Chapter 11: Metal Alloys Applications and Processing

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
How are metal alloys classified and how are they used? What are some of the common fabrication techniques? How do properties vary throughout a piece of material that has been quenched, for example? How can properties be modified by post heat treatment?

Chapter 11 - 1

Taxonomy of Metals
Metal Alloys Ferrous Steels Steels <1.4wt%C <1.4 wt% C Cast Irons CastIrons 3-4.5 wt%C C 3-4.5 wt% Nonferrous
Adapted from Fig. 11.1, Callister 7e.

Cu

Al

Mg

Ti

T(C)
1600

1400 1200

L austenite
+
0.76 1

microstructure: ferrite, graphite cementite

L+Fe3C
Adapted from Fig. 9.24,Callister 7e. (Fig. 9.24 adapted from Binary Alloy Phase Diagrams, 2nd ed., Vol. 1, T.B. Massalski (Ed.-in-Chief), ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1990.)

+L
1148C 4.30

1000

Eutectic:

800 ferrite
600 400

727C

+Fe3C +Fe3C
3 4 5 6 6.7

Eutectoid:
2

Fe3C cementite

0 (Fe)

Co , wt% C

Chapter 11 - 2

Steels
Low Alloy low carbon Med carbon <0.25 wt% C 0.25-0.6 wt%C
Name plain HSLA plain

High Alloy high carbon 0.6-1.4 wt% C

tool Cr, V, Mo, W 4190 +++ ++ -drills saws dies

heat plain treatable Cr,V Cr, Ni Additions none none none Ni, Mo Mo Example 1010 4310 1040 4340 1095 Hardenability 0 + + ++ ++ TS 0 + ++ + EL + + 0 Uses auto struc. sheet bridges towers press. vessels crank shafts bolts hammers blades pistons gears wear applic. wear applic.

austenitic stainless Cr, Ni, Mo 304 0 0 ++

high T applic. turbines furnaces V. corros. resistant
Chapter 11 - 3

increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility

Based on data provided in Tables 11.1(b), 11.2(b), 11.3, and 11.4, Callister 7e.

Refinement of Steel from Ore

Coke Iron Ore Limestone BLAST FURNACE heat generation C+O2 CO2 reduction of iron ore to metal CO2 + C 2CO 3CO + Fe2O3 2Fe+3CO2 purification CaCO3 CaO+CO2 CaO + SiO2 + Al2O3 slag

gas refractory vessel layers of coke and iron ore air slag Molten iron

Chapter 11 - 4

Ferrous Alloys
Iron containing Steels - cast irons
Nomenclature AISI & SAE 10xx Plain Carbon Steels 11xx Plain Carbon Steels (resulfurized for machinability) 15xx Mn (10 ~ 20%) 40xx Mo (0.20 ~ 0.30%) 43xx Ni (1.65 - 2.00%), Cr (0.4 - 0.90%), Mo (0.2 - 0.3%) 44xx Mo (0.5%) where xx is wt% C x 100 example: 1060 steel plain carbon steel with 0.60 wt% C Stainless Steel -- >11% Cr
Chapter 11 - 5

Cast Iron
Ferrous alloys with > 2.1 wt% C more commonly 3 - 4.5 wt%C low melting (also brittle) so easiest to cast Cementite decomposes to ferrite + graphite Fe3C 3 Fe () + C (graphite) generally a slow process

Chapter 11 - 6

Fe-C True Equilibrium Diagram

T(C)
1600

Graphite formation promoted by Si > 1 wt% slow cooling +

1400 1200 1000

L Austenite +L
1153C 4.2 wt% C

Liquid + Graphite

+ Graphite
800 600
0.65

740C

Adapted from Fig. 11.2,Callister 7e. (Fig. 11.2 adapted from Binary Alloy Phase Diagrams, 2nd ed., Vol. 1, T.B. Massalski (Ed.in-Chief), ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1990.)

+ Graphite
0 1 2 3 4 90 100

400
(Fe)

Co , wt% C

Chapter 11 - 7

Types of Cast Iron

Gray iron graphite flakes weak & brittle under tension stronger under compression excellent vibrational dampening wear resistant Ductile iron add Mg or Ce graphite in nodules not flakes matrix often pearlite - better ductility
Chapter 11 - 8

Adapted from Fig. 11.3(a) & (b), Callister 7e.

Types of Cast Iron

White iron <1wt% Si so harder but brittle more cementite

Adapted from Fig. 11.3(c) & (d), Callister 7e.

Malleable iron heat treat at 800-900C graphite in rosettes more ductile

Chapter 11 - 9

Production of Cast Iron

Adapted from Fig.11.5, Callister 7e.

Chapter 11 - 10

Limitations of Ferrous Alloys

1) Relatively high density 2) Relatively low conductivity 3) Poor corrosion resistance

Chapter 11 - 11

Nonferrous Alloys
-lower : 2.7g/cm3 Brass: Zn is subst. impurity (costume jewelry, coins, -Cu, Mg, Si, Mn, Zn additions corrosion resistant) -solid sol. or precip. Bronze : Sn, Al, Si, Ni are strengthened (struct. subst. impurity aircraft parts (bushings, landing & packaging) gear) NonFerrous Mg Alloys Cu-Be: -very low : 1.7g/cm3 Alloys precip. hardened -ignites easily for strength -aircraft, missiles

Cu Alloys

Al Alloys

Ti Alloys

Refractory metals -lower : 4.5g/cm3 -high melting T vs 7.9 for steel Noble metals -Nb, Mo, W, Ta -reactive at high T -Ag, Au, Pt -oxid./corr. resistant -space applic.
Based on discussion and data provided in Section 11.3, Callister 7e. Chapter 11 - 12

Metal Fabrication
How do we fabricate metals? Blacksmith - hammer (forged) Molding - cast Forming Operations Rough stock formed to final shape Hot working
T high enough for recrystallization Larger deformations

vs.

Cold working
well below Tm work hardening smaller deformations

Chapter 11 - 13

Metal Fabrication Methods - I

FORMING CASTING JOINING
(I-beams, rails, sheet & plate)
roll A d often at elev. T force Ao roll Ad

Forging (Hammering; Stamping) Rolling (Hot or Cold Rolling)

(wrenches, crankshafts)
force die A o blank

Drawing
die Ao die

Extrusion
(rods, tubing)
Ao tensile force force
container

Adapted from Fig. 11.8, Callister 7e.

(rods, wire, tubing)

Ad

die holder
extrusion

ram

billet

Ad

die must be well lubricated & clean

die ductile metals, e.g. Cu, Al (hot) Chapter 11 container

14

Metal Fabrication Methods - II

FORMING CASTING JOINING

Casting- mold is filled with metal metal melted in furnace, perhaps alloying elements added. Then cast in a mold most common, cheapest method gives good production of shapes weaker products, internal defects good option for brittle materials

Chapter 11 - 15

Metal Fabrication Methods - II

FORMING
Sand Casting
(large parts, e.g., auto engine blocks)
Sand Sand

CASTING

JOINING

trying to hold something that is hot what will withstand >1600C? cheap - easy to mold => sand!!! pack sand around form (pattern) of desired shape

molten metal

Chapter 11 - 16

Metal Fabrication Methods - II

FORMING
Sand Casting
(large parts, e.g., auto engine blocks)
Sand Sand

CASTING

JOINING

Investment Casting pattern is made from paraffin. mold made by encasing in plaster of paris melt the wax & the hollow mold is left pour in metal

molten metal

Investment Casting
(low volume, complex shapes e.g., jewelry, turbine blades)
plaster die formed around wax prototype

wax
Chapter 11 - 17

Metal Fabrication Methods - II

FORMING
Sand Casting
(large parts, e.g., auto engine blocks)
Sand Sand

CASTING

JOINING
Die Casting
(high volume, low T alloys)

molten metal

Continuous Casting
(simple slab shapes)
molten solidified

Investment Casting
(low volume, complex shapes e.g., jewelry, turbine blades)
plaster die formed around wax prototype

wax
Chapter 11 - 18

Metal Fabrication Methods - III

FORMING
Powder Metallurgy
(materials w/low ductility)
pressure

CASTING
Welding

JOINING

(when one large part is impractical)

filler metal (melted) base metal (melted) fused base metal unaffected piece 1 heat affected zone unaffected Adapted from Fig. piece 2 11.9, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 11.9 from Iron Castings Handbook, C.F. Walton and T.J. Opar (Ed.), 1981.)

heat

area contact
densify point contact at low T densification by diffusion at higher T

Heat affected zone:

(region in which the microstructure has been changed).

Chapter 11 - 19

Thermal Processing of Metals

Annealing: Heat to Tanneal, then cool slowly.
Stress Relief: Reduce
stress caused by: -plastic deformation -nonuniform cooling -phase transform.

Spheroidize (steels):
Make very soft steels for good machining. Heat just below TE & hold for 15-25 h.

Types of Annealing
Process Anneal:
Negate effect of cold working by (recovery/ recrystallization)

Full Anneal (steels):

Make soft steels for good forming by heating to get , then cool in furnace to get coarse P.

Normalize (steels):
Deform steel with large grains, then normalize to make grains small.
Chapter 11 - 20

Based on discussion in Section 11.7, Callister 7e.

10

Heat Treatments
800
Austenite (stable)

a) Annealing b) Quenching c) Tempered Martensite

T(C)
600

A P

TE

400
Adapted from Fig. 10.22, Callister 7e.

A
0%

B
50 %
10 0%

200

M+A M+A

0% 50% 90%

b)
10
-1

a)
10

time (s)

10

10

c)

Chapter 11 - 21

Hardenability--Steels
Ability to form martensite Jominy end quench test to measure hardenability.
flat ground
Adapted from Fig. 11.11, Callister 7e. (Fig. 11.11 adapted from A.G. Guy, Essentials of Materials Science, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1978.)

specimen (heated to phase field) 24C water

Rockwell C hardness tests

Hardness versus distance from the quenched end.

Hardness, HRC

Adapted from Fig. 11.12, Callister 7e.

Distance from quenched end

Chapter 11 - 22

11

Why Hardness Changes W/Position

The cooling rate varies with position.
Hardness, HRC 60 40 20 distance from quenched end (in)

T(C)
600
A P

0% 100%
Adapted from Fig. 11.13, Callister 7e. (Fig. 11.13 adapted from H. Boyer (Ed.) Atlas of Isothermal Transformation and Cooling Transformation Diagrams, American Society for Metals, 1977, p. 376.)

400 200 M(start) AM

te a rli Pe lit e e a + ar P ite Pe Fine ens t ar ite M ens t ar

0 M(finish)

0.1

10

100

1000

Time (s)

Hardenability vs Alloy Composition

Hardness, HRC

rli te
Chapter 11 - 23

Jominy end quench results, C = 0.4 wt% C

100 60

10

2 Cooling rate (C/s)

100

4340

80 %M 50

40
10 40

4140 8640 5140

Adapted from Fig. 11.14, Callister 7e. (Fig. 11.14 adapted from figure furnished courtesy Republic Steel Corporation.)

20

0 10 20 30 40 50 Distance from quenched end (mm)

"Alloy Steels"
(4140, 4340, 5140, 8640) --contain Ni, Cr, Mo (0.2 to 2wt%) --these elements shift the "nose". --martensite is easier to form.

800

T(C)
600 400 200 0 -1 10 10 A B

TE shift from A to B due to alloying M(start) M(90%)

103 105 Time (s)

Chapter 11 - 24

12

Quenching Medium & Geometry

Effect of quenching medium:
Medium air oil water Severity of Quench low moderate high Hardness low moderate high

Effect of geometry:
When surface-to-volume ratio increases: --cooling rate increases --hardness increases
Position center surface Cooling rate low high Hardness low high

Chapter 11 - 25

Precipitation Hardening
Particles impede dislocations. 700 Ex: Al-Cu system T(C) Procedure: 600
--Pt A: solution heat treat (get solid solution) --Pt B: quench to room temp. --Pt C: reheat to nucleate small crystals within crystals.
500 400 300

A C

+L

L +L

CuAl2

+
20 30 40 50

0 10 (Al) B

Other precipitation systems:

Cu-Be Cu-Sn Mg-Al
Adapted from Fig. 11.22, Callister 7e.

composition range needed for precipitation hardening

wt% Cu

Adapted from Fig. 11.24, Callister 7e. (Fig. 11.24 adapted from

J.L. Murray, International Metals Review 30, p.5, 1985.) Temp. Pt A (soln heat treat)

Pt C (precipitate ) Time
Chapter 11 - 26

Pt B

13

Precipitate Effect on TS, %EL

2014 Al Alloy: TS peaks with precipitation time. Increasing T accelerates process.
no so n-eq lid uil so . lut io n ma pre ny s ci p m a ita ll ag tes ed

%EL reaches minimum with precipitation time.

fe pre wer ov cip larg era itat e ge es d

tensile strength (MPa)

400 300 200 100

%EL (2 in sample)

30 20 10 0 149C

149C 204C 1min 1h 1day 1mo 1yr precipitation heat treat time

204C

1min 1h 1day 1mo 1yr precipitation heat treat time

Chapter 11 - 27

Adapted from Fig. 11.27 (a) and (b), Callister 7e. (Fig. 11.27 adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker (Managing Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1979. p. 41.)

Metal Alloy Crystal Stucture

Alloys substitutional alloys can be ordered or disordered disordered solid solution ordered - periodic substitution example: CuAu FCC
Cu Au

Chapter 11 - 28

14

Metal Alloy Crystal Stucture

Interstitial alloys (compounds) one metal much larger than the other smaller metal goes in ordered way into interstitial holes in the structure of larger metal Ex: Cementite Fe3C

Chapter 11 - 29

Metal Alloy Crystal Stucture

Consider FCC structure --- what types of holes are there?
Octahedron - octahedral site = OH Tetrahedron - tetrahedral site = TD

Chapter 11 - 30

15

Metal Alloy Crystal Stucture

Interstitials such as H, N, B, C FCC has 4 atoms per unit cell 4 OH sites 8 TD sites
1 2 1 2 1 2
1 4, 3 4 1 3 4, 4

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

4,

4,

metal atoms

OH sites

TD sites
Chapter 11 - 31

Summary
Steels: increase TS, Hardness (and cost) by adding --C (low alloy steels) --Cr, V, Ni, Mo, W (high alloy steels) --ductility usually decreases w/additions. Non-ferrous: --Cu, Al, Ti, Mg, Refractory, and noble metals. Fabrication techniques: --forming, casting, joining. Hardenability --increases with alloy content. Precipitation hardening --effective means to increase strength in Al, Cu, and Mg alloys.
Chapter 11 - 32

16

ANNOUNCEMENTS
Reading:

Core Problems:

Self-help Problems:

Chapter 11 - 33

17