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Geo-Strategic Importance Of Pakistan Mansoor Ahmed 102-SE School of Economics BS Economics & Finance International Islamic University Islamabad

Pakistan study Sir May 13, 2009

Mansoor Ahmed

Geo-strategic importance of Pakistan

Geo-strategic importance Of Pakistan

The strategic importance of Pakistan is unique because of being a close neighbor to Middle East, having a common border with China, India, Iran, Afghanistan and less than one hundred kilometer distance from Central Asian state of Uzbekistan. Bridge between South Asia and South West Asia; Iran and Afghanistan are energy abundant while India and China are lacking of. China finds way to Indian ocean and Arabian Sea through Korakaram. China with its fastest economic growth rate of 9%; is developing its southern provinces because its own port is 4500 km away from Sinkiang but Gawader is 2500 km away. Pakistan offers to CARs the shortest route of 2600 km as compared to Iran (4500 km) or Turkey (5000 km). land locked Afganistan now at the phase of Reconstruction, finds its ways through Pakistan. Gawader port with its deep waters attracts the trade ships of China, CARs and South East Asian Countries. ASEAN

Boundaries
Pakistan located in the northwestern part of the South Asian subcontinent, Pakistan became a state as a result of the partition of British India on August 14, 1947. Pakistan annexed Azad (Free) Kashmir after the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947-48. Initially, Pakistan also included the northeastern sector of the subcontinent, where Muslims are also in the majority. The East Wing and West Wing of Pakistan were, however, separated by 1,600 kilometers of hostile Indian Territory. The country's East Wing, or East Pakistan, became the independent state of Bangladesh in December 1971. Pakistan occupies a position of great geostrategic importance, bordered by Iran on the west, Afghanistan on the northwest, China on the northeast, India on the east, and the Arabian Sea on the south. The total land area is estimated at 803,940 square kilometers. The boundary with Iran, some 800 kilometers in length, was first delimited by a British commission in 1893, separating Iran from what was then British Indian Balochistan. In 1957 Pakistan signed a frontier agreement with Iran, and since then the border between the two countries has not been a subject of serious dispute. Pakistan's boundary with Afghanistan is about 2,250 kilometers long. In the north, it runs along the ridges of the Hindu Kush (meaning Hindu Killer) mountains and the Pamirs, where a narrow strip of Afghan territory called the Wakhan Corridor extends between Pakistan and Tajikistan. The Hindu Kush was traditionally regarded as the last northwestern outpost where Hindus could Mansoor Ahmed Geo-strategic importance of Pakistan

3 venture in safety. The boundary line with Afghanistan was drawn in 1893 by Sir Mortimer Durand, then foreign secretary in British India, and was acceded to by the amir of Afghanistan that same year. This boundary, called the Durand Line, was not in doubt when Pakistan became independent in 1947, although its legitimacy was in later years disputed periodically by the Afghan government as well as by Pakhtun tribes straddling the Pakistan-Afghanistan border. On the one hand, Afghanistan claimed that the Durand Line had been imposed by a stronger power upon a weaker one, and it favored the establishment of still another state to be called Pashtunistan or Pakhtunistan. On the other hand, Pakistan, as the legatee of the British in the region, insisted on the legality and permanence of the boundary. The Durand Line remained in effect in 1994. In the northeastern tip of the country, Pakistan controls about 84,159 square kilometers of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir. This area, consisting of Azad Kashmir (11,639 square kilometers) and most of the Northern Areas (72,520 square kilometers), which includes Gilgit and Baltistan, is the most visually stunning of Pakistan. The Northern Areas has five of the world's seventeen highest mountains. It also has such extensive glaciers that it has sometimes been called the "third pole." The boundary line has been a matter of pivotal dispute between Pakistan and India since 1947, and the Siachen Glacier in northern Kashmir has been an important arena for fighting between the two sides since 1984, although far more soldiers have died of exposure to the cold than from any skirmishes in the conflict. From the eastern end of the Afghanistan-Pakistan border, a boundary of about 520 kilometers runs generally southeast between China and Pakistan, ending near the Karakoram Pass. This line was determined from 1961 to 1965 in a series of agreements between China and Pakistan. By mutual agreement, a new boundary treaty is to be negotiated between China and Pakistan when the dispute over Kashmir is finally resolved between India and Pakistan. The Pakistan-India cease-fire line runs from the Karakoram Pass west-southwest to a point about 130 kilometers northeast of Lahore. This line, about 770 kilometers long, was arranged with United Nations (UN) assistance at the end of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947-48. The cease-fire line came into effect on January 1, 1949, after eighteen months of fighting and was last adjusted and agreed upon by the two countries in the Simla Agreement of July 1972. Since then, it has been generally known as the Line of Control. The Pakistan-India boundary continues irregularly southward for about 1,280 kilometers, following the line of the 1947 Radcliffe Award, named for Sir Cyril Radcliffe, the head of the British boundary commission on the partition of Punjab and Bengal in 1947. Although this boundary with India is not formally disputed, passions still run high on both sides of the border. Many Indians had expected the original boundary line to run farther to the west, thereby ceding Lahore to India; Pakistanis had expected the line to run much farther east, possibly granting them control of Delhi, the imperial capital of the Mughal Empire. The southern borders are far less contentious than those in the north. The Thar Desert in the province of Sindh is separated in the south from the salt flats of the Rann of Kutch by a boundary that was first delineated in 1923-24. After partition, Pakistan contested the southern boundary of Sindh, and a succession of border incidents resulted. They were less dangerous and less

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4 widespread, however, than the conflict that erupted in Kashmir in the Indo-Pakistani War of August 1965. These southern hostilities were ended by British mediation, and both sides accepted the award of the Indo-Pakistan Western Boundary Case Tribunal designated by the UN secretary general. The tribunal made its award on February 19, 1968, delimiting a line of 403 kilometers that was later demarcated by joint survey teams. Of its original claim of some 9,100 square kilometers, Pakistan was awarded only about 780 square kilometers. Beyond the western terminus of the tribunal's award, the final stretch of Pakistan's border with India is about 80 kilometers long, running west and southwest to an inlet of the Arabian Sea.

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
500 BC , one of the worlds first great civilizations began to develop in the Indus Valley in what is now Pakistan.Ruin of Harrapa and Mhenjo- Daro , were the two major cities of the civilization, show that both were large and well planned. By about 1700 BC, the Indus Valley civilization had disappeared. Experts dont know why it collapsed. During the next several thousand years, many people from southwest and Central Asia came into the region that is now Pakistan. About 1500 BC, a Central Asian people called Aryans came through the mountains passes to the Punjab region. In time, they settled across almost all of India. The Persians conquered the Punjab during the 500 BC and made it part of the huge Achmenid empire. In 236BC, Alexander the great took control of most of what is now Pakistan, a few years later, the emperor Chandra Gupta Mauriya made the region, part of Mauriyan empire. The Mauriyan Empire began to break up about 230BC. Greeks from the independent state of Bacteria in Central Asia then invaded the Indus valley, they established kingdom with capitals near the present day cities of Peshawar and Rawalpindi. About 100BC Scythians from Afghanistan came into Baloochistan and Sindh. In time they conquered the Indus region. The Parthian, who in turn was conquered by the Kushans of Central Asia, replaced Afghans.The Kushans ruled what is now Afghan. Pakistan and northwest India from about AD 50 mid 200s. They controlled the trade routes from China to India and the Middle East, Peshawar, the kushan capital, became the major commercial center. During the mid 300 the Indus valley become part of the Gupta Empire which had expanded westward from northeastern India, Huns from Central Asia conquered the empire in mid 400s. The coming of Islam, In AD 711,Arabs Muslims sailed across the Arabian sea and invaded Sindh bringing Islam to the region, Beginning about AD 1000 Turkish Muslim invaded Northern Pakistan from Iran. The Turkish ruler Mehmood of Ghazni established a Muslim kingdom that in time including the entire Indus Valley. Lahore become the capital of the kingdom and developed into a major entre of Muslim culture. In 1206, most of what is now Pakistan became part of the Delhi Sultanat, a Muslim empire that included Northern India. The Delhi Sultanat lasted until 1526, when Babar a Muslim ruler from Afghanistan, invaded India and established the Mughul Empire.

The Silk Road

The Karakoram Highway known as K.K.H., has been cut through the highest and the mightiest mountains of the world, that is, the Himalayas and the Karakorams. This Highway connects Pakistan with the People's Republic of China via Khunjrab pass (16,200 feet above sea level) beyond which lies the

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sprawling Xinjiang province of our friendly neighbour and the fabled city of Kashgar. ft has, thus opened a passage through the isolated mountainous regions which remained a cultural backyard of humanity for millennia. This highway has been described as the eighth wonder of the world by hundreds of travelers and beyond any doubt, it is the marvel of modern engineering. The brave road builders of China and Pakistan took twenty years to complete this 774 km. long highway which has been stretched over the hills, gorges; valleys and rivers. It was not easy to conceive and to execute such a Herculean project particularly in such a monstrous region. No wonder it had been considered impossible by some of the world's biggest consortiums. In fact the construction of the highway involved about thirty million cubic yards of rock blasting and earthwork, over eight thousand tons of explosives and eighty thousand tons of cement and so many other materials and that too in thousands of tons. Approximately fifteen thousand men of the Pakistan Army and the Chinese workers, working shoulder to shoulder, cut through one of the most difficult terrains in the world and toiled under the most trying conditions. It is believed that more than five hundred persons, that is, about one person per mile, lost their lives in the road building process. The Highway itself is the greatest memorial to those martyrs who sacrificed their lives during blasting, rockfalls, landslides, earthquakes and avalanches. And humanity ows a deep debt of gratitude to all those who lost their lives during the road building. Their success, however, has opened a new chapter in the world's history as this road will be used by generations after generations of the human beings not only to learn about these high mountains and the people who live there in the scattered valleys but also to draw together, in a common pursuit of peaceful trade, as it was once done with great difficulty through the famous Silk Route. For many centuries caravans braved these tortuous mountains treading precariously along the goat tracks and narrow paths sometimes providing short cuts between the great caravan towns of the Central Asian and rich markets of the subcontinent. However, the trails were too hazardous, angry rivers too horrifying to contemplate, storms and avalanches caused even the most intrepid to quail on the high passes and in the desolate gorges. It was in fact, the great Han empire of China that extended its influence towards this part of the world and controlled roads leading through it. The most important item of trade, in which China was interested at that time was the export of Chinese silk and hence the popularity of the name. The Silk Route, which traversed the Tarim basin in its westward extension through

Central Asia to meet the markets in the Mediterranean coast. From second century B.C. to about fifth century A.D. the trade continued to flow. Thereafter the rise of the Hsiung-nu dislocated trade connections and the name of Silk Route survived in legendary tales only. The ancient Silk Route started at Ch'angan (modern Si-gan-fu, former capital of the province of Shen-si) on the north-western borders of China and skirted the Gobi desert westward to Dun-huang, where it bifurcated into two - one passing the northern edge of the Tarim basin through the world famous Turfan treasures, Aksu and on to Kashgar; and the second followed the southern edge at the foot of Kun Lun and reached Khotan, Yarkand and on to Kashgar. The journey westward was either over the north of Pamir towards Samarkand or across the smaller valleys south of it through Wakhan, Badakhshan and onwards to Bactria north of the Hindukush in the valleys of the Oxus. It is the centres on the southern route that threw down paths around the FIun Lun towards Karakorum region, opening a passage for trade to the Indo-Gangetic plains. From time to time the passage has varied, depending upon its starting point in Khotan, Qargalik or Yarkand, the eastern-most being the Khotan route across the upper valley of Yarkand river over to Kun Lun. On the South it crossed the Muztag river and after passing through Shimshal reached the main channel of Hunza river. But a route from Yarkand proper would follow its tributary of Tashkurgan river and reach the town of that name and branch off either towards Wakhan or towards Khunjrab. It is the Wakhan route that can be reached directly from Gilgit, Chilas or Chitral over high passes.

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The following two quotations of the two world famous ancient travellers, that is Mr.Hiuen Tsang and Mr. Sung-Yung-Yun throw sufficient light on the problems of the old Silk Route. Hiuen Tsang described his journey to Swat in the following words: "The road was difficult and broken, with steep crags and precipices in the way. The mountain side is simply a stone wall standing up 10,000 feet. Looking down, the sight is confused and on going forward there is no sure foothold. Below is a river called Sint-uho (Jndus). In old days men bored through the rocks to make a way, and spread out side-ladders, of which there are seven hundred (steps) in all to pass. Having passed the ladders, we proceeded by a hanging rope-Bridge and crossed the river. The two sides of the river are something less than 80 paces apart." San-Yan described as under: "The mountains here are as lofty and the gorges deep as ever. The king of the country has built a town, where he resides, for the sake of being in the mountains. The people of the country dress handsomely, only they use some leathern garments. The land is extremely old so much so, that the people occupy the caves of the mountains as dwelling places, and the driving wind and snow often compel both men and beasts to herd together. To the south of this country are the snowy mountains, which, in the morning and evening vapours, rise up like gem-spires". From the description it appears to be the present Misgar area, where caves are still seen and used for living purposes. If this identification is correct, Sung-Yun must have crossed over the Mintaka pass. The ancient approach was across the Kilk Mintaka Pass over to the opening of Misgar and onwards to Hunza. Mintaka Pass opened up in the Chinese empire on the east and Tsarist Russia on the north-west. The present opening at Khunjrab provides an easy access to China's potential trade influence down to the Arabian sea and onwards to the free world for the first time in history. The modern K.K.H. which may also be called as a substitute of the ancient silk route begins from Islamabad and passes through, Rawalpindi - Taxila Hassan Abdal - Haripur - Abbottabad - Batgram -Besham Qila - Pattan Chilas - Jaglot - Gilgit - Hunza - Gulmit - Passu - Sust and enters China at Khunjrab. Approximate distances and travelling on the K.K.H. by light transport are given below, but much would depend on the season and the driving skill of the driver.

The K.K.H. passes through a scenic wonderland. The landscape changes almost after every mile. Along the road there are scores of sites and scenes which deserve careful study and observation and there are things which cannot be described in words alone. Above all a drive from Jslamabad to Khunjrab is a rare and life long experience which nobody can forget after going through it once. Maintenance of road, however, is a major problem because Karakorams are active even today. There is a continual disintegration in the higher regions because of the interactions of several factors including the effects of climate variations and the forces of gravity,rain, snow,ice, mud floods etc. all play key roles in the general destruction of these mountain areas. When parts of the valley walls break away, or when the streams undercut these steepest

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precipices on earth then gravity causes small and large fragments, in single pieces or in thunderous avalanches, to descend at frightening speeds to the floor of the valley. Several parts of the road, and even villages are, either washed away or buried under several thousand tons of mud. A few years ago the Batura Glacier, just a few kilometres from the beautiful Gulmit, quietly advanced and with its blunt snout nudged away the towers of a strong bridge toppling it into the Hunza river. It has not been found possible to rebuild the bridge which causes great problems during the summer season when the flow of water increases due to snow-melting. Found in this region, and perhaps nowhere else in the world, is the snow leopard. Also, Marco Polo sheep, the Markhor and Thar (a wild goat), the Bhural (a sheep), and Deer were common, but now they are extremely rare. One of the several rare species of birds is the colourful "Ram Chakor' the ordinary Chakor, a kind of pheasant, is also found in other parts of the country, but the 'Ram' lives along the Karakoram Highway up to the Chinese border. It is much bigger than the Chakor found near Quetta, far to the southwest. Pheasants of other types also abound--the trapogan, kalege and chir. The first of these, the trapogan, is now almost extinct.

Sher Shah Suri has always occupied a special place in the History of the Subcontinent and that
of Islam. A self made man, he had risen to become the most powerful ruler of the Subcontinent since Asoka. His achievements are phenomenal. He is also by all means the first true social reformer in the history of Indo-Pakistan, and in many ways its first "socialist" King. He is also revered as the first true Indian Muslim King to rule Indo-Pakistan. Sher Shah Suri, whose real name was Farid Khan, was born to an Afghan-Muslim jagirdar of the Sur Tribe of the Afghans. Surs had migrated from Ghaur in Modern Day Afghanistan to Bihar during Bahlol Lodhi'sreign. Apparently Farid Khan was not a favorite of his father. He left home early on with a desire to make something of himself. He devoted himself to educationand became a master at Persian language. The Lodhi Sultanate was in its twilight when Sher Khan joined the service of Ibrahim Lodhi in Agra. However in 1522, he left Ibrahim's service for Bahar Khan's service closer to home. It was here that he earned the title of "Sher Khan" for his courage. It is said that on a hunting trip with Bahar Khan, Farid Khan saved Bahar Khan's life when a tiger attacked him. Later the relations between the two became estranged and Sher Khan left to join the Mughal service under Babur. It was here that Sher Khan got to know the inherent weaknesses of the Mughal-Turk structure of Government. Babur has said to have already spotted Sher Khan as a potential trouble maker for the future. Soon mistrust and suspicion forced Sher Khan to flee from the Mughal camp to join once again his old master Bahar Khan's service where now Bahar's son, the minor Jalal Khan was ruling. Sher Khan soon became the virtual ruler of Bihar. Soon afterwards, the widowed Lad Malika of Chunar fort married Sher Khan to give him that strategic fort. Sher Khan's opponents rallied under the lodhi Afghan ruler Sultan Mahmud Lodhi and the minor Jalal Khan. Sher Khan overcame this opposition at the famous battle of surajgarh which broke the back of the Lodhis. Meanwhile in the North West India, Babur was succeeded by his son Humayun. Humayun considered both Sultan Mahmud Lodhi, Sher Khan and Bahadur Shah as a threat to his rule. He made his first move against Bahadur Shah. While the Mughal forces were away, Sher Khan further consolidated his power by invading and finally annexing Bengal from the Lodhis. In early 1538 Humayun marched against Sher

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Khan and laid siege to Chunar which was fatal mistake on his part. While this siege progressed, Sher Khan consolidated his power further by taking over Rohtas Fort.Historians have often accused Sher Shah of treachery in this respect. Sher khan asked the Hindu ruler of Rohtas to give his family shelter, while he goes to battle against the Mughals. Sher Shah's soldier entered the Rohtas fort under the guise of women in "shahi dolis". It was a matter of hours before Rohtas fort fell to Sher Shah. For months Sher Khan retreated, and Humayun pursued him into Bengal.Then finally at Gaur Humayun turned back. On the way Sher Khan struck Humayun's forces at Chaunsa in June 1539 inflicting upon them a severe defeat. Humayun barely made it back to Dehli, giving rise to another famous folklore of "Nizam Saqqa" the water carrier. Next year Humayun returned, but his forces were uprooted again at Kanauj. Now it was Sher Shah's turn to pursue Humayun. Humayun was forced to flee from Agra. His brother Kamran refused to give him shelter, and finally Humayun fled to Iran only to return 15 years later with the help of the Safavids. After this Sher Shah campaigned extensively against the Rajputs. He defeated formidable foes like Puran Mill and Maldev. He met his end at Kalinja where he was died in a freak accident with one of the cannons. 10 years after his Death Humayun returned at the head of a safvid Army and retook Dehli and Agra. Humayun met his tragic end falling off the stairs. He was succeeded by the 13 year old Akbar and his "Ataleeq" Bairam Khan, the hero of the second battle of Panipat. Sher Shah Suri was a brilliant Military strategician, and decribed by many as extremely Machiavellian in nature. His conquest of Rohtas Fort and the massacre of Puran Mill's family are two blots on Sher Shah Suri's character. Nevertheless Sher Shah's most brilliant achievements were in administrative reforms. He carried out extensive agrarian and administrative restructuring laying the foundation for the administration which helped Akbar and the rest of the Mughals to rule for the next 300 years. For convenience of administration, the whole Empire was divided into forty-seven units each of which was again divided into several sununits.The subunit had one Ami , one Shiqdar, one treasurer, one Hindi writer and one Persian writer to keep accounts. To check undue influence of the officers in their respective jurisdictions, the Sher Shah devised the plan of transferring them every two or three years, which, however, could not be long-enduring owing to the brief span of his rule. Every branch of the administration was subject to Sher Shah's personal supervision. Sher Shah's land revenue reforms, based on wise and humane principles, have unique importance in the administrative history of Indo-Pakistan. Remissions of rents were made, and probably loans were advanced to the tenants in case of damage to crops caused by the encampment of soldiers, or the insufficiency of rain. These revenue reformsincreased the resources of the State and at the same time conduced to the interest of the people. Sher Shah Suri also introduced the idea of a unified currency and tariffs to improve the General Economic Condition of the poor.Sher Shah also instituted the Subcontinent's first effective law and order force. It is said about his rule that "a woman could travel with all her jewelry in his empire without being afraid of getting looted." By far Sher Shah's greatest legacy is the modern Grand Trunk road which ran from Bengal to Attock, however some claim it ran right up to Kabul. Along the way "Baulis" and "Sarais" were constructed which are the equivalent of Modern day Service stations. Some 450 years later, an incompetent ruler of Modern Pakistan also fancied going down in History as Sher Shah Suri. The result, a road though one of the best in the world but a white elephant for the Pakistani Nation. Sher Shah Suri lies today in an impressive octagonal Mausoleum, in Sassaram, Bihar from where this ambitious and Brilliant Afghan had started out to create his destiny. His mausoleum, a part of India's historical heritage, which has the second largest dome in that country, today is threatened by extremists, who want to perform "Karseva" by encroaching on to the premises of this great Emperor's last resting place by completing the "Sarveshar Mahadev" temple. The most vocal supporter of this is local BJP leader Jawahir Prasad of the ruling party in the center. One wonders if there is no end to this. What's next? Taj Mahal? At this rate slowly but surely all monuments of Muslim origin will one day vanish

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from India.

BRITISH RAJ
A term derived from the Sanskrit word raja (king), it denotes the British Empire of India. Its beginnings date back to the foundation of the British East India Company in 1600, though the Raj was not formally established until the subcontinent had come under British control in its entirety in 1858, and Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India in 1877. British control over the directly ruled territories (about three-fifths of the total area) was exercised by a Secretary of State in the British Cabinet and a viceroy in India. The administration was staffed by the Indian Civil Service, which in later years was gradually opened to Indians, although Europeans and Indians remained socially separate. In addition there were in India some 700 princely states, bound by treaty to the Crown, in which the princes preserved control over domestic affairs. There was a large British army garrison, together with the Indian army, with British officers in controlling positions until the 1920s and recruited from British and Indian ranks. Supported by an army of 175,000 men (most of whom were Indian), the Raj could only exist in a country with 450 million people with popular cooperation. As this began to diminish with the campaigns of Gandhi, the position of the Raj was steadily weakened from the 1920s, and it became increasingly clear that the status quo could not be maintained.

Pakistan uner british raj

When the British conquered the Punjab in 1849, the policy adopted was to excluding Punjabis, especially Sikhs, from military duty because it was feared that they could be a threat to their interests. However, the 1857 uprising led by north Indian purbiyas forced a change of policy, and the Sikhs as well as Muslims from the western districts were mobilised to crush that rebellion. The 1857 trauma made the British fully aware of the fact that they ruled India by the force of arms and could hold on to it also by the same token. Therefore they must build a strong and formidable military apparatus. However, given the harsh climate and other difficulties a large fighting force comprising European troops could not be maintained permanently. The British Indian Army had to be recruited locally. Moreover, from the second half of the 19th century the fear of a Russian advance into India began to haunt British strategic planning. Because of its geographical location, Punjab became the natural frontline province from where the British took part in the Great Game against perceived Russian and later German threats. A theory of 'martial races' was devised to raise a strong, but dependent army. The groups chosen were: The Khalsa Sikh Jats, especially those of the Manjha region around Amritsar, Muslims tribes such as the Ghakkars, Janjuas, Awans and Tiwanas of the Salt Range tract including Rawalpindi, Jhelum and Shahpur districts, smaller numbers of Hindu Jats of Rothak and Hissar in southeastern Punjab (present-day Haryana), and some Dogras from Kangra. The three major groups faced acute economic hardship in their districts -- overpopulation and land fragmentation in the Manjha, scarce and poor quality land in the rain-fed broken hills of the Salt Range, and recurring famines in the southeastern districts where the Hindu Jats were Mansoor Ahmed Geo-strategic importance of Pakistan

10 located. Moreover, historical enmity existed between the Sikhs and the Muslims of the Salt Range because Maharaja Ranjit Singh had inflicted defeat on their elders and curtailed their power. These three groups did not share strong fraternal bonds and were recruited in different companies and regiments but with the overall unified command of British officers. Besides such careful selection of 'class' and 'military districts' the British evolved a sophisticated system of rewarding those connected to the army. Regular pay and allowances, land grants, especially in the canal colonies of western Punjab, pensions and other economic benefits were available to the soldiers as well as those who helped recruit them. These included the tribal and clan leaders, village headmen, zaildars, sufedposhs and other men of influence in the rural areas. Titles such as khan bahadur, nawab and even sir were conferred on them. During World War I Punjab supplied some 60 per cent of the total soldiers raised from India and during War II one-third. Through the Land Alienation Act of 1900, the British made sure that its rural support base in the Punjab was safeguarded against moneylenders and rising urban entrepreneurs. In political terms too a rural bias was present in the electoral reforms of 1919 and 1935. The constituencies were formed in a manner that members from the rural areas constituted the majority. The right to vote was limited by property and land tax qualifications. Simultaneously the government maintained the threat of cancellation and confiscation of titles and land grants if their bearers did not cooperate in supplying soldiers to the Indian Army and in containing trouble in their areas. A conflict with the Sikhs broke out in the 1920s over the control of gurdwaras. It resulted in some casualties but was resolved with the orthodox Sikhs being given the charge of their holy places. The political linchpin of British rule in the Punjab was the Unionist Party founded by Sir Fazl-eHussain (died 1936) and later led by Sir Sikander Hayat Khan (died 1942) and supported by Sir Chhottu Ram (died 1945), the leaders of Hindu Jats. The Punjab Unionist Party enlisted the support of the Sikh Khalsa Nationalist Party representing loyalist Sikh landlords. This coalition ruled the Punjab. Nationalist and revolutionary forces found little support in the Punjab. Therefore despite many efforts the Congress Party failed to develop a mass base. However, the Unionist model began to crumble and the garrison state crack when the Muslim League entered Punjab politics in the 1940s with its slogan of Pakistan. Hitherto the Punjab Muslim League was a minor player. It enjoyed the support mainly of the Muslim intelligentsia and some urban professionals. From 1943 onwards it began loudly to blame the successor of Sir Sikander, Sir Khizr Tiwana, of betraying Muslim interests by opposing the demand for Pakistan. More importantly, it joined hands with the British in the war effort, offering to use its influence to help recruit soldiers from the towns and cities of Punjab and from a social base that included castes hitherto not included among the martial races. Supply of soldiers from the rural areas, the stronghold of the Unionists, had been declining as World War II dragged on. The British increasingly began to recognise the Muslim League as the main representative of Muslims of India.

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Moreover, challenges to Khizr from disgruntled colleagues resulted in splits and desertions in the Unionist Party. By the election of 1946 the former Punjab Unionist Party had virtually become the Punjab Muslim League as almost all the Muslim landlords had joined the latter. Thus when Pakistan came into being in August 1947, the Muslim League was no longer the party of the erstwhile Muslim intelligentsia or progressive reformers who wanted to create an egalitarian Islamic utopia; it had become a party of conservative landlords. Moreover, the Pakistani Punjab emerged as the most powerful province and the sword arm of the new state. The Pakistani army was essentially a Punjabi army. Both such factors combined to pass on the legacy of the garrison state to Pakistan, argues Tan Tai Yong. The book is a painstaking and meticulous research undertaking based on extensive use of government documents. Such works deserve to be translated into Urdu and made available to the wider public.

British policy toward the tribal peoples on the northwest frontier vacillated between caution and adventurism during the latter half of the nineteenth century. Some viceroys opposed extending direct administration or defense beyond the Indus River. Others favored a more assertive posture, or "forward policy." The latters' view prevailed, partly because Russian advances in Central Asia gave their arguments credence. In 1874 Sir Robert Sandeman was sent to improve British relations with the Baloch tribes and the khan of Kalat. In 1876 Sandeman concluded a treaty with the khan that brought his territories--including Kharan, Makran, and Las Bela--under British suzerainty. The Second Afghan War was fought in 1878-80, sparked by Britain's demands that Afghan foreign policy come completely under its control. In the Treaty of Gandamak concluded in May 1879, the Afghan amir ceded his districts of Pishin, Sibi, Harnai, and Thal Chotiali to the British. During succeeding years, other tribal areas were forcibly occupied by the British. In 1883 the British leased the Bolan Pass, southeast of Quetta, from the khan of Kalat on a permanent basis, and in 1887 some areas of Balochistan were declared British territory. A similar forward policy was pursued farther north. A British political agent was stationed in Gilgit in 1876 to report on Russian activities as well as on developments in the nearby states of Hunza and Nagar. In 1889 the Gilgit Agency was made permanent. A British expedition was sent against Hunza and Nagar, which submitted to British control. A new mir from the ruling family of Hunza was appointed by the British. British garrisons were established in Hunza and Chitral in 1892. A formal protectorate was declared over Chitral and Gilgit in 1893. Also in 1893, Sir Mortimer Durand negotiated an agreement with Amir Abdur Rahman Khan of Afghanistan to fix an only partially surveyed line (the Durand Line) running from Chitral to Balochistan to designate the areas of influence for the Afghans and the British. Each party pledged not to interfere in each other's lands. This agreement brought under British domination territory and peoples that had not yet been conquered and would become the source of much difficulty between Pakistan and Afghanistan in the future.

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Geo-strategic importance of Pakistan

12 The establishment of British hegemony in the northwest frontier regions did not lead to direct administration similar to that in other parts of India. Local customary law continued, as did the traditional lines of authority and social customs upheld by the maliks (tribal chiefs). To a large extent, the frontier was little more than a vast buffer zone with Afghanistan between the British and Russian empires in Asia and a training ground for the British Indian Army.

Pakistan is no doubt a strategically located country at the mouth of the most frequented trade and oil route of Persian Gulf and opening to the Indian Ocean, surrounded by some of the front line and most talked about countries like China in the north, India in the east, Iran and Afghanistan in west and northwest. The sea and land component thus add to the importance of Pakistan not only in the region, but in international relations and trade as well. recently, Pakistan's role in the war against terror has brought it in the forefronts of world politics. Since its independence, however, its relations with its neighbours, specially India on the core issue of Jammu and Kashmir has brought Pakistan and India to war a number of times, while relations with Afghanistan always remain sore, because of Russian and Indian influence on Afghan foreign policy. Iran, though a Muslim country, also has lukewarm relations with Pakistan. This leaves China to be the only trusted ally of Pakistan in the region since its independence.

Pakistan after partition

The British Parliament passed the Indian Independence Act on July 18, 1947. The Act created two dominions, Indian Union and Pakistan. It also provided for the complete end of British control over Indian affairs from August 15, 1947. The Muslims of the Sub-continent had finally achieved their goal to have an independent state for themselves, but only after a long and relentless struggle under the singleminded guidance of the Quaid. The Muslims faced a gamut of problems immediately after independence. However, keeping true to their traditions, they overcame them after a while. Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah was appointed the first Governor General of Pakistan and Liaquat Ali Khan became its first Prime Minister. Pakistan became a dominion within the British Commonwealth of Nations.

Early importance to the world Pakistan's foreign policy stance shifted significantly in 1953 when it accepted the United States offer of military and economic assistance in return for membership in an alliance system designed to contain international communism. When the administration of Dwight D. Eisenhower sought a series of alliances in the "Northern Tier"--Pakistan,
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Iran, and Turkey--and in East Asia, Pakistan became a candidate for membership in each. In 1954 Pakistan signed a Mutual Defense Agreement with the United States and became a member of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO). The following year, Pakistan joined Iran, Iraq, and Turkey in the Baghdad Pact, later converted into the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) after Iraq's withdrawal in 1959.
Pakistan was built up as a spoiler state both by US (early 50s, 60s, 70s) and by China immediately after 1962 border debacle in NEFA and Ladhakh with India. Pakistans strategic importance was very much enhanced in early 50s when US looking for a base to fly the U-2 over USSR found the perfect base in Pehawar to sneak into the USSR from south and fly over vitally important USSRs space station and strategic missile bases which were far away from the USSRs European borders. This relationship ended with the shooting down of the U-2 spy plane by USSR. Peshawar, Sarghodha, Rawalpindi ceased to be important military bases to US as these were before the U-2 shooting down. As US was loosing a bit of interest in Pakistan with the end of Eisenhower Administration, China stepped in with political and moral support to whatever the Pakistanis wished. After the 1962 victory of Chinese forces over India, China found it very useful to be friends with Pakistan. All this was done to keep India off balance and prevent it from focusing on its northern border. With the onset of Vietnam War, US had very little interest in Pakistan except supply of spares for previously supplied military hardware continued. Chinas influence increased. Several high ranking visits by Chou En Lai and Liu Shao Shi took place to Pakistan. In return, Pakistani dictators and Prime Ministers paid visits to China. The 1971 Bangladesh creation by India removed a major irritants in Pakistans internal cohesiveness and made Pakistan a West Asian country, linked to it by culture, religion and military pacts (CENTO and SEATO). The 1971 war also forced the Pakistani leadership of the time - Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (father of Benazir) and later Zia Ul Haq (the military dictator) to look around and find its own strategic importance in the peculiar geography it is located. The USSRs invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 was a God sent opportunity to Pakistani dictator Zia Ul Haq to exploit its geographic location to aid and abet the US position of defeating Soviet Union in an Asian battlefield. There was not much of a fight as per say in Afghanistan. It was only guerrilla action and counterstrike by the occupying force resulting in civilian causalities. US inflated the figures to make it look as a great US victory. Civilian losses were great. These occurred when after the USSR withdrawal, aided by Pakistani self interest, civil war broke out and two groups

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fought to gain control of Kabul. Later, Pakistani aided Taliban came into the picture and defeated both the warring sides. At that time (1994-2001), Afghanistan became a client state of Pakistan. The above brought into the focus the particular strategic importance of Pakistan in all West Asian related affairs.

Pakistan to day importance After the terrorist attacks of the September 11th, Pakistan was prompt to devote itself to the US-led alliance against terrorism. The war in Afghanistan has made Pakistan and the United States closer to each other, which has infuriated the Pashtuns inhabiting Pakistan's NorthWestern Frontier Province (NWFP) as well as the Islamist opposition, whose stronghold also rests in the Pashtun areas. For them it was a bitter disappointment that Pakistan turned against the Taliban, the fundamentalist and Pashtun-dominated movement in Afghanistan. The co-operation between US and Pakistani security authorities in the Tribal Agencies has been seen as humiliating bootlicking of the US, although even Usama bin Ladin is believed to hide in these tribal areas. This being the situation, there are many in the NWFP, bordering Afghanistan, who would be glad to hear about a successful assassination of President Musharraf. The biggest beneficiary, however, of a successful assassination of Musharraf, would be al-Qaida, which probably has had a hidden hand behind the murder attempts. The US military operations have caused significant difficulties to al-Qaida's operations in Afghanistan. Removing the organization to the Pakistani side of the border, out of the US firepower, has given al-Qaida only a limited pause of sigh, because the Pakistani security agencies have arrested hundreds of its members and thousands of radical Islamists, including many key leaders of alQaida. The most important of the arrests was that of al-Qaida's operational director Khalid Sheikh Mohammed in Rawalpindi last March. The death of President Musharraf, who is personally deeply dedicated to the war against terrorism, could, at worst, give way to the Islamists to rise in power in Pakistan, and in that way make it
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significantly easier for al-Qaida and the Taliban to operate. The results of such a development would immediately be seen especially in Afghanistan. President Musharraf has acted as an effective barrier against an Islamist rise into power. It should be remembered that one motive for Musharraf's coup d'tat was the fact that the prime minister Nawaz Sharif was quickly transforming Pakistan into an Islamist state. Besides of the doghouse position of the political Islamists, another issue feeding Islamist hatred against Musharraf is the Kashmir dispute. When the war against terrorism was launched, Musharraf changed his uniform to a suit, and at the same time he distanced the Pakistani government from the armed separatist movements of Kashmir, which have enjoyed support of the Pakistani intelligence services and army for decades. However, the changes in world politics were not the only reason for this divorce, but another lied in the fact that the Kashmiri liberation movements had by time become very difficult for Pakistan to control. In 1990s, the original national-inspired freedom fighters of Kashmir had been increasingly replaced by a generation of internationalist jihadists, part of whom had received their training in al-Qaida camps in Afghanistan, and fought in al-Qaida-backed brigades on the side of the Taliban in the Afghan civil war. Some of the armed groups fighting in Kashmir are full of foreign combatants from Punjab, the Middle East, the Philippines, and Africa. Another part of the groups have been influenced by Usama bin Ladin and thereby changed their strategies, attacking no longer Indian military but Western tourists and Pakistan's religious minorities. These developments have effectively alienated Pakistan's leadership from the support organizations of the jihadist groups in Kashmir. Like in Afghanistan, also in Kashmir the rise of radical Islamists of the Taliban type does not mean that all armed Kashmiri groups are anyhow connected with radical Islamists. Many continue to be Sufi and national-inspired and strongly reject fundamentalist Islamism. Most of the Kashmiri separatists reject the Taliban model of Islamist rule.
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For President Musharraf, the Kashmir question is an extremely difficult challenge both in foreign and in domestic politics. Open support for Kashmiri guerrillas would lead international condemnation for Pakistan. On the other hand, betraying the cause of the Kashmiris would be devastating for Musharraf's position and support in domestic politics, and surely strengthen the radical elements in Pakistan, as well as alQaida. The Kashmir issue acts as an efficient tool for recruitment and fundraising for the Islamists. In short, the Kashmir issue is for Pakistan's 150 million Muslims of about the same importance as the Palestine issue is for Arabs. The latest attack against Musharraf's life showed that the terrorists had advance information about the president's movements. Probably also among the Pakistani intelligence ISI there are those for whom abandoning the Kashmiri guerrillas has been a bitter disappointment.

Mansoor Ahmed

Geo-strategic importance of Pakistan