Nikis Notes

Transport systems
Simple organisms Organisms such as Amoeba can rely on simple diffusion to get all of the substances they need. Nutrients and oxygen can diffuse into the cell and waste can diffuse out. This is because these organisms have a large surface area to volume ratio. Because the Amoeba is a single cell, there is less distance for substances to travel, and diffusion is much quicker. Remember: the bigger the organism, the smaller the SA : Vol ratio! Large organisms These organisms are made of lots of cells, so substances need to travel long distances from the outside to the cytoplasm of all the cells. Simple diffusion would not be suitable for this as nutrients would not be able to reach the cells fast enough. Humans use the heart and circulatory system as a mass transport system to do this. Substances are transported through the in the flow of a fluid with a mechanism for moving it around the body. Processes such as osmosis, diffusion and active transport are involved as well. Mass transport system: Features A suitable transport medium A system of vessels to carry substances A way of ensuring that substances are moved in the right direction A quick way of moving materials to meet the needs of the organism or a way of maintaining a concentration gradient.

Nikis Notes

Water in living organisms

Water has the chemical formula HO. Water molecules are described as slightly polarised because they have a slight positive charge at one end of the molecule and a slight negative charge at the other end. As a result, individual molecules form hydrogen bonds with each other. Water is an important solvent in living organisms because most biochemical reactions take place in aqueous solution. Water also has a high boiling point which means that its temperature remains relatively stable despite large changes in the temperature of the surrounding environment. Water is a solvent Water has a very high surface tension Water molecules are amphoteric (can act as an acid and a base)

Nikis Notes

The Heart (Cardiac cycle)

All arteries (except the pulmonary arteries) take oxygenated blood away from the heart. The valves close up to stop blood from going back into the heart. Mammals have a double circulation consisting of a pulmonary (to lungs) and systemic (to the rest of the body) circulations. Blood is transferred to and from the heart twice. Myocardium Thick layer of muscle, its myogenic (Originating in muscle tissue, rather than from nerve impulses) Phase in the cycle Movement of blood Condition of atria Condition of ventricle Blood pressure Bicuspid and tricuspid valves Open Open Closed Semilunar valves

Diastole Atrial Systole Ventricular Systole

Into atria from Relaxed ventricles From atria to Contracted ventricles From ventricles to Relaxed arteries

Relaxed Relaxed Contracted

Low (diastolic) Low/medi um High (systolic)

Closed Closed Open

Nikis Notes Diastole: 1. The heart is at rest and the myocardium is relaxed. 2. The atria and ventricles passively fill with blood (AV valves) 3. The aortic and pulmonary artery semilunar valves are closed, bi and tri are open Atrial Systole: 1. The atria contract and the ventricles relax 2. Remaining blood is forced into the ventricles 3. The bicuspid and tricuspid are open, semi-lunar valves closed Systole: 1. The atria contract and eject the final amount of blood into the ventricles. 2. Ventricular pressure is high. 3. High ventricular pressure relative to the atria causes the AV valves to close, preventing backflow while the ventricles contract. 4. Blood through the semilunar valves out to the lungs and rest of the body. Bi and tri are closed.

Nikis Notes

SA node pacemaker, because it determines the rate of contraction of the rest of the cardiac muscle (Where the vena cava enters the right atrium) Intrinsic rhythmicity In early embryo cells that are destined to become the heart, begin contracting long before the heart forms.

Nikis Notes Factors that affect membrane fluidity 1. Temperature at lower temps, lipids have less kinetic energy so are packed more tightly, decreasing fluidity. High temps = loose lipids, more fluidity. 2. Lipids Long with saturated tails have a high melting point, which decreases fluidity. The straight unkinked fatty acid chains mean the lipid molecules can pack together more tightly. 3. Cholesterol (Normal body temp) Low levels can make the membrane too fluid, and may cause the cell to burst. At low temps, cholesterol prevents the membrane from solidifying so it maintains fluidity. At body temp, high levels interact with the phospholipid tails, decreasing fluidity.

Phospholipids Act as a barrier to most molecules Cholesterol Helps control membrane fluidity Glycoproteins/Glycolipids Involved in cell recognition, cell signalling, cell attachment Integral Proteins Transport molecules across the membrane or catalyse reactions

Nikis Notes

Diffusion and gas exchange

Facilitated diffusion proteins in the membrane allow only specific substances to move through passively down their concentration gradient.

Osmosis Hypotonic The osmotic concentration of solutes is lower than that in the cytoplasm of the cells. Water enters the cell. Isotonic There is no net gain or loss of water. The solution has the same osmotic concentration as the cell. Hypertonic The osmotic concentration of solutes is higher than that in the cytoplasm. Water leaves the cell.

Factors affecting the rate of diffusion: The surface area The concentration gradient of the particles diffusing The distance over which diffusion is taking place

Ficks law The rate at which a substance of a given size will diffuse at a known temperature.

Nikis Notes

Blood
Plasma - mostly water with dissolved nutrients, salts, hormones and proteins Largely water Contains fibrinogen, a substance vital for blood clotting Contains a range of dissolve substances

Platelets cell fragments involved in blood clotting Tiny fragments of larger cells called megakaryocytes found in bone marrow

White Blood cells (leucocytes) help fight infection Much larger than erythrocytes but can change their shape to fit through small blood vessels Between 4000 and 10000 per cubic ml of blood Most are formed I bone marrow of long bones (e.g. humerus and femurs)

Red Blood cells (erythrocytes) 45% of the total blood volumes A cubic ml of blood contains 5 million RBCs We can make 20 million RBCs per sec. They live for about 100 days Have no nucleus (haemoglobin has replaced it) Biconcave discs that contain haemoglobin (a red pigment) which carries oxygen Formed in the bone marrow of short bones (e.g. ribs)

Nikis Notes

The vessels
Arteries They carry blood away from the heart (except pulmonary artery) Arteries near the heart have the most elastic fibres to withstand high blood pressure Blood pressure in the arteries decreases the further away it is from the heart The diameter of the lumen changes. It increases when it is stretched by the flow of blood The smaller the lumen, the harder it is for blood to pass through the vessel The large arteries have the lowest total area, but the highest velocity and blood pressure.

Veins The smooth muscle is thinner, with less elastic tissue They dont withstand the same pressure They have a very low area and blood pressure, but a very high velocity Many veins contain valves

Capillaries The walls consist of a single layer of epithelial cells. Very low blood pressure and velocity but very high total area The diameter is usually 7m (micrometers), the same as that of a red blood cell.

Feature Walls permeable Collagen fibres present in wall Endothelium present Series of valves present

Arteries No Yes Yes No

Veins No Yes Yes Yes

Capillaries Yes No Yes No

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Gas exchange in the alveoli

Inhalation (active) The muscles around the diaphragm contract and it is lowered and flattened. The intercostals muscles between the ribs also contract, raising the rib cage upwards and outwards. The volume of the chest cavity increases, reducing the pressure in the cavity. This pressure is now lower than the pressure of the atmospheric air outside, so to equalise the pressure, air moves in through the trachea, bronchi and bronchioles into the lungs.

Exhalation (passive) The muscles around the diaphragm relax, so it moves back into its resting dome shape. The intercostals muscles relax and move down and in. The volume of the chest cavity decreases, causing an increase in pressure. This pressure in the chest cavity is now greater than that of atmospheric air, so air moves out of the lungs to the outside air.

Nikis Notes Heart disease There are two main kinds of heart disease: Angina Myocardial infarction (heart attack)

Both are closely linked to atherosclerosis in the coronary arteries. How can atherosclerosis lead to angina and myocardial infarction (MI)? Eventually the narrowed artery wont be able to supply enough oxygenated blood and the heart muscle will resort to anaerobic respiration. This can cause a gripping pain in the chest, arms and jaw angina. Angina can be treated. (Angiograms show blocked arteries) If one of the branches of the coronary artery becomes completely blocked, part of the muscle will be starved of oxygen and MI will result. MI are often caused by blood clots as a result of atherosclerosis. The wall of an artery with a plaque can become stiffened and more likely to crack. Platelets that come into contact with the damaged surface will trigger the clotting cascade. A thrombus is formed. The size and severity of the heart attack is related to the position of the blockage. Early warning signs of a heart attack: Pressure in centre of chest Pain in shoulders, neck or arms Chest discomfort with fainting, sweating or nausea

In such an event, call an ambulance and take 2 aspirins. A stroke is an interruption to the normal blood supply of the brain. This can be caused by a blood clot, an atheroma or both. Sometimes it can be caused by a blood clot that has formed somewhere else in the body and broken away. A blockage in one of the main arteries is likely to lead to death. Symptoms: Dizziness Confusion Slurred speech Blurred vision or loss of vision (usually one eye) Paralysis of one side of the body