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PAST ISSUES Oscillatory Flow Measurement: PART II -- The Complete Guide to
EDITORIAL CALENDAR Understanding Vortex Shedding Flowmeters 5
ADVERTISING INDEX Run New Search C

by: Don Ginesi

WEFTEC Pages: 34-43; July, 2002
September September 28 -
October 2, 2002
Chicago, IL
ISA
It was Theodore von Karman who discovered that when a •A
October 21-24 non-streamlined object (also called a bluff body) is placed in the •C
Chicago, IL path of a fast moving stream, the fluid is unable to remain •F
Search for More Events
attached to the object on its downstream sides, and will •F
alternately separate from one side and then the other. The fluid in •G
the boundary layer on the bluff body becomes detached and curls •L
back on itself. The result of this separation and back flow is the •M
formation of vortices (also called whirlpools or eddies). •P
•P
Vortex formation causes fluid on that side of the bluff body •P
to move with higher velocity than the fluid on the other side. •R
F
Therefore, the fluid on the side of the vortex exerts less pressure •S
than the fluid on the other side because it has greater kinetic •S
energy (and less potential energy). Initially, a vortex is in a fixed •S
position relative to the bluff body. But the vortex grows in strength •S
and size, and eventually detaches itself, and "sheds" •T
downstream. Then, the process reverses itself, with a vortex •T
being created on the other side of the bluff body. This process •V
creates a vortex street that extends downstream of the bluff body,
having alternating vortices spaced at equal distances. You can
actually see vortex shedding occur in water flowing through clear
plastic piping with the aid of a strobe light. The vortex has an
appearance that can be likened to that of a miniature tornado.
However, where a tornado is funnel shaped, the vortex is shaped
more like a column of fluid, as wide at the base as at the top,
stretching across the entire pipe diameter.

The vortex shedding phenomenon occurs in nature. A

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classic example is a flag waving in the wind. Vortices are shed

from the flagpole, acting as a bluff body, under a moderate wind.
The alternating high and low pressure zones created by the
vortices on each side of the flag cause it to ripple. Vortex
shedding also occurs around bridge piers and pilings, around
offshore drilling platform supports and around tall buildings.
Engineers must take the vortex shedding phenomenon into
account when designing these structures to avoid damage to
objects in the path of the vortex street. In a closed piping system,
the vortex effect is dissipated within a few pipe diameters
downstream of the bluff body and is not likely to cause any
problem to downstream equipment.

Vortex Shedding Meter Design

A vortex flowmeter generally consists of the flowmeter

body and an electronics housing (the electronics can be remote
mounted for safety or convenience). The flowmeter body contains
the bluff body and the sensor assembly. The meter is typically
made from 316 stainless steel or Hastelloy. Vortex meters can
theoretically be made of any material, but are only truly cost
effective in these two. Vortex meters offer a low cost of ownership
and are competitive with orifice meters in regards to installed cost
for sizes 6” or less. Wafer body meters (flangeless), that insert
between process flanges in the pipeline, are available in sizes
from 1” to 8,” and are fully rated for service between ANSI 150,
300 and 600 flanges. Flanged body meters are available in sizes
½” to 12.” Wafer meters have the lowest cost. However, wafer
meters require longer mounting bolts and may not be
recommended for hazardous fluids or processes that can have
severe temperature cycling.

A satisfactory theory of vortex shedding does not exist to

allow bluff bodies to be designed. Rather, bluff body shapes and
dimensions have been experimentally determined to achieve the
desired balance of characteristics. There are some bluff body
features that are universal to all shapes. First, the bluff body must
have a width, which is a large enough fraction of the pipe
diameter so that the entire flow participates in the shedding.
Second, the bluff body must have protruding edges on the
upstream face to fix lines of flow separation, regardless of the flow
rate. Third, the bluff body length in the direction of flow must be a
certain multiple of the bluff body width. All different kinds of
shapes for bluff bodies exist (square, rectangular, t-shaped,
trapezoidal, etc.). Testing has shown that the linearity, low
Reynolds number limitation and sensitivity to velocity profile
distortion/swirl vary slightly with bluff body shape. However, no
testing has proven any one particular design to be substantially

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better than another.

Many different sensing technologies have been used over

the past 25 years to detect vortex formation. The vast majority of
vortex meters sold today employ piezoelectric or capacitance
sensing technologies that respond to the oscillating pressures
around the bluff body by producing a low voltage output having
the same frequency. These detectors are modular, inexpensive,
easily replaceable and operable over wide temperature ranges.

This technology allows the vortex meter to measure fluids

as diverse as cryogenic liquids to superheated steam. It is the
location of the sensor within the meter that gives rise to any
design advantages for specific applications. Sensors can be
located inside the meter body and be wetted by the fluid. The
vortex pressure pulses directly stress a wetted sensor. Wetted
sensors need hardened cases that can withstand process
conditions and fluid corrosion/erosion. Sensors can also be
located outside of the meter body. The external sensor is located
so as to come into contact with a part of the meter body that does
make contact with the fluid. The pressure oscillations cause this
part to move, twist, bend, flex, etc., which, in turn, stresses the
external sensor in contact with it. Meters with external sensors
may be advantageous on extremely corrosive fluids, but can be
more sensitive to vibration effects, and may not have the low flow
sensitivity of wetted sensor designs.

The electronics housing contains an electronics module

assembly, termination connections and a rate indicator/totalizer.
The housing is generally rated explosion-proof and weatherproof.
The meter electronics accept the raw voltage input from the
sensor and produce a conditioned pulse output for driving an
external totalizer, and/or an analog output signal proportional to
flow rate. All manufacturers now offer intelligent electronics
options as well, which produce digital output (HART, Fieldbus
Foundation, Profibus) that can directly interface to a distributed
control system and allow bi-directional communications between
the system and transmitter. Means are normally provided to allow
the user to change the transmitter configuration in the field. The
user can use buttons to change the configuration in non-
hazardous areas, which permits removal of the housing cover.
Alternatively, the user can use a magnetic wand, if available, to
change the configuration (by activating magnetic sensors in the
electronics through the glass in the housing cover) in hazardous
areas.

Vortex Shedding Application Information

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Vortex meters are compatible with low viscosity (< 8 cp)

liquids, gases and steam. Higher viscosity liquids can be
measured, but at the expense of rangeability, and vortex meters
are not practical for fluids greater than 15 cp. Most vortex meters
will yield 1 percent of rate accuracy or better for all Reynolds
numbers from 20,000 to as high as 10,000,000. While vortex
shedding can occur at Reynolds numbers greater than 3,000,
experimental data has shown that the meter factor value changes
for 3,000 < Re < 10,000 by as much as 10 percent. This change
in the value of the K factor is non-linear and hard to predict.
Therefore, measurement at reduced Reynolds numbers can only
be made with reduced accuracy (but good repeatability).

Vortex meter performance is not affected by as many real

world parameters as orifice plates and turbine meters, and many
users of these technologies have switched to vortex meters to
improve measurement accuracy and reduce maintenance costs.

Vortex meters measure velocity, and infer actual

volumetric flow rate from the known geometry of the meter body.
In many cases, especially with gases, the user wants to measure
flow in standard volumetric rate, or mass rate. Vortex meters can
be programmed to internally convert actual volumetric rate into
standard volumetric or mass rate if the fluid density is constant
(e.g., the process pressure and/or temperature are controlled).
Otherwise, the vortex meter can be used to measure standard or
mass rate when used with a flow computer and external pressure
and temperature measurements. The vortex meter inputs a signal
to the flow computer corresponding to actual volumetric rate. The
fluid density is constantly computed (using programmed
algorithms or tables) from the temperature and pressure
measurements. Instantaneous mass or standard volumetric rate
is obtained by multiplying the actual volumetric rate from the
vortex meter with the computed density value.

The vortex meter does not measure to true zero flow.

There is a flow cut-off point below which the meter output is
automatically clamped at zero (4 mA for analog output). This is
the lowest possible flow the meter can measure and is calculated
from the process conditions. This is not to be confused with a
programmable low flow cut-off value that the user can enter into
the electronics. For many applications, this flow cut-off value does
not pose a problem. However, this can be a drawback for
applications where flows, during start-up or shutdown operations,
or other upset conditions, can be greatly different than under
normal conditions. Users may want to get an indication of flow
during such conditions, although they may not need to accurately
measure flow, making the use of a vortex meter questionable.

Vortex meters may also be questionable for some

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batching applications, especially when the pipe does not remain

full between batches. The meter will not register flow as the fluid
accelerates from zero to the cut-off value, and as the fluid
decelerates back to zero at the end of the batch. This lost flow
may create significant measurement errors, depending on the
system dynamics, and the size of the batch. Vortex meters are
also unidirectional, and will not measure or subtract any backflow
from the batch total.

There may be a potential problem sizing vortex meters on

existing processes where the flow range to be measured is
completely unknown. Many times the instrument engineer makes
an educated guess on flow range. A vortex meter sized for the
wrong flow range, or wrong process conditions, may need to be
replaced by a different size meter entirely. Other devices, like
magnetic flowmeters, orifice plates and turbine meters, are more
forgiving and can be easily adapted to fit the actual process
conditions after installation.

Measuring gas flows when the process pressure is low

(low-density gases) can be another potential problem for vortex
meters. A vortex produced under such conditions does not have a
strong pressure pulse, especially when fluid velocities are low.
Low-density gases can potentially be measured with a vortex
meter, however, rangeability may be less than the 20:1 stated
previously, and extreme care must be taken in selecting the
correct size meter.

Measurement of multi-phase flow has lower accuracy than

for single-phase fluids. The meter will measure the flow of all
phases present and report it as all liquid or gas (depending on
how the meter is configured). The secondary phase should be
removed, if feasible, before the meter for the highest accuracy.
Any secondary phase should be homogeneously dispersed and
should not have any potential for sticking to or coating the meter.
The most common application of vortex meters on multi-phase
flow is "wet" steam (low quality steam). Ideally, the liquid phase
should be homogeneously dispersed within the steam. More
often, plug flow or stratified flow exists with wet steam flow. In
vertical piping, the trend for wet steam is towards slug flow.
Stratified flow generally develops in horizontal piping, with the
liquid phase flowing along the bottom of the pipe. Under such
situations, flow measurement is difficult. For best results, install
the vortex meter in a horizontal line, with the meter oriented so
the bluff body is in the horizontal plane (i.e., so the liquid phase
passes under the bluff body and does not contribute to the vortex
formation process).

Testing has shown that the vortex meter factor varies

linearly with the moisture content of the steam. This feature can

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be used to determine steam quality from a boiler. One

vortex meter measures the mass of water into the boiler (using a
flow computer with temperature compensation). A second vortex
meter measures the mass flow of steam out of the boiler (using a
flow computer with temperature and pressure compensation). If
the steam is saturated or superheated, the two measurements
should match (to within the measurement accuracy of the
meters). But if the steam is wet, the readings will vary by the
degree of water in the steam.

Pressure drop must also be considered when selecting a

vortex meter. Head loss will normally be less than 6 psi for liquid
(and more typically less than 2 psi) if the meter has the same
nominal size as the process piping. However, downsizing the
vortex meter to achieve desired rangeability (i.e., using a 1” meter
in a 2” line) can increase head losses above these levels. Be
certain that the unrecovered pressure loss will not cause flashing
or cavitation. Flashing and cavitation have an adverse affect on
meter accuracy, and can damage the meter itself.

Fluids that tend to form coatings are bad applications for

vortex meters. Coating build-up on the bluff body will eventually
change its dimensions sufficiently to bias the value of the K factor.

About the Author

Don Ginesi is a chemical engineer with B.E./M.S. degrees

from the Stevens Institute of Technology. He is a senior member
of the ISA, and also a member of ASME, working on several
committees devoted to the development of standards for flow
measurement, including the areas of mass flow and in-situ
proving of flow devices. Ginesi is currently a senior application
engineer for the Automated Technology Products Division of ABB
(Warminster, PA). He has over 25 years of experience in the use
and application of flowmetering devices, having held similar
positions with Union Carbide, Bristol Babcock and Foxboro. He
was a consultant specializing in flow measurement for the four
years prior to his joining ABB.

------ sidebar ------

Installation Recommendations

The vortex meter requires a well-developed and

symmetrical fluid velocity profile -- free from any distortions or
swirl, to achieve stated performance. Sufficient lengths of

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relaxation piping are required upstream/downstream of the

meter to condition the flow. Each manufacturer supplies
guidelines for piping requirements. Generally, these
recommendations are the same as given in ASME Fluid Meters
for a 0.7 β orifice plate. Do not trust general recommendations for
vortex installations. Many manufacturers will state piping
requirements of 15D upstream and 5D downstream. This is
usually the recommendation for a single elbow upstream of the
meter, and not for any combination of fittings preceding the elbow.
Improper installation (misalignment of the meter and/or gaskets or
improper relaxation piping) will affect accuracy, but not
repeatability.

Flow straighteners can be installed upstream of the meter

to reduce the amount of relaxation piping required. Remember
that some relaxation piping is always required, even when a flow
straightener has been installed. For example, 9 diameters of
straight pipe are generally recommended between the discharge
of many flow straighteners and the inlet of the meter. On
approximately 40 percent to 50 percent of all applications, you will
need to install a vortex meter using concentric
reducers/expanders to neck down process piping. Install the
required amount of relaxation piping recommended for the
installation conditions. This relaxation piping must have the same
bore as the meter.

Vortex meters can be installed vertically, horizontally or at

any angle. Allow liquids to flow against gravity to keep the pipe
full. When the liquid is moving with gravity, elevate the
downstream piping above the meter installation level to maintain a
full pipe. Install the meter to avoid standing liquid when the pipe is
empty. Also plan for the installation, so as to avoid formation of
gas bubbles in liquid flow. Check valves may be used when
installing a vortex meter to keep it full of liquid when there is no
active flow in the process.

Mating flanges on the process piping must be of the same

nominal size as on the flowmeter. Flanges with a smooth bore,
similar to weld neck flanges, are preferred. Do not use reducing
flanges. Most performance specifications are based upon using
Schedule 40 or Schedule 80 mating pipe. The mating pipe should
be of good quality, and have an internal surface free from mill
scale, pits, holes, reaming scores, bumps, etc. for a distance of 4
diameters upstream and 2 diameters downstream of the meter.
The bores of the adjacent piping, meter and gaskets must be
carefully aligned to prevent steps.

Control valves should always be installed at least 5D

downstream of the vortex meter. When the control valve must be
located upstream, most manufacturers recommend a minimum of

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30 pipe diameters between the valve and the meter.

Pressure and/or temperature measurements are required

when users want to measure flow in mass units. Pressure taps
can be located upstream or downstream of the meter (within 3 to
4 pipe diameters), and follow the same guidelines as taps for
orifice plates. Temperature elements should be located 5 to 6
diameters downstream and should be as small as possible.

Some vortex meter designs allow sensor replacement

without process shutdown. Vortex meters that require the process
shutdown for sensor replacement will need to be installed using
block valves, or in bypass piping, if unscheduled process
shutdown poses a problem.

Excessive pipe vibration or process noise can affect

vortex measurement accuracy. Mechanical pipe vibration can be
eliminated by placing proper piping supports on either side of the
meter, or by rotating the meter in the process piping so that the
sensor is located in a plane different than the vibration. Process
noise (from chattering valves, steam traps, pumps, etc.) is
hydraulically connected to the meter by the fluid. Process noise
can cause the meter to read higher than expected, or create a
flow signal when there is no flow in the pipe. Vortex electronics
include some kind of noise filtering circuitry.

Increasing the noise reduction in the electronics will

generally remedy process noise effects. However, increasing
noise reduction may adversely affect the low flow sensitivity of the
meter. The ability to filter out the effects of hydraulic noise varies
from design to design and may be an important issue to consider
in selecting a vortex vendor. The vortex meter electronics should
be able to effectively eliminate any adverse effects of hydraulic
noise on the measurement accuracy without reducing the
measurable flow range. Use the following guidelines when sizing
a vortex meter if you feel process noise can be a problem. First,
make sure the maximum flow rate you need to measure is at least
33 percent of the maximum capacity of the meter. Second, the
lowest flow you need to measure should be at least twice the
value of the meter's cut-off flow rate.

Inspect the flowmeter prior to installation and measure the

dimensions of the bluff body width and the inside flow tube
diameter. The ratio of these dimensions can be used to determine
if the flow tube ever requires recalibration for ISO 9000
verification. You can remove the meter after a period of time in
service, and remeasure these dimensions. Manufacturers can
often give you guidelines as to how variations in this ratio will
affect long-term meter accuracy. Of course, the meter must be
flow calibrated to determine the new K factor value if significant

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dimensional variations do occur. -D.G.

------sidebar 2 ------

Vortex Shedding Flow Equations and Sizing

Vortex shedding frequency is directly proportional to the

velocity of the fluid in the pipe, and therefore the volumetric flow
rate. Frequency of shedding is independent of fluid properties,
such as density, viscosity, conductivity, etc. The only limitation is
that turbulent flow must exist for vortex shedding to occur. The
relationship between vortex frequency and fluid velocity is
expressed as:

(1) St = f * d/v

Where St is the Strouhal number, f is the vortex shedding

frequency, d is the width of the bluff body and v is the average
fluid velocity. The value for the Strouhal number is determined
experimentally, and is generally found to be constant over a very
wide range in Reynolds numbers. The Strouhal number
represents the ratio of the interval between vortex shedding and
bluff body width. Normally, a vortex interval is about six times the
shedder width. The Strouhal number is considered to be a
dimensionless calibration factor and can be a basis by which to
characterize differently shaped bluff bodies. Two different bluff
bodies would act identically as vortex shedders if they had
identical Strouhal numbers. Equation (1) can be rearranged as:

(2) v = (f * d)/St

Since volumetric flow rate Q is defined as the product of

the average fluid velocity and the cross sectional area available
for flow (A):

(3) Q = A * v = (A * f * d * B)/St

Where B is the blockage factor and is defined as the full

bore area of the pipe less the blockage area of the bluff body,
divided by the full bore area of the pipe. Equation (3) can be
rewritten as:

(4) Q = f * K

Where K is defined as the meter coefficient. As with other

frequency producing flowmeters, such as turbine meters, the K
factor can be defined as pulses per unit volume (pulses per
gallon, pulses per cubic foot, etc.). All that is needed is to

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determine how many pulses are being generated per unit time to
determine flow rate, or count pulses to totalize flow. Typical vortex
frequencies range from as low as one or two pulses per second,
to thousands of pulses per second, depending upon the flowing
velocity, flowing medium and meter size. Meters measuring gas
normally have frequencies about 10 times the frequencies
encountered on liquid applications.

The K factor is normally determined by calibration in a flow

lab, using a convenient fluid, typically water. Water calibrations
typically cover Reynolds number ranges from 20,000 to the high
hundreds of thousands. Gas and steam applications however,
often correspond to Reynolds numbers in the hundreds of
thousands up to 10,000,000. Testing at various laboratories has
proven the value of the vortex meter factor does vary between
liquid and gas/steam Reynolds number ranges. For this reason,
accuracy of the meter is decreased when used on gas and steam,
based on a water calibration.

In addition, experimental information indicates that the

calibration factor at moderate Reynolds numbers is not sensitive
to edge sharpness or dimensional changes, as those of square
edged orifice meters. Normal erosion of the bluff body due to the
presence of a secondary phase has a minimal affect on the
flowmeter accuracy. This was demonstrated by a two-year test of
a vortex meter on limestone slurry. The K factor of the meter was
found to have changed by approximately 0.3 percent from the
original factory calibration, even though the bluff body and flow
tube were badly scarred and pitted by the slurry. This was a
highly controlled test to determine the effects of erosion on
accuracy, and vortex meters are not recommended for slurry
measurement.

Inherent rangeability is fixed by the size of the meter and

the fluid it will be used on. The sensor generally requires a
minimum strength pressure pulse to be able to distinguish vortex
formation from flow noise (pressure pulse strength is a function of
the product of fluid density times the square of velocity), and
highly turbulent flow must be maintained at all times. For
example, a typical two-inch vortex meter has a flow range of 13 to
290 GPM for water at 60ºF. This range takes into account the
need to maintain turbulent flow under all conditions, and the
minimum pressure pulse requirements of the sensor. The flow
range would be different for other liquids that have a density and
viscosity that differ from water. If the user wants to measure a
specific flow range in a two-inch pipe that does not fall within the
range of the two-inch meter, say 5 to 50 GPM, they would need to
install a meter that could handle that range, in this case a one-
inch vortex meter, into the process piping. You select the vortex
meter size to achieve a desired flow range and never to match the

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process piping. Selecting a vortex meter to match existing piping,

and not to measure the desired flow range, has been the greatest
single reason for misapplication and dissatisfaction. You can
typically expect equal to or greater than 20:1 rangeability on gas
and steam, and equal to or greater than10:1 on liquids, if the
vortex meter has been sized properly for the application.

While vortex meter equations are relatively simple

compared to orifice plates, there are many rules and guidelines
that must be made and which can become quite hard to
remember. Most manufacturers offer free computer software to
allow quick sizing of vortex meters for any application. This
software can be downloaded over the Internet from the
manufacturers Web site. The user just has to enter the fluid
properties (density and viscosity) and desired flow range, and the
program automatically and painlessly does the rest. -D.G.
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