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Analysis of Asymmetrical Faults in Power Systems Using Dynamic Phasors

Aleksandar M. Stankovic, Member, IEEE, and Timur Aydin
AbstractThis paper presents application of the dynamic phasor modeling technique to unbalanced polyphase power systems. The proposed technique is a polyphase generalization of the dynamic phasor approach, and it is applicable to nonlinear power system models. In a steady-state, the dynamic phasors reduce to standard phasors from AC circuit theory. The technique produces results that are very close to those obtained from time-domain simulations. Simulations in terms of dynamic phasors typically allow larger integration steps than the standard time-domain formulation. We present simulations of unbalanced faults involving a three-phase synchronous generator connected to an infinite bus through a transmission line, and we demonstrate that models based on dynamic phasors provide very accurate descriptions of observed transients. Index TermsGeneralized averaging, phasor dynamics, power system fault analysis, synchronous generators.

I. INTRODUCTION ARGE scale power systems are the most spatially extended technical systems. This property renders power systems very exposed to the environment, and fairly often subjected to faults. Fault analysis aims to quantify waveforms of interest, such as currents and voltages, under extraordinary operating conditions. Accuracy of such assessments is critical for sizing of components and for tuning of protection equipment. This aspect places demanding performance requirements on mathematical models of power system components used in fault analyzes. Presently available models mostly belong to two broad categories: a) detailed time-domain models, and b) simple frequency-domain procedures. This dichotomy was observed by a number of authors, and [1] addressed it in the realm of linear systems. The present paper attempts to develop a unifying framework that will include advantages of both classes of models without requiring system linearity. It is often noted that fault analysis results are most sensitive to variations in generator models [1]. Our paper thus concentrates on models of synchronous machines (in both stationary and rotor coordinates), in addition to transmission line models. Our attention is on unbalanced (asymmetrical) faults, as balanced (symmetric) faults present a simpler special case. Main analytical tools that we use are dynamical phasors, i.e., slowly varying Fourier coefficients describing the waveforms of interest. In
Manuscript received March 12, 1999; revised September 21, 1999. The work of A. M. Stankovic was supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant ECS-9502636 and the Office of Naval Research under Grant N14-97-10704. The authors are with Northeastern University. Publisher Item Identifier S 0885-8950(00)08270-5.

steady state, these coefficients become standard phasors from AC circuit theory, thus allowing analysts to utilize the wealth of engineering intuition acquired over time in practical fault studies. In the case of unbalanced polyphase systems, dynamic phasors turn out to be generalization of the well known positive, negative and zero sequence components. Dynamic phasor models offer a number of advantages over conventional methods in several ares of fault analysis. From an analytical standpoint, they reveal and quantify dynamical couplings that are not necessarily apparent from the outset (e.g., couplings between speed ripple and currents or fluxes in various sequence components). Dynamic phasors are well suited for fast numerical simulations, as they tend to vary slowly even when changes of instantaneous quantities are quite abrupt. This allows larger step sizes in numerical experiments, and makes simulations potentially faster than conventional time-domain simulations which do not incorporate the frequency information. In our numerical experiments we study a benchmark power system example, and compare dynamic phasors with detailed time-domain EMTP-like simulations (provided by the package PSCAD) and with standard quasistationary models used in transient stability studies (provided by the package EUROSTAG). II. DYNAMIC PHASORS The generalized averaging that we perform to obtain our models is based on the property [2], [3] that a (possibly can be represented on complex) time-domain waveform using a Fourier series of the form the interval (1) and are the complex Fourier coeffiwhere cients, which we shall also refer to as phasors. These Fourier coefficients are functions of time since the interval under consideration slides as a function of time. We are interested in cases when only a few coefficients provide a good approximation of the original waveform, and those coefficients vary slowly with time. The th coefficient (or -phasor) at time is determined by the following averaging operation: (2) Our analysis provides a dynamic model for the dominant slides Fourier series coefficients as the window of length over the waveforms of interest. More specifically, we obtain a state-space model in which the coefficients in (2) are the state

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variables. Note that when the original waveforms are complex-valued (as in the case of space vectors used in modern equals references on electric machines), the phasor (where is the complex conjugate of ); when is real, . then A key fact for our development is that the derivative of the th Fourier coefficient is given by the following expression: (3) This formula is easily verified using (1) and (2), and integration by parts. The describing function formalism [4] can be used in evaluating the th harmonic of the right hand side of the . Another straightforward, but time-domain model very important result is that the phasor set of a product of two time-domain variables equals a (discrete time) convolution of corresponding phasor sets of each component. The definitions given in (1) and (2) can be adjusted for the analysis of polyphase systems. Let us consider the three phase ( - - ) case, as the general polyphase case follows similarly. ; Following the common notation, we introduce . Then a time-domain waveform can be written then as:

III. DYNAMIC PHASORS AND SPACE VECTORS In modern literature on electric machines and drives (e.g., [5]) it is common to introduce the notion of complex space vectors (note that the phase quantities are assumed to be real): (7) Note that from the mathematical standpoint these are complex scalars; as such, these quantities can encode two directional information, what is important in cylindrical structures like standard electric machines. One advantage of the space vector concept in electric drive applications is the ease of dealing with rotational coordinate transformations, as they amount to premultiplications with complex exponentials [5]. In the case when zero-sequence quantities are zero (which is, for example, the case for currents in -connected electric machines and converters with the isolated neutral point), there is a simple inverse transformation (8) where denotes the real part of a complex quantity. From (4) and (7) it follows that (9) , Since phase quantities are real-valued, we have and contains the information about positive and negative sequence quantities; zero-sequence variables have to be treated and no zero sequence separately. In the special case of component

(4) and we denote the square transformation matrix with . It can , where debe checked that the is unitary, as notes complex conjugate transpose (Hermitian). As commonly are encountered in transforms, scaling factors other than possible in the definition of matrix , but they require adjustments in the inverse transform. The coefficients in (4) are (5) , negative The equation (5) defines dynamical positive , and zero-sequence symmetric components at , as frequency

IV. MODEL OF A THREE PHASE SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR In our analysis, we assume the presence of the following harmonics (all express in the rotor frame): 1) zeroth (DC), which is the only one present in a balanced steady state, and remains a key component in transients; 2) 1st harmonic, which is due to the fault, and is present in balanced faults as well (corresponding to DC quantities in the stationary frame) 3) 2nd harmonic, which is due to the asymmetry, as these harmonics are consequences of negative sequence components (especially currents) present during asymmetric faults. A. Three Phase Model Voltage equations of a synchronous generator in 3-phase machine variables are taken from [6, p. 214]. The generator is modeled with one damper winding in the axis and two damper windings in the axis. Phasor dynamics model of a synchronous generator from these equation can be written as,

(6) Among the advantages of the proposed definitions are the compatibility with conventional symmetric components in a periodic steady-state, and a similarity to the single-phase case. Observe that (6) is a vector generalization of (3). In applications, we are interested in cases when a finite (and preferably small) number of dynamic phasors is used in (4).

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(10) where diag , , and , and

B. Sequence Component Model Space-vector dynamic model in the rotor coordinate frame may be derived from (7) after converting the stationary frame ): variables to the rotor frame (

, , and that the frequency content of the inductance matrices is (all other harmonics related to inductances are assumed to be zero) (11) where , diag ,

Note that

, and diag , respectively, is as shown in the equation at the bottom of the page, and, corresponds to stator quantities, the where the subscript superscript corresponds to quantities referred to the rotor coordinate frame. Let a three phase stator quantity be defined as:

Then from (7) in rotor frame

(12) where

(13)

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Then it can be shown that ; ; ; and . Due to conjugation, involves DC, 1st, and 2nd harmonics, then inwhen volves the DC, 1st, and 2nd harmonics. Note that since is a complex quantity, and . Since rotor quantities are real and considered in their own frame, , , DC, 1st, and 2nd harmonic are used for each , and . In principle, speed has the same harmonics as rotor quantities; in simulations, we will consider a simplification in which speed has only the DC component in electrical (voltage) equations. Then a phasor dynamic model of a synchronous generator can be derived from (11) as:

infinite bus voltages, , respectively, and and are transmission line induction and matrices, respectively. resistance B. Sequence Component Model Space-vector dynamic model of a 3-phase transmission line in the rotor coordinate frame may again be derived from (15) and (7) after converting the stationary frame variables to the rotor frame variables:

(16)

are space vectors of the terminal current , the terminal voltage , , respectively, and the infinite bus voltage and

where ,

, and

(14) . Note that dynamic phasors achieve siwhere multaneous demodulation in that all variables in (10), (14) are constant (DC) in a steady state. This can not be achieved by a single reference frame transformation in case of an asymmetrically supplied or constructed AC machine. The multiple reference frame analysis [7] is one alternative modeling approach applicable to the problem. Dynamic phasors allow for simple inclusion of higher frequency components in the mechanical subsystem and are very effective in revealing dynamical couplings between various quantities. For example, the coupling between speed and current harmonics in the first equation of (14) can become important in machines with small inertia constant . V. TRANSMISSION LINE MODEL We use constant impedance model for both transformers and loads. This representation allows the transformers and loads to be included as a part of the transmission line model. If necessary, motor loads can be modeled in a way that parallels modeling of the AC machines presented in [8]. A. Three Phase Model , , , and is either or . Phasor dynamic model of the transmission line can be derived from (16) as: where

VI. SIMULATION RESULTS FOR A SINGLE PHASE FAULT To illustrate the results obtained with (10), (14), (15) and (17), we use the numerical example of a synchronous generator connected to an infinite-bus from [9, Example 13.4]. We consider the case in which a one-phase fault on circuit 2 at point F (Fig. 1) cleared by isolating the faulted circuit simultaneously at both ends with a fault-clearing time of 79.3 milliseconds. Manual excitation, i.e., constant field voltage, is assumed. In our framework, a fault is simulated by appropriately and matrices in (17). For one-phase to changing the ground fault, the fault impedance is zero, and faulted phase (phase in this case) has the same potential as the ground. The fault is removed by restoring these matrices to an appropriate value depending on the post-fault system configuration. In electrical part of the phasor dynamic equations, it is assumed that . This asspeed of the generator, , has only DC value, , simplifies the equations (14) sumption,

(15) where , , and are phasors of 3-phase terminal currents, , terminal voltages, , and

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Fig. 1. Single machine infinite bus example: (a) single-line diagram; (b) 3-phase system representation.

Fig. 3. Transients in synchronous machine terminal currents: solid linePSCAD; dash-dotted linephasor dynamics (sequence component and three phase model).

Fig. 2. Transients in synchronous machine terminal voltages: solid linePSCAD; dash-dotted linephasor dynamics (sequence component and three phase model).

Fig. 4. Active power transients: solid linePSCAD; dash-dotted linephasor dynamics.

and (17). Standard time-domain simulations included for reference were performed by the PSCAD program, while simulations with quasistationary models (e.g., as used in transient stability studies) were performed with the package EUROSTAG. In Figs. 2 and 3 we show the phase currents and the line-toneutral voltages at the synchronous generator terminal, respectively, and note a very good overall agreement between the detailed time-domain and dynamic phasor simulations. In Fig. 4, we show the active power of the synchronous generator, while in Fig. 5 the show the field current of the synchronous generator. Note that in both cases the dynamic phasor model gives results that are very similar to those obtained from detailed timedomain simulations. It is well known to power system analysts that the transients associated with the transmission system typically decay very rapidly. However, transmission line transients cannot justifiably be neglected unless generator stator transients are neglected as well. It is common [9] to neglect transformer voltage terms, time rate of stator flux linkages in stator voltage

Fig. 5. Transients in field current: solid linePSCAD; dash-dotted linephasor dynamics.

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Fig. 6. Rotor angle transient: solid linePSCAD; dash-dotted linephasor dynamics; dashed lineEUROSTAG.

Fig. 7. Details of the initial rotor angle transient: solid line (a)PSCAD; dash-dotted line (b)phasor dynamics; solid line (c)phasor dynamics (stator transients neglected); dashed line (d)EUROSTAG.

point-wise differences in time depend on details of fault representation that are not accessible to users of standard programs (see for example the fault duration in trace in Fig. 7). Note that both the detailed time-domain model and the phasor dynamic model with network transients take into account the non-DC component of the speed variation (which is not observed when network transients are disregarded). When compared with the corresponding standard time-domain equations, it is clear that phasor dynamic models result in an increase of the number of equations that is proportional to the number of retained harmonics (cf. (14) with the corresponding model in [6, p. 214]). Phasor models, however, have a number of useful features. First, these models are time-invariant; second, inputs and consequently states vary slowly compared to the driving frequencies. Thus phasor models offer a potential for significantly faster simulations of transients in a power system. It is difficult in general to fairly compare speed of simulations of different software tools. To quantify this issue, we implemented both the time domain equations and our phasor model in Matlab, without making any special efforts to speed-up either simulation, and we observed that phasor model is typically 23 times faster. This of course holds only for our particular example, and the issue of how the two approaches scale in other power system examples needs further study. To make the comparisons meaningful, it is worth emphasizing that the industrial software packages that we used here primarily address different issuesdetails of time domain transients in the case of PSCAD, long-term dynamics and transient stability in the case of EUROSTAGand thus have to trade-off accuracy of simulations versus size of the system. Our point is that models built with dynamic phasors cover the possibly useful middle ground, in that they can offer to the power system analyst additional flexibility and explicit control over accuracy/size characteristics of the simulations in various parts of the system. Dynamic phasor models (10) and (14) can also be used for derivation of electrical models (equivalent circuits) that characterize the state variables in a steady state. The initial step is to set all time derivatives to zero in all dynamic phasor models, such as (14) and (17); preliminary results along these lines were reported in [10]. VII. CONCLUSIONS This paper presents a novel modeling framework for analysis and simulation of unbalanced faults in power systems. Our procedure incorporates the frequency information in dynamical models, and produces approximate nonlinear models that are well suited for analysis and simulation. We illustrate the effectiveness of our method on a benchmark single phase fault test case from the literature, and note a very good agreement. The procedure is directly applicable to other unbalanced operating conditions of interest to the power system analyst, such as various short circuits, open circuits and simultaneous faults. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors would like to thank Prof. B. C. Lesieutre of MIT LEES for making EUROSTAG available to them.

equation [ in equation (11)]. Transmission line tranin equation (16). sients can be neglected by setting Elimination of these terms, removes the 1st harmonic in rotor frame which corresponds to the DC current (or flux) offset in the being stationary frame. The assumption of per unit value of equal to 1 in the stator voltage equations is made to counterbalance the effect of neglecting stator flux linkage transients [9]. Network and stator transients are routinely disregarded in software tools intended for transient stability studies [9], and we use the package EU-ROSTAG as a representative of this class. Our next task is to compare the detailed time domain models (as implemented, e.g., in PSCAD), the phasor dynamic models with and without network transients, and quasistationary models used transient stability studies. We consider the rotor angle of the generatorin Fig. 6 we show the overall transient following the fault, while in Fig. 7 we zoom on the beginning portion of the transient. While all transients are generally quite similar, the

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REFERENCES
[1] S. M. Halpin, C. A. Gross, and L. L. Grigsby, An improved method of including detailed synchronous machine representations in large power system models for fault analysis, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 719725, 1993. [2] S. R. Sanders, J. M. Noworolski, X. Z. Liu, and G. C. Verghese, Generalized averaging method for power conversion circuits, IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 251259, April 1991. [3] S. R. Sanders, On limit cycles and the describing function method in periodically switched circuits, IEEE Transactions on Circuits and SystemsFundamental Theory and Applications, vol. 40, no. 9, pp. 564572, September 1993. [4] A. Gelb and W. E. van der Velde, Multiple Input Describing Functions and Nonlinear Systems Design: McGraw-Hill, 1968. [5] D. W. Novotny and T. A. Lipo, Vector Control and Dynamics of AC Drives: Oxford University Press, 1996. [6] P. C. Krause, O. Wasynczuk, and S. D. Sudhoff, Analysis of Electric Machinery: IEEE Press, 1995. [7] S. D. Sudhoff, Multiple reference frame analysis of an unsymmetrical induction machines, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 425432, 1993. [8] A. M. Stankovic, S. R. Sanders, and T. Aydin, Analysis of unbalanced AC machines with dynamic phasors, in Naval Symposium on Electric Machines, 1998, pp. 219224.

[9] P. Kundur, Power System Stability and Control: McGraw-Hill, 1994. [10] A. M. Stankovic, B. C. Lesieutre, and T. Aydin, Applications of generalized averaging to synchronous and induction machines, in 28th North American Power Symposium, 1996, pp. 277282.

Aleksandar M. Stankovic obtained the Dipl.Ing. degree from the University of Belgrade, Yugoslavia in 1982, the M.S. degree from the same institution in 1986, and the Ph.D. degree from Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1993, all in electrical engineering. He has been with the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at Northeastern University, Boston since 1993, presently as an Associate Professor. He is also a Research Affiliate with the MIT Laboratory for Electromagnetic and Electronic Systems (LEES). Dr. Stankovic is a member of IEEE Power Engineering, Power Electronics, Control Systems, Industry Applications and Industrial Electronics Societies. He serves as an Associate Editor for the IEEE TRANSACTIONS FOR CONTROL SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY.

Timur Aydin received the B.S. degree (1990) and the M.S. degree (1993) from Gazi University, Turkey, and the Ph.D. degree from Northeastern University in 1999, all in electrical engineering. He is presently developing simulation and analysis tools as a Senior Engineer with Mechatronics, Inc. His research interests include modeling and simulation of electrical machines and power systems.