445

Time-domain modelling of turbo-compressors in direct

injection diesel engines
A J Torregrosa*, A Broatch, H Climent, and T Fernández
CMT-Motores Térmicos, Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Valencia, Spain

The manuscript was received on 19 October 2004 and was accepted after revision for publication on 23 December 2005.

DOI: 10.1243/09544070D19704

Abstract: In this paper, the development and validation of a new turbo-compressor model
for one-dimensional flow modelling in intake systems of turbocharged internal-combustion
engines are presented. The proposed model is based, as usual, on data contained in the turbo-
compressor operating chart. However, whereas in the usual models the turbo-compressor is
simply considered as a quasi-steady boundary condition to a pipe, here it is regarded as
consisting of two cavities, simulating the rotor and the stator, with the compressor chart
imposed as a boundary condition between them. This simple solution gives the possibility of
computing the flow upstream of the turbo-compressor, which is not straightforward with the
usual models.
The proposed model has been validated against experimental tests performed on an engine
test bench. Two different turbo-compressors were considered, for automotive and truck
application respectively. Instead of the direct comparison between calculated and measured
instantaneous pressures shown in most of the literature on one-dimensional flow modelling,
here the validation methodology is based on the consideration of pressure components
(forward and backward waves), as usual in the acoustic literature. These components may be
obtained from multiple sensor measurements and their use for model validation is equivalent
to the consideration of flow velocity additionally to pressure.

Keywords: turbo-compressor, turbocharging, one-dimensional modelling

1 INTRODUCTION description of the flow in the pipes, where the flow

Models commonly used to reproduce the flow
behaviour in the engine intake and exhaust systems
are based on the solution of the non-linear flow
equations in the time domain. Those models are
based on the hypothesis of one-dimensional flow,
and their use for engine performance prediction has
become common practice [1].
In those models, the partial differential equations
describing the flow along the pipes are solved, taking
into account phenomena affecting flow evolution
such as friction, heat transfer, changes in cross-
section, and interaction between pressure waves. It
may be stated that such models provide an accurate
* Corresponding author: CMT-Motores Térmicos, Universidad
Politécnica, Camino de Vera s/n, 46022 Valencia, Spain. email:
atorreg@mot.upv.es
may be regarded as one dimensional. However, also
complex elements are present where the hypothesis
of one-dimensional flow does not hold, or even
intricate flow patterns may take place that must be
dealt with. In the case of turbo-charged engines, it
is clear that both the turbo-compressor and the
turbine [2] will require such a treatment.
It is thus necessary to introduce specific submodels
for the calculation of the flow behaviour in and
through these elements. In some cases, the submodel
is a boundary condition imposed by the value of a
certain variable. The turbo-compressor submodel is
one such case. The turbo-compressor chart is the
actual boundary condition. Then, to establish the
turbo-compressor instantaneous operating point,
the following assumptions are usually made.
1. The flow is quasi-steady. This is a standard
modelling hypothesis, assumed in most of the

D19704 © IMechE 2006 Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering
446 A J Torregrosa, A Broatch, H Climent, and T Fernández
boundary conditions used in one-dimensional flow
calculations. Its applicability depends essentially
on the size of the element; if this size is small
enough in comparison with the wavelength of
the unsteady excitation, the hypothesis of quasi-
steadiness is acceptable.
2. The inlet stagnation pressure is constant for each
engine speed and load, i.e. stagnation pressure
variations at the turbo-compressor inlet are
assumed to be negligible.
Usual models (see, for instance, reference [3])
are mostly based on the seminal work performed
by Benson [4]; in this work the key feature is the
translation of the information contained in the
turbo-compressor chart (compression ratio and
efficiency) into curves relating the Riemann variables
l and l at the compressor outlet, on the assumption
o i
that pressure is constant at the compressor inlet.
Therefore, such a model does not allow for calcu-
lations upstream of the turbo-compressor; while this
may not be an essential drawback from the viewpoint
of engine performance prediction, it is clear that no
attempt to predict intake noise is possible.
With the purpose of overcoming this limitation,
an extended turbo-compressor model is proposed
in this article. As usual, the model is based on the
turbo-compressor map as a boundary condition.
However, the new model allows calculations upstream
of the turbo-compressor and takes account of
cumulative mass effects by considering a simplistic
representation of the compressor geometry that
should provide a sufficient description at least in
the low-frequency range. First, in section 2, the details
of the proposed model are given; then, in section 3,
the experiments performed and the validation
methodology will be discussed. In section 4, results
of the model are discussed and validated by com-
parison with the measurements. Model validation
was performed by comparison between measured
and computed wave components, as usual in the
acoustic analysis of intake wave dynamics [5]. Finally,
in section 5, conclusions of the work are drawn.
2 DESCRIPTION OF THE TURBO-COMPRESSOR
MODEL
From an energy point of view, the turbo-compressor
is an essentially active device as it supplies energy
to the flow and this contribution must be taken into
account in any case. However, from an acoustic point
of view, it is possible to distinguish two different ways
Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering
in which energy is supplied to the flow, with different
effects on the unsteady flow field in the intake
system. On the one hand, as the turbo-compressor
is subject to the action of the low-frequency pressure
perturbations generated by engine operation, its
operation determines how these perturbations are
transmitted and reflected, thus providing boundary
conditions for the flow at the pipes upstream and
downstream of the device. On the other hand,
internal flow instabilities occurring inside the com-
pressor give rise to a characteristic noise at very high
frequencies associated with blade passing [6]. In the
first case, the behaviour of the compressor may
be regarded as acoustically passive whereas, in the
second case, in which some of the energy supplied
by the compressor is transferred to an acoustic field,
the compressor behaves as a secondary noise source
and thus as an acoustically active device. In this
paper, the only noise source considered is the engine
itself, and thus only the acoustically passive behaviour
defined above will be considered.
As commented in the introduction, the model pro-
posed makes use of the turbo-compressor operating
chart to obtain the relevant information about the
operating point, taking into account the engine
operating conditions. A scheme of the model is
shown in Fig. 1. The main characteristics of the
model are as follows.
1. The turbo-compressor chart is imposed as a
boundary condition between two cavities; one of
these simulates the rotor, and the other simulates
the stator. The volume of each cavity is set to
half the total volume of the turbo-compressor,
and the dimensions are taken so as to reproduce
the volume of the real device.
2. The input data required are the rotation speed
of the turbo-group and the compression ratio.
The rotation speed is assumed to be constant
during the calculation step. Output results are
the efficiency and the mass flow through the
turbo-compressor.
Whereas in the usual models the mass flow is
calculated from the pipe conditions, and the rest
of the working parameters of the compressor are
calculated from this mass flow, the key issue in the
proposed model is the use, at a given time step,
of the compression rate obtained from the con-
ditions existing inside the two cavities in the previous
calculation step. In this way, connection of the turbo-
compressor model with a global engine model is
achieved by, firstly, coupling the power consumed
by the turbo-compressor with that provided by the
D19704 © IMechE 2006
 Time-domain modelling of turbo-compressors in DI diesel engines 447

Fig. 1 Conceptual scheme of the proposed turbo-compressor model

turbine, so that a suitable model for the turbine is may be written as certain functions of corrected
required (see reference [2] for details of the turbine variables, as
model used) and, secondly, solving the flow at the
ṁ(t) √T(t)
A B
boundaries between the upstream pipe and the inlet n(t) p(t)
c 10 =Y , 20 (1)
cavity, and between the outlet cavity and the down- p(t) 1 √T(t) p(i)
10 10 10
stream pipe, for which the boundary condition pro-
n(t) ṁ(t) √T(t)
A B
posed by Benson [4] for the junction of a pipe to a
g(t) =Y , c 10 (2)
cavity was used. c 2 √T(t) p(t)
Then, the only remaining issue to be addressed is 10 10
the calculation of the instantaneous flow evolution Here, n is the rotating speed of the compressor.
at the boundary between the two cavities, which may Equations (1) and (2) are, in fact, the formal represent-
be summarized as follows. The initial conditions are ation of the operating chart. Now, the compression
the stagnation pressure p(t) and the stagnation tem- ratio is calculated from the pressure inside the
0
perature T (t) in both cavities, the flow variables at cavities (known from the previous step) and, for a
0
the inlet of the first cavity, T (t) , u(t) , and ṁ(t) , and the given rotating speed n (obtained from the power
i1 i1 1
mass flow at the outlet of the second cavity, ṁ(t) , balance between turbine and compressor) and inlet
2
computed in the previous time step by solving the stagnation temperature T , the mass flow through
10
boundary condition between the cavities and the the compressor is obtained from the chart, according
adjacent pipes (at the start of the calculation, they to equation (1). Then, from equation (2) the value of
are set to reasonable values). the efficiency is readily obtained.
Under reasonable assumptions on the fluid Now, from the efficiency and the isentropic outlet
properties and the flow conditions [7] the mass conditions, the stagnation temperature at the com-
flow ṁ through the compressor and the efficiency, g pressor outlet and thus the turbo-compressor work
c

D19704 © IMechE 2006 Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering
448 A J Torregrosa, A Broatch, H Climent, and T Fernández

Fig. 2 Intake system layout used in the experiments: truck engine

can be calculated. From the definition of efficiency, The energy balance for the first cavity is
and making use of the isentropic relation between

C D
pressure and temperature, the power required by the (u(t) )2
D(m e )= h(t) + i1 ṁ(t) Dt−h(t) ṁ(t) Dt (6)
turbo-compressor can be obtained [3] from v1 v1 i1 2 i1 v1 c

CA B D
1 p(t) (c−1)/c and for the second cavity the corresponding
Ẇ (t) =ṁ(t) c T(t) 20 −1 (3)
c c p 10 g(t) p(t) expression is
c 10
Finally, the new thermodynamic conditions D(m e )=(h(t) ṁ(t) +Ẇ (t) ) Dt−h(t) ṁ(t) Dt (7)
inside the cavities can be calculated. To do this, two v2 v2 v1 c c v2 o2
equations are applied to both cavities: mass con- Combination of equations (4) and (6), taking into
servation and energy balance. Considering a calcu- account that h=e+pv and the perfect gas relations
lation time interval Dt, mass conservation for the first De=c DT and Dh=c DT , gives
v p
cavity is expressed as
Dm 1 DT
Dm =(ṁ(t) −ṁ(t) ) Dt (4) − v1 + 10
v1 i1 c m(t) c−1 T(t)
v1 10
whereas, for the second cavity,
C D
1 (u(t) )2
= c (T(t) −T(t) )+ i1 ṁ(t) Dt (8)
Dm =(ṁ(t) −ṁ(t) ) Dt (5) p(t) V p i1 10 2 i1
v2 c o2 10 v1

Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering D19704 © IMechE 2006
 Time-domain modelling of turbo-compressors in DI diesel engines 449

which, for Dt sufficiently small, may be integrated to As indicated in the introduction, the key issue in
yield this validation of measurements is the determination
of wave components, so that two flow variables may

C A B D
m(t) T(t+Dt) 1/(c−1)
ln v1 10 be used to assess the model. Usually, forward and
m(t+Dt) T (t) backward pressure waves propagating in a pipe are
v1 10
evaluated by means of the two-microphone method,
C D
1 (u(t) )2
= c (T(t) −T(t) )+ i1 ṁ(t) Dt (9) in which the composition is based on sound pressure
p(t) V p i1 10 2 i1
10 v1 measurements taken by two microphones mounted
Since m(t+Dt) =m(t) +Dm , with Dm given by flush to the inner wall of the pipe and separated a
v1 v1 v1 v1
equation (4), equation (9) provides the updated fixed distance (see, for instance, reference [8]). This
value T (t+Dt) for the temperature at the first cavity. methodology presents several problems, one of
10
From this and m(t+Dt) the corresponding updated which is the effect of local flow fluctuations on the
v1
pressure p(t+Dt) is readily computed. pressure measurements, as the method does not
10
An analogous procedure, now starting from account for the existence of interference signals [9].
equations (5) and (7), provides the expression These limitations may be overcome if wave com-
corresponding to equation (9) for the second cavity ponents are evaluated using the beam-forming
as technique, which is a spatial processing technique
for estimating the signal waveform arriving from a

C A B D
m(t) T(t+Dt) 1/(c−1)
ln v2 20 given direction at an array of sensors. Beam formers
m(t+Dt) T(t) can thus be considered as spatial filters that combine
v2 20
1 the outputs of the array sensors to form a narrow
= [c (T(t) −T(t) )ṁ(t) +Ẇ (t) ] Dt (10) receiver pointing towards the direction of the desired
p(t) V p 10 20 c c
20 v2 source [10]. As more than two sensors may be used,
so that updated values for the variables in the second additional degrees of freedom are available which
cavity are also available. At this point, the updated allow minimization of undesired effects, such as
conditions in both cavities may be used to set the the noise related with local flow fluctuations. The
boundary conditions to the adjacent pipes, thus application of beam forming to in-duct pressure
allowing the calculation to proceed. wave decomposition was described in detail in
reference [11]. A brief summary of the data pro-
cessing is given in Appendix 2; now, only the most
3 EXPERIMENTAL WORK relevant issues related with the measurements,
namely the measurement settings, the position of the
To validate the model, the calculated results were measurement section, and the calibration of the
compared with measurements taken at different acquisition system, are addressed in the following
engine configurations. Those corresponding to usual paragraphs. The resulting layout is shown in Fig. 2.
automotive engines are presented here: a four-
cylinder in-line diesel engine with single entry 3.1 Measurement settings
turbine and waste-gate, and a six-cylinder in-line
Several factors can influence the measurement
diesel engine with exhaust manifold discharging
results. These aspects have been classified into two
into a twin-entry turbine. The intake manifolds of
categories: those related to the measurement process
both engines have a comb shape. In Table 1 the
itself, and those related to signal processing.
most important characteristics of both engines are
In the first category, the pressure transducer used
included.
is a relevant factor, since very low pressure differences
Table 1 Basic engine characteristics must be measured. In this work, Kistler piezoelectric
transducers were used, as their sensitivity is high
Engine parameter Automotive Truck enough to detect pressure fluctuations lower than
Number of cylinders 4 6 200 Pa, over a wide temperature range. On the
Bore (mm) 80 123 other hand, the spacing between the transducers is
Stroke (mm) 93 156
Firing order 1–3–4–2 1–5–3–6–4–2
important in three main senses.
Maximum torque speed (r/min) 2000 1200
Nominal speed (r/min) 4000 2000
1. If measurements are performed at two points
Turbo-group Garret GT1544 Holset HX50 very close to each other, the pressure difference
Inlet diameter; 42; 42 69; 60.5 expected may be smaller than the measurement
outlet diameter (mm)
precision.

D19704 © IMechE 2006 Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering
450 A J Torregrosa, A Broatch, H Climent, and T Fernández
2. The assumption of linear propagation between
transducers (see Appendix 2) imposes an upper
limit on the spacing.
3. The spacing determines the frequency range
where decomposition is reliable, imposing both a
lower limit and an upper limit [12]. The lower limit
is related to phase mismatch at low frequencies,
which is critical for small spacings. The upper
limit comes from spatial aliasing which occurs
when the wavelength is an integer multiple of the
spacing.
In the experimental conditions considered, with
precision required in the low-frequency range, a suit-
able compromise between the above requirements is
achieved by setting the spacing to 0.05 m.
Regarding signal processing, one fact to consider is
the variability of engine speed. In order to minimize
as much as possible its eventual influence, sets
of consecutive cycles were processed. The higher
frequency resolution so obtained permits the removal
from the pressure records of the very-low-frequency
components associated with speed variability, thus
allowing for a proper analysis of the results.
3.2 Position of the measurement section
Two main aspects must be considered when choosing
the measurement section. Firstly, the position of the
transducers must be chosen so that the flow is
essentially one dimensional and without any com-
plex features originated by system singularities (duct
bends, the intercooler, and the filter). This has
been achieved by replacing the production intake
by a straight duct. Secondly, the position of any of
the transducers should not coincide with, or lie
close to, any of the pressure nodes associated with
the standing-wave pattern established. Thus, the
measuring section was positioned close to the
midpoint of the duct, avoiding the pressure node
corresponding to one-third of the total length and
far enough from that associated with one-fifth of the
total length [13].
3.3 Calibration of the acquisition system
A careful calibration is essential for the correct appli-
cation of the decomposition procedure. It must be
ensured that the differences of the signal between
transducers are due to differences in the pressure
fluctuation, and not to discrepancies between the
transducers [14]. Since the transducers are sensitive
to changes in pressure and temperature, it is
recommended that calibration should be carried out
in conditions as similar as possible to those to be
found in the measurements.
Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering
For a proper calibration, the transducers must be
located at the same duct section and separated at
equally spaced angles, and they must be excited with
the same excitations occurring in the real test.
During the calibration, the setting of the amplifiers
is adjusted, if required, for each engine speed of
interest.
4 MODEL ASSESSMENT
To assess the validity of the turbo-compressor model,
it was coupled to a general engine gas exchange
model [1], able to provide the required boundary
conditions. The required computational links were
implemented in order to allow the model to calculate
the fluid-dynamic interaction between the turbo-
compressor and the rest of the intake system and the
energy exchange with the turbine. Consistent with
the measurements performed, the engines whose
characteristics were shown in Table 1 were those
modelled. The validation was carried out by com-
paring the pressure wave components, modelled and
measured, at different levels.
1. In the time domain, checks were performed to
ensure that internal wave dynamics are properly
reproduced so as to allow the application of the
models to the study of the gas exchange process
and to studies related to engine performance.
This also applies to a proper reproduction of the
influence on the intake and exhaust systems on
the engine behaviour as a noise source. The
magnitudes used should be the instantaneous
pressure components, since they provide quite a
complete picture of the unsteady flow field.
2. In the frequency domain, studies were oriented to
noise assessment and reduction. This analysis
may be applied to in-duct magnitudes, namely
the same as studied in the time domain but could
also be applied to orifice noise.
The operating points considered to validate the
model were 1500 r/min and 50 per percentage load
for the automotive engine and 900 r/min and 50 per
cent load for the truck engine. For each point, the
pressure, the pressure spectrum, and the forward
and backward pressure components have been
represented and compared with the measurements.
Figure 3 shows the comparison between measured
and modelled results upstream of the automotive
turbo-compressor. The instantaneous pressure has
been represented in Fig. 3(a), and the measured and
modelled results are quite similar. The four pulses
D19704 © IMechE 2006
 Time-domain modelling of turbo-compressors in DI diesel engines 451

Fig. 3 Upstream of the automotive turbo-compressor: (a) pressure; (b) pressure spectrum;
(c) forward waves; (d) forward wave spectrum; (e) backward waves; (f) backward wave
spectrum

have been successfully calculated by the model, with
a good reproduction of the shape and the amplitude
of the measured wave.
The corresponding spectra in Fig. 3(b) are also
quite similar. The amplitude of the five first engine
orders is well reproduced. Results for intermediate
frequencies are quite erratic, as could be expected,
as the levels between orders are much smaller and
thus the relative effects of discrepancies between
measurement and modelling are much higher.
The modelled wave components upstream of the
turbo-compressor [Fig. 3(c) shows the forward waves
and Fig. 3(e) shows the backward waves] have higher
amplitudes than the experimental values. In any
case, it appears that the model is able to reproduce
the measurements in a fair way. However, the corre-
sponding spectra [Fig. 3(d) for the forward waves and
Fig. 3(f) for the backward waves] exhibit relatively
important differences for the first engine order and,
most notably, for the third engine order.

D19704 © IMechE 2006 Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering
452 A J Torregrosa, A Broatch, H Climent, and T Fernández

The corresponding comparison at the downstream
side of the automotive turbo-compressor can be seen
in Fig. 4. In general, results are better than in the case
of the waves upstream, as could be expected, since
these results are less dependent on the accuracy of
the compressor model than those on the upstream
side. In particular, the shape and the amplitude of
the instantaneous pressure are correctly reproduced.
With respect to the forward and backward wave com-
ponents, the amplitude of both forward waves are
quite similar, but the backward waves have small
differences in amplitude and shape. Since these
waves come from the engine, any differences should
be attributed to an improper modelling either of the
engine itself or of some element present in the
intake line.
The results shown in Figs 3 and 4 for the auto-
motive turbo-compressor give evidence that the pro-
posed model is not fully able to reproduce the wave
dynamics upstream of this element. This fact may
result in the conclusion that the contribution of the
acoustics of the elements in the turbo-compressor

Fig. 4 Downstream of the automotive turbo-compressor: (a) pressure; (b) pressure spectrum;
(c) forward waves; (d) forward wave spectrum; (e) backward waves; (f) backward wave
spectrum

Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering D19704 © IMechE 2006
 Time-domain modelling of turbo-compressors in DI diesel engines 453

(rotor and stator) is not sufficiently reproduced by
the two volumes considered in the model. Therefore,
further model development to include additional
singularities, so that a more realistic response of the
turbo-compressor is introduced and more accurate
predictions may be expected, could be considered.
Figures 5 and 6 show the comparison between
the measured and the modelled waves upstream
and downstream of the truck application turbo-
compressor respectively. Regarding the upstream
waves, apparent amplitude differences in the
pressure [Fig. 5(a)] and in the forward wave [Fig. 5(c)]
are observed. However, the backward wave pre-
diction [Fig. 5(e)] matches adequately the measured
evolution. As has been remarked for the automotive
application, despite the phase shift observed in the
decomposed waves [Fig. 6(c) and 6(e)], the proposed
model seems to be more suitable to predict the wave
action downstream of the turbo-compressor. More-
over, the deficient description of turbo-compressor
acoustics in the proposed approach is even more
evident in these results than in the automotive case,

Fig. 5 Upstream of the truck turbo-compressor: (a) pressure; (b) pressure spectrum; (c) forward
waves; (d) forward wave spectrum; (e) backward waves; (f) backward wave spectrum

D19704 © IMechE 2006 Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering
454 A J Torregrosa, A Broatch, H Climent, and T Fernández

Fig. 6 Downstream of the truck turbo-compressor: (a) pressure; (b) pressure spectrum;
(c) forward waves; (d) forward wave spectrum; (e) backward waves; (f) backward wave
spectrum

because of the higher characteristic dimensions of
the elements that contribute to the turbo-machine
response.
5 CONCLUSION
Usual turbo-compressor models are based on the
information contained in the compressor chart and
do not allow flow calculations upstream of the
element. In those models, the compressor outlet is
the inlet boundary condition to the calculation in
the intake system. The model presented in this
paper solves the problem of the calculation upstream
and takes account of cumulative mass flow effects.
In this model, the turbo-compressor chart is set
as a boundary condition between two cavities
representing the rotor and the stator.

Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering D19704 © IMechE 2006
 Time-domain modelling of turbo-compressors in DI diesel engines 455

To validate the model, two different turbo-
compressors were considered: an automotive and a
truck turbo-compressor. A specific test methodology
was used in order to ensure the possibility to measure
wave components through wave decomposition. This
provided additional criteria for model comparison
and allowed a deeper analysis of the results.
In general, the behaviour of the model is accept-
able both in the time and in the frequency domains.
Obviously, some aspects could still be improved,
mostly in the flow description upstream of the
turbo-compressor, where larger differences between
measurement and calculation have been found.
However, these should be expected in view of the
extremely simplified description used.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT APPENDIX 1

This work was supported by the EC-funded project Notation

ARTEMIS (GRD-2000-25507).
a speed of sound
c specific heat at constant pressure
p
c specific heat at constant volume
v
e specific internal energy
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h specific enthalpy
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D19704 © IMechE 2006 Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering
456 A J Torregrosa, A Broatch, H Climent, and T Fernández

Subscripts According to Fig. 7, the value of the output signal

at time t is
c turbo-compressor
i inflow N
o outflow y(t)= ∑ w* p (t) (11)
k k
v cavity k=1
0 stagnation conditions Here, N is the number of sensors, and w and p are
k k
1 inlet cavity the weight and the pressure respectively recorded by
2 outlet cavity the kth transducer. If a plane wave of frequency f ,
propagation speed a, and incidence angle h, expressed
as q(t)=q (t) exp(jvt), with v=2p f , arrives at the
0
array at time t, then taking the first transducer as the
origin for phases, for the kth transducer,
APPENDIX 2
p =q (t−t ) exp[ jv(t−t )]
k 0 k k
Wave decomposition through beam forming
#q (t) exp[ jv(t−t )] (1∏k∏N) (12)
0 k
A narrow band beam former is an array of transducers
whose outputs are multiplied by some weighting Here, t is the time required for q(t) to arrive at the
k
factors w* which allow modification of the infor- kth transducer which, for sensors equally spaced at
n a distance d, is given by t =k(d/a) sin h¬kt .
mation recorded by the transducers. A scheme is n d,h
shown in Fig. 7. The key point in the application Then,
of this technique to wave decomposition is the
possibility of performing a spatial filtering, i.e. that p =q (t) exp[ jv(t−kt )]
k 0 d,h
the weighting factors may be chosen so that the =q(t) exp[−jvkt ) (1∏k∏N) (13)
energy from only a certain direction is significantly d,h
received by the array. In the case of plane waves in It should be noted that no distortion or attenuation
a duct, there are only two possible propagation is allowed in the propagation of the plane wave
directions which correspond to the forward and between transducers. The output signal is thus given
backward pressure waves. Therefore, the weighting by
factors must be chosen so that the reception diagram
of the array exhibits a maximum in one of these N
y(t)=q(t) ∑ w* exp[−jvkt ]¬q(t)H(h, v) (14)
direction and a minimum in the opposite direction. k d,h
k=1
The magnitude H(h, v) is the beam former response,
i.e. its transfer function for plane waves. The beam
pattern is defined as the square modulus of H(h, v).
Now, imposing that the weighting factors satisfy

Fig. 7 Scheme of a narrow band beam former
N
H(h , v )= ∑ w* exp[−jv kt ]=g (15)
0 0 n 0 d,h0
k=1
where g is a complex constant, it is ensured that any
signal from direction h with frequency v appears
0 0
in the beam former output with response g. In order
to minimize the contributions to the beam former
output of signals of frequency v but from directions
0
different from h , the weighting factors are chosen so
0
that the average power of the output signal modulus
is minimized. Additionally, if it is known that there
exists a given interference from a certain direction
different from h , then it would be desirable to force
0
a null response in that direction.
In the one-dimensional problem addressed here,
there are only two directions, corresponding to
h=−p/2 and h=p/2. Then, in order to obtain the

Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering D19704 © IMechE 2006
 Time-domain modelling of turbo-compressors in DI diesel engines 457

forward component, set Minimization of the average power of the output

signal modulus, subject to restrictions (16) and

A B A B
p p
H − , v =1, H , v =0 (16) (17) yields the desired weighting factors, and
2 0 2 0 thus forward and backward components may be
and, in the case of the backward component, identified. In the case of broadband signals, the
procedure must be applied to each of the Fourier

A B A B
p p components.
H − , v =0, H , v =1 (17)
2 0 2 0

D19704 © IMechE 2006 Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering