the electrodes used in these capacitors. Ultra capacitors are based on a carbon (nano tube) technology. The carbon technology used in these capacitors creates a very large surface area with an extremely small separation distance. Capacitors consist of 2 metal electrodes separated by a dielectric material. The dielectric not only separates the electrodes but also has electrical properties that affect the performance of a capacitor. Ultra capacitors do not have a traditional dielectric material like ceramic, polymer films or aluminum oxide to

separate the electrodes but instead have a physical barrier made from activated carbon that when an electrical charge is applied to the material a double electric field is generated which acts like a dielectric. The thickness of the electric double layer is as thin as a molecule. The surface area of the activated carbon layer is extremely large yielding several thousands of square meters per gram. This large surface area allows for the absorption of a large amount of ions.

Structure of Ultra Capacitor

The charging/discharging occurs in an ion absorption layer formed on the electrodes of activated carbon. The activated carbon fiber electrodes are impregnated with an electrolyte where positive and negative charges are formed between the electrodes and the impregnant. The electric double layer formed becomes an insulator until a large enough voltage is applied and current begins to flow. The magnitude of voltage where charges begin to flow is where the electrolyte begins to break down. This is called the decomposition voltage.

The double layers formed on the activated carbon surfaces can be illustrated as a series of parallel RC circuits. As shown below the capacitor is made up of a series of RC circuits where R1, R2 Rn are the internal resistances and C1, C2..., Cn are the electrostatic capacitances of the activated carbons.

When voltage is applied current flows through each of the RC circuits. The amount of time required to charge the capacitor is dependent on the CxR values of each RC circuit.

Obviously the larger the CxR the longer it will take to charge the capacitor. The amount of current needed to charge the capacitor is determined by the following equation: In= (V/Rn) exp (-t/ (Cn*Rn)) Ultra capacitor is a double layer capacitor; the energy is stored by charge transfer at the boundary between electrode and electrolyte. The amount of stored energy is function of the available electrode and electrolyte surface, the size of the ions, and the level of the electrolyte decomposition voltage. Ultra capacitors are constituted of two electrodes, a separator and an electrolyte. The two electrodes, made of activated carbon provide a high surface area part, defining so energy density of the component. On the electrodes, current collectors with a high conducting part assure the interface between the electrodes and the connections of the Ultra capacitors r. The two electrodes are separated by a membrane, which allows the mobility of charged ions and forbids no electronic contact. The electrolyte supplies and conducts the ions from one electrode to the other. Usually Ultra capacitors are divided into two types: double-layer capacitors and electrochemical capacitors. The former depends on the mechanism of double layers, which is result of the separation of charges at interface between the electrode surface of active carbon or carbon fiber and electrolytic solution. Its capacitance is proportional to the specific surface areas of electrode material. The latter depends on fast faraday redox reaction. The electrochemical capacitors include metal oxide Ultra capacitors and conductive polymer Ultra capacitors. They all make use of the high reversible redox reaction occurring on electrodes surface or inside them to produce the capacitance concerning with electrode potential. Capacitance of them depends mainly on the utilization of active material of electrode. The working voltage of electrochemical capacitor is usually lower than 3 V. Based on high working voltage of electrolytic capacitor, the hybrid super-capacitor combines the anode of electrolytic capacitor with the cathode of electrochemical capacitor, so it has the best features with the high specific capacitance and high energy density of electrochemical capacitor. The capacitors can work at high voltage without connecting many cells in series. The most important parameters of a super capacitor include the capacitance(C), ESR and EPR (which is also called leakage resistance).

Equivalent circuit Ultra capacitors can be illustrated similarly to conventional film, ceramic or aluminum electrolytic capacitors

This equivalent circuit is only a simplified or first order model of Ultra capacitors. In actuality Ultra capacitors exhibit a non ideal behavior due to the porous materials used to make the electrodes. This causes Ultra capacitors to exhibit behavior more closely to transmission lines than capacitors. Below is a more accurate illustration of the equivalent circuit for a Ultra capacitors

How to measure the capacitance There are a couple of ways used to measure the capacitance of Ultra capacitors 1. Charge method 2. Charging and discharging method. Charge method Measurement is performed using a charge method using the following formula. C=t/R t= .632Vo where Vo is the applied voltage.

Charge and Discharge method This method is similar to the charging method except the capacitance is calculated during the discharge cycle instead of the charging cycle. Discharge time for constant current discharge t= Cx (V -V )/I
0 1

Discharge time for constant resistance discharge t= CRln (V /V )

1 0

Where t= discharge time, V = initial voltage, V = ending voltage, I= current.

0 1

Capacitance Ultra capacitors have such large capacitance values that standard measuring equipment cannot be used to measure the capacity of these capacitors. Capacitance is measured per the following method: 1. Charge capacitor for 30 minutes at rated voltage. 2. Discharge capacitor through a constant current load. 3. Discharge rate to be 1mA/F. 4. Measure voltage drop between V1 to V2. 5. Measure time for capacitor to discharge from V1 to V2. 6. Calculate the capacitance using the following equation:

C= I*(T2-T1) V1-V2 Where V1=0.7Vr, V2=0.3Vr (Vr= rated voltage of capacitor)

ESR AC ESR - Measure using a 4 probe impedance analyzer at 1 kHz. DC ESR - measured using the following procedure 1. Charge capacitor using a constant current. 2. After reaching rated voltage hold voltage for at least 1 minute. 3. Discharge capacitor at a rate of 1mA/F. 4. Measure the time it takes to have the voltage drop from V1 to V2. 5. Calculate ESR using the following formula:

Advantages of Ultra Capacitor: Long life. Low cost per cycle. Good reversibility. Very high rates of charge and discharge. High output power. Disadvantages of Ultra Capacitor: The amount of energy stored per unit weight is generally lower than that of an electrochemical battery. Cells hold low voltages. Due to rapid and large release of energy (albeit over short times), EDLC's have the potential to be deadly to human. Applications: Heavy and public transport. Automotive. Motor racing. Consumer electronics. Alternative energy. Computer systems UPS systems

 Power conditioners Welders Inverters Automobile regenerative braking systems Power supplies Cameras Power generators

Importance of Proper Design of SCES and Future Scope of Work The utmost requirement of proper design and implementation of SCES is maintaining the reliability of the power distribution system in the grid connected mode, the switching transient mode, the island mode. This is also important in various analyses such as sustained interruptions, voltage flicker, voltage sags, harmonics, voltage regulation, voltage stability. There are other different aspects related to power distribution system where the storage study is essential, some are listed as follows. 1. Calculation of load schedule 2. Optimal use of non-conventional energy sources 3. Dispatch ability of Power 4. Ride trough capability of Supply 5. Reduced insulation 6. Transformer connections and ground faults 7. Design of system elements: transformer, feeders

2.5 Electrolyzer
Water can be decomposed into its elementary components by passing electric current between two electrodes separated by an aqueous electrolyte. The electrochemical reaction of water electrolysis is given by

According to Faradays law, hydrogen production rate of an electrolyzer cell is directly proportional to the electrical current in the equivalent electrolyzer circuit.

where ie is the electrolyzer current, nc is the number of electrolyzer cells in series, and F is the Faraday efficiency. The ratio between the actual and the theoretical maximum amount of hydrogen produced in the electrolyzer is known as Faraday efficiency. Assuming that the working temperature of the electrolyzer is 40 , Faraday efficiency is expressed by

According to the nH2 and F, a simple electrolyzer model is developed using Simulink. The storage and consumption are also considered in this model.

CHAPTER-3 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

3.1 RENEWABLE ENERGY BASED HYBRID POWER SYSTEM

Simulink circuit diagram of Hybrid circuit diagram

 The system consists of a 75W solar cell, a 400W wind turbine, a 500W proton exchange membrane fuel cell, an ultra-capacitors, an electrolyzer, and a power conditioner. The power conditioner includes a boost circuit and a SPWM inverter. It is used to step up ultra capacitor voltage to DC 200V and invert to 120Vrms, 60Hz AC. The wind turbine adopted is Southwest Wind power Air 403. When wind speed is 12.5m/s, the wind turbine produces the maximum power 400W. Solar cell adopted is SIEMENS SP75 and its maximum power is 75W. Wind turbine and solar cell are the main sources to supply load demand. Fuel cell model includes a fuel cell module and a fuel controller. The fuel controller consists of two PID controllers to limit the flows of hydrogen and oxygen. The fuel cell is a accessory generator in this system and supplies insufficient power. In order to keep the supply and demand is balanced. When the supply is bigger than the load need, the electrolyzer model electrolyzes water to produce hydrogen and store it for further usage. Thus, the system can circulate supply load demand and energy will not be wasted.

CHAPTER-4 SIMULATION RESULTS OF THE HYBRID POWER SYSTEMS

4.1 Power tracking performance of hybrid power system

Simulation results with step changes in load demand, wind speed, radiation, and ambient temperature are analyzed and shown in Figs. The initial wind speed is 10 m/s. Wind speed increases, at t=10s, from 10 to 12 m/s and decreases to 8 m/s at t=16s. The solar cell initially supplies power at the radiation 400W/m2 and temperature 25. At 15s, the radiation increases to 600W/m2 and temperature also increases to 28. The load demand changes from 375W to 225W at 10s. These step inputs cause changes in available power and load consumption. The power tracking performance of the hybrid topology with respect to load demand change and environmental variations is shown in Fig.

Fig. Power tracking performance of the hybrid topology with respect to load demand change and environmental variations.

4.2 Current Variations

Associated parameter variations in solar cell, wind turbine, fuel cell, ultra capacitor, power converter output, and system performance are analyzed. With variation in load, the power demand changes from 375W to 225W at 10s as shown in Fig. The fuel cell provides power for load requirement because of the output powers of the wind turbine and solar cell are not sufficient enough to supply load demand at t=0s to 10s. However, as the wind speed increases, the captured power increases and the contribution of the fuel

cell decrease. Any excess power is diverted to the electrolyzer during this period. Similarly, with sudden decrease in wind speed, the contribution of the fuel cell starts at t=19.1s. With changes in load and environmental conditions, the solar cell current and fuel cell current vary as shown in Fig.

Fig. Current variations.

4.3 Voltage Variations

These changes are reflected in the performance of the fuel cell system. The stack current variation at t=0s to t=10s is due to start-up transients and load demand, as the solar cells and wind turbines contributions are limited and fixed. During t=10s to t=16s, the fuel cell current decreases to zero because load demand is reduced and the wind turbine increases output power. After t=16s, variation in fuel cell current is due to changes in power demand from the fuel cell with varying availability of wind energy. Such changes in fuel cell current cause the stack voltage to vary significantly. Generally, a lower level of current implies higher stack voltage and vice versa. The use of an ultra capacitor in parallel with the fuel cell reduces the stacks output variation as shown in Fig.

Fig. Voltage variations.

4.4 Hydrogen Variation

With variations of the ultra-capacitor voltage between 49 and 62 V, the power converter unit regulates the load voltage. The controller in the boost converter adjusts the duty ratio so as to attain a fixed 200V DC in the inverters input. The inverter, on the other hand, delivers a 120 Vrms, 60 Hz AC to the load. The hydrogen is a fuel of fuel cell. The electrolyzer electrolyzes water to produce hydrogen by the excess power of the system and store it from t=10s to t=19.1s. The variation of hydrogen in storage tank is shown in Fig.

Fig. Hydrogen variation in storage tank.

The system can circulate supply load demand and renewable energy will not be wasted.

CHAPTER-5 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE Conclusion

In this paper, a novel renewable energy based hybrid power system is proposed and modeled for a stand-alone user with appropriate power controllers. The available power from the renewable energy sources is highly dependent on environmental conditions such as wind speed, radiation, and ambient temperature. To overcome this deficiency of the solar cell and wind system, we integrated them with the FC/UC system using a novel topology. The voltage variation at the output is found to be within the acceptable range. The output fluctuations of the wind turbine varying with wind speed and the solar cell varying with both environmental temperature and sun radiation are reduced using a fuel cell. Therefore, this system can tolerate the rapid changes in load and environmental conditions, and suppress the effects of these fluctuations on the equipment side voltage. The proposed system can be used for off-grid power generation in non interconnected areas or remote isolated communities.

Future Scope
In this we can use Fuzzy logic controller of Hybrid Power System based on Renewable energy.

REFERENCES
[1] C. T. Pan, J. Y. Chen, C. P. Chu, and Y. S. Huang, A Fast Maximum Power Point Tracing for Photovoltaic Power Systems, in Proc. 1999 IEEE Industrial Electronics Society Conf., vol. 1, pp. 390-393. [2] J. A. Gow and C. D. Manning, Development of a Photovoltaic Array Model for Use in Power-electronics Simulation Studies, IEE Proc.- Electric Power Application, vol. 146, no. 2, pp. 193-200, March 1999. [3] The MathWorks http://www.mathworks.com/. [4] M. J. Khan and M. T. Iqbal, Dynamic Modeling and Simulation of a Small WindFuel Cell Hybrid Energy System, Renewable Energy, pp. 421-439, 2005. [5] S. M. Shaahid and M. A. Elhadidy, Technical and Economic Assessment of Gidindependent Hybrid Photovoltaic-Diesel-Battery Power Systems for Commercial Loads in Desert Environments, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 11, pp. 1794-1810, Oct. 2007. [6] D. B. Nelson, M. H. Nehrir, and C. Wang, Unit Sizing and Cost Analysis of StandAlone Hybrid Wind/PV/Fuel Cell Power Generation Systems, Renewable Energy, pp. 1641-1656, Aug. 2006. [7] O. Ulleberg, Stand-alone Power Systems for the Future: Optimal Design, Operation and Control of Solar-Hydrogen Energy Systems, Ph.D. dissertation, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 1997.