Harvesting Water From Above and Below the Surface: A Study of

Indigenous and Modern Drought Coping Strategies in Baluchistan and

Cholistan (Punjab)
AADEEM OMAR
and
ZAHID ALI
Center for Culture and Development
Pakistan
212
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction: Water Harvesting Measures as a Drought Coping
Strategies in Pakistan 1
2. Objectives and the Scope of Study. 5
3. Methodology
4. Limitations 7
5. Drought Definition and Impact 9
. Drought Management in Pakistan: Policy and Institutions. 11
.1. Pakistan Meteorological Department (PMD) 12
.2. Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock (MIAFAL) 13
.3 Emergency Relief Cell (ERC) within Cabinet Division 13
.3.Ministry of Science & 1echnology (MOS1) 14
.5. Drought Emergency Relief Assistance Program (DERA-P) 15
.. Aational Steering Committee (ASC) 15
.7. Aational Disasater Management Authority (ADMA) 1
.8. Arid Zone Research Center (AZRC) 1
.9. Provincial Set-up in Baluchistan and Bahawalpur, Cholistan. 1
.1. District Level Set Up. 17
7.. Project Area Ethnographic Profile : Baluchistan Province 18
7.1.1. District Profile: Mustung 2
7.1.2. Intervention Mapping: Mustung district. 34
8. Drought Mitigation through Cround Water Resource Harvesting
in Baluchistan. 38
8.1. Indigenous Copying Strategies 4
8.2. Modern Macro Management 5
8.3. Conclusions 53
9. Project Area Ethnographic Profike: Punjab, Bahawalpur 54
9.1.1.District Bahawalpur-Cholistan 54
9.1.2. Intervention Mapping: Cholistan
10. Drought Mitigation through Ground Water Resource Harvesting
in Cholistan 72
1.1. Indigenous Copying Straggles. 72
1.2. Modern Macro Management. 8
1.3. Conclusions. 82
11. Conclusions and Recommendations: 83
References 91
Annexure-I 94
Annexure-II 97
1. Introduction: Water Harvesting Measures as a Drought Coping Strategies in Pakistan
Pakistan, largely an agricultural country, is home to a population oI 160 million. Agriculture being the
mainstay oI the economy oI the country contributes to 23 percent oI the GDP and employs 43.4 percent
oI the workIorce.
1
Climatically, Pakistan is classiIied as an arid to semi arid country with around 85 per
cent oI the total land area (68 million hectors) lies in the regions where the annual rainIall is less than
300 millimeters. Pakistan is predominately arid with low rainIall and higher solar radiation over most
parts oI the country. The average annual rainIall in Baluchistan and Sindh provinces is about 160 mm
as compared to 400 mm in the Punjab province and about 630 mm in the North-West Frontier Province
(NWFP). The incidence oI rainIall is highly variable with less than 100 mm in Sindh and more than
500 mm near the Ioothills oI Himalayas. ThereIore, even a small negative deviation Irom the low mean
rainIall creates additional water scarcity in the Baluchistan, Sindh and arid areas oI Punjab province
and makes them more vulnerable to drought. Average annual rainIall in the arid and semi arid areas is
200 mm which is insuIIicient Ior growing any crop oI substantial economic importance. More over the
rainIall is unevenly distributed over the year. OI the total rainIall 67 75 per cent occurs in the
monsoon season (July September).
2
Much oI this rainwater goes wasted as runoII. Consequently, with
relatively high average temperatures and meager and erratic rainIall patterns, the water requirement in
most regions oI the country is not being met adequately. Experts have opined that the immediate water
shortages are severe with long term prospects even worse than beIore as the country Iaces the eIIects oI
global climate change and can expect a drought like situation every six years as projected by
meteorologists.
3
The incidence oI drought in Pakistan is becoming increasingly common with substantial consequences
on Iood security, livestock, environment and water resources. Low rainIall and extreme variations in
temperature characterize the climate in Pakistan. The drought phenomenon (dry year) has been
observed to occur in 4 out oI 10 years instead oI 3 out oI 10 years. RainIall dGroundWater2001 was
exceptionally low, I.e, 50 oI the normal, which has deteriroated over the years. This was the longest
dry spell in the country's 55-year history. During this period, the monsoonal rains have lowered only
eastern parts oI Baluchistan with limited and scattered rainIall whereas in large parts oI the western and
1
EconomIc Survey of PakIstan 2007 08
2
PakIstan |et 0epartment, (www.pakmet.gov.pk)
3
ExtractIng Wetness from 0ryness: Water HarvestIng agaInst 0roughts In PakIstan
1
central areas there was no rainIall during this period. The Sindh province and rain-Ied areas oI Punjab
suIIered equally Irom shortage oI water due to the 40 lower average rainIall. Exceptional low
rainIalls during 1997-2001 resulted in low river Ilows with the loss oI both precious human lives and
thousands oI livestock heads, the latter due to shortage oI Iodder crops.The cumulative loss, during
these 4 years was estimated at 43 oI the country's livestock population. According to the UN (2001)
estimates, during 1999-2000 alone, 143 human beings and 2.5 million livestock died due to severe
drought conditions. During this drought period, the loss oI livestock due to the drought was about 40
in Baluchistan and 30 in Punjab.
The drought oI 2001 was one oI the worst in the history oI the country and was widely cited as the
major cause Ior last year's Pakistan's low economic growth rate oI 2.6. Agricultural growth suIIered a
severe setback during 2000-2001 due to the unprecedented drought situation and shortage oI irrigation
water, causing a decline oI 2.5 percent as against an impressive growth oI 6.1 percent the previous year
(PWG 2004). This drought caused a loss oI Rs25 billion (about US$450 million) to the national
exchequer in 2000-2001 (UN 2001). Heavy direct losses due to animal mortality, production losses and
distress sales oI animals have been widely reported. II the productivity levels can be restored to levels
similar to the rest oI the region, then Pakistan should be able to resolve medium- to long-term Iood-
security concerns. UN described that Baluchistan province was adversely aIIected by the drought oI
2000 and low rains in 2001 had signiIicantly worsened the situation. The winter rains in 2001 were
down by 60 to 73 as compared to 1995. According to the provincial authorities, during 2001, 1,911
million people had been aIIected and oI the 9.31 million aIIected livestock 1.76 million had perished. A
total oI 0.798 million hectares oI cultivable land also remained uncultivated due to lack oI water.
Period Sindh Punjab Baluchistan NWFP
Dec to March 14.2 81.1 69.3 228.8
137 260 60 252
Source: Pakistan Agricultural Research Council, 2004
Generally, the economic and human conditions in Baluchistan present a dismal picture oI
underdevelopment. The reasons Ior the state oI aIIairs are many, and have been rightly exploited by the
nationalist parties in the province, leading to the risk oI separatism. Some oI the main reasons Ior
continuous underdevelopment oI Baluchistan range Irom the limited socioeconomic opportunities, lack
2
oI education, poor inIrastructure (particularly road networks), limited cultivable land, scarcity oI water
and irrigation schemes, limited access to health services and a lack oI industry. In addition to deIiciency
oI rains, there are two other reasons responsible Ior the present drought, which are the rise in
temperature and extraction oI groundwater. Due to high evaporation values, the lakes and the normal
wells have dried up causing serious deIiciency oI water.The groundwater Irom the surIace down to 50
meters is used by plants and trees and, thereIore, vegetation in these areas has vanished and even the
survival oI huge trees is at risk (Shakir 2006). The unchecked growth in the number oI tube wells in the
province have led to the depletion oI water tables and consequent drying up oI Karez, the perennial
source oI water supply even at the times oI water scarcity. The management oI Karez through an
intricate system oI land tenure, and social organization has also begun to collapse leading to a collapse
oI customary system oI water resource management.
Almost all the provinces oI Pakistan have experienced drought like situation at one time or the other.
However, in the recent years, drought has brought extensive damage to Baluchistan, Sindh and
Southern Punjab province. AIter the heavy rains in 1994-95, which generated Iloods, most oI
Baluchistan and Sindh remained deIicient in rainIall Ior almost seven consecutive years. During this
period serious episode triggered in the year 1997 and 2000. The drought cycle Iinally broke when
suIIicient rains occurred in the year 2003, bringing Iloods in the two provinces, playing havoc.
However, in 2004 and 2005, little or no rainIall took place and in southern parts oI Pakistan, causing
serious drought conditions in Thar Desert and Tharparker District, 42 percent oI the residents migrated.
The drought oI year 2001 was termed as worst in the history oI the country, which reduced the
economic growth rate to 2.6 per cent Irom an average oI over six per cent. Furthermore the drought
reduced the country`s ability to produce hydro-electricity
4
.
Drought is a recurring phenomenon and occurs quite Irequently in parts oI Sindh, Punjab and
Baluchistan, characterized by chronic poverty. This recurring phenomenon progressively weakens the
capacity and resource base oI the vulnerable communities. However, the knowledge oI how vulnerable
groups respond to a threat oI drought is essential Ior the community to survive and the outside
interventions to succeed. The application oI indigenous knowledge in the Iace oI hazards is reIerred to
as a coping strategy. The coping strategies Ior combating drought include the components oI early
4
Strengthening National Capacities Ior Multi-Hazard Early Warning and Response System, Pakistan Meteorological
Department, May 2006.
3
warning and drought monitoring, contingency crop planning Ior drought prooIing, integrated watershed
management, improved agronomic (water saving) practices, alternative land use systems; management
oI livestock, animal health and Ieed and Iodder resources and socio-economic aspects. All these
components are essential and important and help in alleviating the impacts oI drought but the most
strategic tool Ior combating and mitigating the drought shall be through enhanced water supplies at the
local level. This may be achieved partially through importing water Irom other less aIIected regions
but more sustainable through water harvesting and conservation in the drought prone region itselI.
Water harvesting, though an age-old practice and the critical Ieature oI arid zone indigenous drought
coping strategy, is emerging as a new paradigm in water resources development and management due
to recent eIIorts oI both government and non-government organizations and several innovative
communities. The shiIt Irom an emphasis on the management oI surIace water to ground and rain
water harvesting has Iundamentally questioned the prominence oI modern macro management oI water
resources, requiring large scale bureaucracies and is leading the way to decentralized, participatory and
community management oI local water resources. Several bright spots` oI successIul water harvesting
measures by the local communities Ior drought prooIing can be easily seen in operation in India,
Pakistan, Iran, China and some other countries. The water resources generated locally help in meeting
domestic and livestock needs, provide water Ior supplementary/deIicit irrigation, enhance groundwater
recharge; reduce storm water discharges, urban Ilood and seawater intrusion in coastal areas.
Participatory management oI water resources ensures eIIective utilization, maintenance and sustainable
operation oI these systems.
Although the communities living in the drought prone areas have relied on water harvesting to cope
with droughts, the knowledge and the social base oI these methods requiring high degree oI
community participation have weakened. In arid zones oI Baluchistan, the key customary methods oI
water harvesting are kare:es, (Underground Water Channel). Saliba (spate irrigation) Khushkhaba and
(rainfed irrigation). In Southern Punjab, Cholistan, Toba (water reservoirs), kund (water tanks), wells
(Khoi) and Bandat (Flash Flood Irrigation) are the central Ieatures oI indigenous drought coping
strartegies oI pastoral ecology. Moreover, the ability oI the local communities and government in
Pakistan and international relieI agencies to deal with droughts is constrained by the absence oI reliable
data oI indigenous water harvesting methods, weak inIormation networks and the proIessional and
4
institutional capacities. In addition, several modern methods oI drought management have also been
introduced in the aIIected regions with varying degrees oI success in meeting its objectives oI eIIective
disaster mitigation. The descriptive inIormation on traditional and new technological interventions is
inadequately available, but there is a complete gap oI quantitative and qualitative inIormation on how
new technologies aIIected the traditional and sustainable interventions like Karez and Tobas. Likewise,
there is hardly any inIormation on the impact oI new technologies in lower water tabling and increasing
the Irequency oI drought spells in the regions. Such adverse eIIects have been observed in the Sindh
province, where numerous studies indicate the indiscriminate use oI groundwater by tube wells have
led to the drying up oI shallow dug-wells and intrusion oI saline water. The promise and perils oI using
customary and methods oI drought management or their mutual co-existence is yet to be established
and Iurther investigation is needed to assess the useIulness oI customary and modern methods in
drought management.
The above understanding is in agreement with an important shiIt in drought management policies in
general a shiIt Iorm contingent drought relieI to drought preparedness. Countries and communities
have begun to be pro-active in their approach to manage the risks as opposed to managing the crisis
(Nairizi, 2003). Water harvesting and conservation measures should be seen in this context oI proactive
drought management approach as a measure oI risk control. The UNDP project on Drought Risk
Mitigation bears this understanding and aims to address these issues Iocusing on selected districts oI
Baluchistan (Mastung,) and Punjab (Bahawalpur-Cholistan). Punjab-Cholistan and Mustung
Baluchistan oIIers unique opportunities Ior documenting the impact oI modern technologies oI water
harvesting on the drying oI kareezes and disuse oI tobas and kunds in Cholistan, which resulted in
shiIting the beneIits oI modern technological interventions to the resource rich Iarmers. The present
study aims to Iill such a gap in the knowledge oI interIace between traditional and modern
technological interventions.
2. Objectives and the Scope of Study.
The Iollowing are the objectives and scope oI the study:
! To identiIy and analyze the institutional arrangements and their coordination in drought
5
monitoring, preparedness, response and mitigation at local, district, provincial and Iederal
levels.
! IdentiIy key customary methods oI water resource management as part oI drought coping
strategies historically practiced by the communities at household and village level in a
cultural ecological context.
! IdentiIy key modern methods oI water resource management as part oI drought coping
strategies, delivered by the Iederal, district and provincial governments that co-exist with
customary methods, in a changing cultural ecological context.
! Compare and Analyze the customary and modern methods oI water resource management
Ior eIIective drought mitigation and Iurnish recommendations Ior eIIective drought
mitigation to be achieved through a critical remix oI customary and modern methods.
3. Methodology
The report is based on primary data generated through in-depth interviews with (a) community
members (b) politicians and elected representatives and (c) state oIIicials oI relevant provincial and
district level departments. These interviews were conducted in two selected districts i.e. District
Bahawalpur in Punjab and Mustung in Baluchistan. Prior to going out in the Iield, existing literature
on water resource management was surveyed and relevant interventions were mapped to develop a
Iramework Ior interviews. Separate semi-structured and open-ended questionnaires (see Annex 1) were
used Ior the categories oI respondents mentioned above. In addition, Participatory Rural Appraisal
(PRA) techniques were also employed to gather emic perspective oI most oI the stakeholders. Meetings
were held with Iederal representatives oI drought management institutions and relevant NGOs
conducting relieI measures in the aIIected area, to understand their perceptions and insights gained
Irom experience on relieI works and their impacts on the village population.

The sources oI inIormation would include the Iollowing:
At the community level, interviews with the community leaders and members, Oral history/Case
Studies oI past droughts, participant observation, audio-video materials, photography.
While mapping the institutional Iramework oI the state Ior drought management, there are several other
6
public sector institutions that are critical Ior the drought preparedness as well as mitigation at the
provincial as well as district level. The Iollowing line departments, and government agencies were
contacted Ior Iield inIormation: District and Provincial Departments oI Irrigation, Agriculture and
Livestock, Health, Revenue, Cholistan Development Authority, DCOs, Nazism, Pakistan Agriculture
Research Council, Pakistan Council Ior Research on Water Resource.
Among NGOs, Baluchistan Rural Support Program, National Rural Support Program, Drought
Emergency RelieI Authority, Beage, OxIam, WildliIe among others,
The research on drought is conducted by Arid Zones Research Institute, Pakistan Agriculture Research
Council, Pakistan Council oI Research on Water Resources (PCRWR), Cholistan Institute oI Desert
studies oI Islamia University, Bahawalpur, Desert Research Center oI Pakistan Council oI Research
Water Resources, Bahawalpur, Rangelands and Land & Water Research Institutes oI PARC, Islamabad.
National Arid land Research and Development Institute oI Ministry oI Food and Agriculture,
Islamabad, Cholistan Development Authority, Bahawalpur.
4. Limitations
While every eIIort was made in the Iield to meet as many respondents as possible and pick up
maximum level oI in-depth inIormation about relevant issues, the time available Ior the exercise was
not suIIicient. Particularly, when it comes to studying indigenous institutions and practices which are
rarely documented in the development literature, inspired by theories oI modernization and community
behavior one requires time to build rapport with communities beIore they start opening up to outsiders.
The Iindings oI the study might not be wholly valid Ior all the districts oI Baluchistan and Punjab as
socio-ecological realities vary across the province. However, there are structural similarities in two
locations in respective provinces, which provided a Iair ground to comparative study oI indigenous and
modern techniques oI drought management Ior sustainable use oI water resources.
A large area oI the Bahawalpur district comprise oI desert oI Cholistan, where the impact oI drought is
most sever, in comparison to canal irrigated area oI Bahawalpur. (See Fig X). As a result, the study
chose to Iocus on the nomadic population oI Cholistan, who have survived in the desert with
7
inadequate rainIall Ior hundreds oI years, harvesting rainwater through intricate system oI land tenure.
Historically, the pastoral nomads had reciprocal relationships with settled canal irrigated Iarming
communities on the Iringes oI desert, which still continue, although increasingly constrained by
conIlicting interests. The princely state oI Bahawalpur controlled the nomadic population oI Cholistan
through grazing cess on cattle heads, as well as supported the maintenance oI desert rangelands by
building canals and water reservoirs in the desert.
Cholistan, being part oI the princely state oI Bahawalpur, share many similarities with district,
Mustung, which was also under the administrative control oI princely state oI Kalat. Water resource
management was an integral part oI state administration, where the right to use water were determined
by a complex system oI land tenure. The village level institutions oI water resource management were
highly decentralized and maintained through community sanction as well as the writ oI the princely
state, enIorced through village Iunctionaries, such as Kardars, Numberdars etc. With the abolishment oI
princely states under the populist government oI ZuliIqar Ali Bhutto in 1970s, the structure oI social
organization oI natural resource management began to Iall apart, encouraged by Iederal-provincial
macro-management projects, authored by International development agencies.
8
Illustration 1. Annual Rainfall Regime in Pakistan
Fig. 1. The Map showing the spread of Cholistan desert in three districts of Punfab
5. Drought: Definition and impact
Drought is a recurring climatic event and a global phenomenon, but its Ieatures vary Irom region to
region. Conceptually, drought is considered to describe a situation oI limited rainIall substantially
below what has been established as a normal` value Ior the area concerned, leading to adverse
consequences Ior human welIare. Although drought is a climatically induced phenomenon, its impact
depends on social and economic contexts as well. Considering its complex nature and wide variation
across time and space, it is somewhat impractical to develop a universally applicable deIinition oI
drought.
The deIinition oI drought also depends on the disciplinary perspective. Three such deIinitions based on
meteorological, hydrological and agricultural perspectives are available. (Wilhite and Glantz 1985).
This study mainly utilizes the meteorological deIinition oI drought. It is deIined as a situation in which
actual rainIall is signiIicantly below the long-term average (LTA) Ior the area. Drought is considered to
have occurred when rainIall during the monsoon season is less than 80 per cent oI the LTA. This is
obviously a simpliIied deIinition, which does not take into account Iactors other than the total seasonal
rainIall.
When drought occurs, the agriculture sector is usually the Iirst to be aIIected. Even when the
meteorological drought is over, the adverse economic impact may persist Ior several years, depending
on the nature oI the drought. AIIected Iarmers and cattle herders may deplete their productive assets,
borrow heavily to meet their consumption needs and undergo other adjustments that prevent them Irom
rebounding smoothly to their original level oI production capacity once the drought is over. In addition,
land degradation may occur in the Iorm oI overexploitation oI Iorest, pasture and water resources,
resulting in lower Iuture production capacity. Such adjustments, iI widespread, may adversely aIIect
even the overall long-term agricultural potential oI the ecosystem. Crop response to moisture deIicit
depends on the timing and intensity oI drought. Most annual crops are highly sensitive to moisture
deIicit during the Ilowering and grain-Iormation stages oI growth. Even short periods oI drought during
these critical stages can cause substantial production losses. In addition to the timing and intensity,
aggregate impact oI drought also depends on the spatial covariance. A spatially covariate drought (i.e. a
wide-spread drought covering a large area) will have a much larger impact than that oI a localized one.
9
Drought diIIers Irom other natural disasters in three main aspects (Wilhite 2000). First, it is a creeping
phenomenon`, making its onset and end diIIicult to determine. Its eIIects accumulate slowly over a
considerable period oI time, and may linger Ior years even aIter the termination oI the event. Second,
the absence oI a precise, common deIinition oI drought adds to conIusion about its occurrence and
severity. However, the declaration oI drought is made by the governments, which in most cases is
politically motivated decision, given the huge obligation it imposes on the government Ior drought
mitigation. Third, damage due to drought does not normally involve damage to inIrastructure (unlike
Ilooding, earthquakes, etc.). Due to its less obvious damage, it receives much less attention Irom media,
policymakers and politicians than it warrants. Drought produces a complex set oI highly diIIerentiated
adverse impacts that ripple through many sectors oI the economy and reach Iar beyond the
geographical boundaries.
Illustration 2. Annual Rainfall Regime in Pakistan
10
6. Drought management in Pakistan, public policy and state institutional framework.
Droughts are natural hazards, which have caused distress and havoc since the known history oI the
mankind. Occurrence oI droughts remains certain but their Irequency and intensity are random which
add complexity to planning process necessary to reduce their impact. It is a bitter reality that abnormal
climatic change cannot be averted and man can only takes measures to lessen their impacts on various
disciplines. The eIIectiveness oI any disaster (including drought) coping mechanism in any country is
primarily dependent upon the: (i) institutional capacities available to address the various aspects oI any
disaster e.g. (early warning signals, preparedness, contingency and mitigation plans etc.); and (ii)
technological options/ interventions which can be employed to reduce or even saIeguard the exposure
oI larger communities sectors to drought in that country. The preceding sections will present an
overview oI the institutional arrangements (existing) and available technological measures Ior the
eIIective management oI drought catastrophe under Pakistan`s perspective.
To date, there is no comprehensive drought national policy and eIIective drought management
inIrastructure in place in Pakistan. Although legislation does exist in the country in Iorm oI The West
Pakistan National Calamities (Prevention & Relief) Act, 1958 (GoP, 1958), and a similar legislation in
Baluchistan. The drought management in Pakistan largely draws on on crisis management approach,
where emphasis is based on providing ad hoc relieI support to the aIIected communities. While the
essential ingredients oI proactive disaster management approach, which includes, preparedness, early
warning system, contingency and mitigation plans, among others are singularly lacking. Additionally,
lack oI well trained staII, absence oI modern and sophisticated technologies Ior the development oI
sound early warning systems, poor interdepartmental coordination, poor inIormation collection and
sharing systems, and above all the reactive response approach towards the natural calamities are the
some major constrains Ior proper disaster management in the Pakistan. Although, the National
Development Plan has been complemented by national, provincial and district disaster management
plans, which potentially could provide a proactive methodology Ior creating a new synergetic alliance
among all the disaster management stakeholders, the substantial content oI these plans replicates
thoughtlessly a national prototype and does not exhaustively deal with ecological variations that that
will eventually strengthen the emergency response mechanism.
11
The brieI oI institutional arrangements in the country regarding drought mitigation in the country are
described as below:
6.1. Pakistan Meteorological Department (PMD)
PMD is a Iederal agency under the Ministry oI DeIense which has the mandate to monitor and analyze
various meteorological aspects including drought phenomenon in the country. PMD has established its
200 hundreds regional meteorological centers in all Iour provinces to collect the real time inIormation
about various climatological Iactors. Although PMD, plans to establish hundreds more meteorological
stations all over Pakistan, but no substantial progress has been made to date. A Drought Environmental
Monitoring Center (DEMC) has been established within the organizational setup oI PMD. DEMC has
established Regional Meteorological Centers to collect real time data meteorological parameters and
communicate them to the PMD headquarters Ior analysis. (PMD, 2006). RMC are located in Quetta
(Baluchistan), Karachi (Sindh), Lahore (Punjab) and Peshawar (NWFP).
PMD has the responsibility to monitor, Iorecast and analyze the drought hazard in the country. At PMD
headquarters, data and inIormation received Irom RMC are processed and synthesized using
established criteria related to drought indices to generate indices oI drought parameters Ior a region. II
the numerical indicators suggest the incidence oI drought, then PMD asks the respective meteorological
stations to supplement the climatic Iindings with the physical surveys and ground-truth analysis in the
drought eIIected areas. II the ground-truth surveys also support the empirical Iindings, then PMD
headquarter communicates the drought-alert signals to the Home Secretary oI respective provinces and
Emergency RelieI Cell oI Cabinet Division to take necessary actions in the aIIected areas.
The network oI collecting data on temperature, rainIall, wind speed and stream Ilows etc., does not
meet the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) standards. As a result,its present drought
monitoring system is not capable oI developing sound/early warning system due to a number oI
constrains. First, it is only based on meteorological data available Ior select locations. The hydrological
inIormation about stream Ilows, reservoir and lake levels, snow peaks and glacier analysis, which can
Ilip the scale oI meteorological inIormation is not incorporated. The absence oI such critical
inIormation, in case oI Baluchistan, which exclusively rely on ground water harvesting seriously eIIect
the useIulness oI meteorological inIormation Ior drought mitigation. Secondly, the spatial and temporal
12
variation oI groundwater levels in any region are neither monitored nor utilized Ior water resource
management plans, leaving little scope Ior the data to be used Ior drought monitoring. For instance, in
district Bahawalpur, there is a single meteorological station to monitor the rainIall, which has been
established by PCRWR in Digarh, which is too thinly equipped to measure the rainIall patterns Ior
whole oI Cholistan. Last but not least, the biological and socio-economic aspects are completely
neglected by PMD, as its linkages with the concerned institutions, in case oI Punjab, like Cholistan
Desert Research Institute, Islamia University oI Bahawalpur
6.2. Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock. (MINFAL)
Ministry oI Food, Agriculture and Livestock through its subsidiary body Pakistan Agricultural
Research Council (PARC) is engaged on conducting applied research and various Iield activities in dry
lands, rain Ied areas (barani areas) deserts, project on small ruminants and irrigated tracts. Scope oI
PARC is very broad covering all aspects oI agriculture, Iorestry, watershed management, range
management, irrigation, crop management, soil conservation and land use planning. PARC had
assumed a leading role in preparation oI 'NAP to Combat DesertiIication in Pakistan. AIter
promulgation oI NAP, PARC is streamlining and integrating diIIerent programmes to bring in line with
the objectives oI the UNCCD and NAP.
6.3. Emergency Relief Cell (ERC) within Cabinet Division
A small unit named Emergency RelieI Cell was established in 1974 in the Cabinet Division to
coordinate various relieI driven activities in disaster aIIected areas oI the country and prepared a
13
Illustration 3. Meteorological Station at
Dingarh
Illustration 4. Closed Jiew of Temperature
Gages
National Disaster Plan..The purpose oI the Disaster Plan was to establish procedures, prescribe an
organizational set up, Iix primary responsibilities and support Iunctions oI the implementing agencies
involved and standardize procedures Ior monitoring oI the disaster operations. The plan embraces all
disaster situations and envisages utilizations oI available resources governmental, semi governmental,
and non-governmental. Being action oriented, Iunctional and Ilexible, the plan is capable oI meeting
disaster situations oI various intensity as well as multiple contingencies.
ERC is primarily responsible Ior providing assistance in cash and relieI materials to supplement the
resources oI provincial governments during disaster episodes like drought. It is equipped to maintain
liaison with international aid giving agencies, volunteer organizations and donor countries Ior disaster
relieI measures. To administer the Prime Minister`s Food RelieI Fund at Iederal level and provide
logistic support and mobility Iacilities like helicopter Ior rescue and relieI operations during the disaster
period.
To accomplish these responsibilities in drought aIIected areas the Iollowing inIrastructure exists at
ERC. The Emergency Control Room oI the ERC is the command center oI disaster mitigating
activities, and coordinates with Engineers Directorate oI Pakistan Army, Federal Flood Commission,
Pakistan Meteorological Department, Provincial RelieI Commissions among others. Warehouse oI
Emergency RelieI Cell is a site Ior stockpiling oI essential relieI items to be used during emergency
situations. The Warehouse has basic non-persibale medicines and non-perishable goods like blankets,
clothing and tents etc that can be rushed to the aIIected areas at the short notice.
However, very small organizational structure, very weak coordination with the other stakeholders oI
disaster management in the country, lack oI Iunds etc. may be regarded as its main constraints Ior
proper Iunctioning.
6.4. Ministry of Science & Technology (MOST)
MOST initiated desertiIication assessment and control activities under Pakistan DesertiIication
Monitoring Unit (PADMU) in 1982. AIter promulgation oI NAP, MOST has become an important
Government partner in implementing NAP through its attached organization Pakistan Council Ior
Research in Water Resources (PCRWP).
14
6.5. Drought Emergency Relief Assistance Program (DERA-P)
For the systematic rehabilitation oI the drought aIIected areas oI the country, through short, medium
and long-term schemes, the Government designed Drought Emergency RelieI Assistance (DERA)
program in 19XX. For the execution oI DERA activities, the Iunding was requested Irom international
donor agencies. The Asian Development Bank (ADB) and the World Bank (WB) responded the request
Irom GoP and total loan oI 140 million US $ was approved by them (the share oI ADB was US $ 100
million while, WB contributed 40 million US $). Out oI a total DERA Iunding oI US 160 million, the
share oI Sindh and Baluchistan was 30 each, while allocations Ior Punjab and NWFP were 25 and
15 respective.
The Iocus oI the program is on the provision oI sustainable drinking water supplies, water management
and conservation Ior sustainable livelihood (agriculture and livestock), support Ior construction oI
roads and restorations oI drought-aIIected orchards. The program also provides essential social
services. Based on the sources oI Iunding, the DERA program has been subdivided into the Drought
Impact Mitigation and Recovery Component (DIMRC) and DERA component. The sectors identiIied
Ior investment under WB Iunding Ior DRA project in drought aIIected areas oI the country are
irrigation, road construction, agriculture and irrigation Iacilities, where 36, 35, 23 oI the total allocation
under the DERA component were invested . In Baluchistan province, where irrigation was the top
priority sector and where 54 oI the provincial share was spent in the water sector...
The Iunding oI the ADB (DIMRC) is mainly Iocused on water, agriculture, health and road
construction, however, diIIerent provinces have diIIerent priority sector. Unlike Sindh, where 75 oI
the money was spent on road construction, Baluchistan had its thrust on schemes related to water
development. This included installation oI tube wells, rural water supply schemes, construction oI
delay action dams and improvement and renovation oI karezes were accomplished in drought aIIected
areas oI the province. However, lack oI technical expertise, its developmental nature and absolutely
little coordination with the other drought management agencies may be termed as its major set backs to
achieve the desired results.
15
6.6. National Steering Committee (NSC)
For the eIIective coordination and monitoring oI DERA program at Iederal level the government has
appointed Secretary, Planning and Development Division as Federal Drought Coordinator. To assist the
Federal Drought Coordinator, National Steering Committee was established during November 2001
This steering committee has constituted Federal DERA Unit at as its secretariat Ior its working, which
is headed by National Project Director.The primary Iunction oI the steering committee is to analyze and
approve the relieI schemes as submitted by the provincial DERA Units.
6.7. National Disasater Management Authority (NDMA)
he National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), set up in March 2007, is the Iocal point Ior
Coordinating and Iacilitating the implementation oI strategies and programmes on disaster risk
reduction, response and recovery, Its mandate covers the coordination and management oI the whole
spectrum oI disaster risk management; e.g. mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery. NDMA
provides technical guidance to national and provincial stakeholders about Iormulation oI plans,
strategies and programmes Ior disaster risk management. NDMA also works to build capacity oI
national, provincial and local stakeholders.
6.8. Arid Zone Research Center (AZRC)
AZRC, an attached Centre oI PARC, is involved in research in drought prone areas, Iocusing mainly on
agronomic, horticultural, economic and management oI Khushkaba areas and rangelands. AZRC`s
regional stations at Umar Kot (Thar Desert, Sindh), Bahawalpur (Cholistan Desert, Punjab), and Dera
Ismail Khan (Arid tract oI NWFP) are conducting research on local problems and disseminating their
Iindings to the end users. The Center is an important partner in implementing NAP, however, the scope
oI its interventions is very limited i.e. at Iorm or village level. During the last Iew years, AZRC`s
interventions have been brining in positive change in the total productivity oI water scarce areas oI
Baluchistan, Sindh and Punjab.

6.9. Provincial Set-up in Baluchistan and Bahawalpur, Cholistan.
To coordinate, monitor and implement the drought response strategies at provincial level, RelieI
Commission are established under the instruction oI Federal Government in all Iour provinces oI the
Pakistan. In addition to these Commissions, the provinces may have their own mechanism as given
16
below to strengthen the relieI support activities within provincial jurisdictions. The Baluchistan
province has established the Iollowing departments in Quetta.
Provincial RelieI Commission, Drought Crisis Control Centre (DCCC), Provincial Drought
Management Committee(PDMC), Provincial DERA unit.
6.10. District Level Set-up
Although the structure and role oI district level arrangements in the Iorm oI District Drought Control
Committees has also been included in the DERA maniIesto, but these are practically either non-existent
or inactive.
17
7. Project Area Ethnographic Profile: Baluchistan Province
Baluchistan covers 44 oI the total area oI Pakistan and has a population oI 6.6 million (only 5 oI
the country's total population). More than 85 oI this population live in rural areas. Agriculture and
livestock are the main economic activities in the rural areas. Due to traditional and historical practices
in the arid climate oI Baluchistan the rearing oI small ruminants is dominant. Baluchistan contributes
46 sheep, 23 goats and 41 camels to the total animal population in Pakistan. The cultivated area
oI Baluchistan is 1.7 million hectares, out oI which halI is irrigated. An area oI about 4.4 million
hectares is non-cultivable waste, 1.0 million hectares are Iorests and the other 21 million hectares are
covered by rangelands (Nawaz 2000). The average landholding in irrigated areas is between 2 and 5
hectares whereas in rain-Ied areas it varies Irom 2 to 10 hectares.
In most parts oI scarcely populated and semi desert western province oI Baluchistan, groundwater is
the only sustainable source oI irrigation and drinking water. Indus canal supply water to only two
districts in Baluchistan, namely Nisarabad and Dera Murad Jamali. In rest oI 24 districts, spate Ilows
(sailaba) and small surIace streams and under-ground water channels (Karez) irrigate a small part oI
cultivable land, as the large tracts remain uncultivated. Although irrigated crop production plays a
dominant role in the agricultural economy oI Baluchistan, dry land Iarming oI the sailaba (Ilood water)
and khushkhaba (rain-Ied) types has been important Ior the livelihoods oI the majority oI the people.
Both sailaba and khushkhaba systems are Iully dependent on natural precipitation and thereIore their
perIormance keeps on changing with the rainIall patterns. Agriculture in 23 out oI the total 26 districts,
is done through control oI Iloodwater, rain, karezes, springs and tube wells. Presently there are 800
karezes and more than 21,000 tube wells in the province. During 1998-2002 the drought greatly
aIIected the density oI the private tube wells.
The climate ranges Irom semiarid to hyper arid and temperature regimes vary widely Irom cool
temperate to tropical. Cold winters and mild summers characterize the northern highland region. Most
winters receive precipitation ranging Irom 250 to 350 mm. In the southwestern desert zone, the annual
rainIall ranges Irom 50 to 125 mm and the region experiences the hottest summers, with the
temperature rising occasionally above 50 C. Annual evaporation rates are very high ranging Irom
3,200 mm to over 5,000 mm.
18
Although the province is a net importer oI basic Iood staples such as wheat, traditional cereal
production including wheat, rice, barley, sorghum and millet has remained important to its agricultural
economy. The high altitude and the aridity in the atmosphere provide an ideal environment Ior the
production oI quality deciduous Iruits in Baluchistan. The province's share oI many deciduous Iruits
like apple, plum, pear, apricot, peach and pomegranate and non-deciduous Iruits like date ranges Irom
35 to 85 in Pakistan's total production. The province has an exclusive monopoly in Pakistan Ior the
production oI quality grapes, almond and cumin.
19
Illustration 5. Cumulative Precipitation
!"#"#"$%&'()&*($+),-&./0$$12'(234
The district derives its name Irom Mustung according to locals word "Mastung" is made up oI Mas and
Tung.In Barhvi language Mas means Mountain and Tung mean Hole. Mustung, which was a tehsil oI
district Kalat, was designated as a separate district in 1991. The district Mastung lies between 29' -03'
and 30'- 13' north latitudes and between 66'-25' and 67'-29' east longitudess. It is bounded on the north
by Quetta district,on the east by Sibi district and Bolan district, on the South by Kalat district and on
the west by Chaghi District. It comprises oI thirteen Union Councils. The union councils include,
Isplanji, Spezand, Kanak, Sheikh Wasil, Kirdgap, Shareen Aab, Kad Koucha, Sorgaze, Karez Noth, Ali
Zai, Mustung city-1 and Musting city 2.
Population: With a muslim dominated population oI about 578035 according to 2003 census, the
district is predominantly rural with 70 people living in rural areas
5
. Since 1972, the population has
increased two and a halI times more suggesting a birth rate which is higher than the national average,
but substantially lower than the provincial average. In terms oI population composition, according to
the 1981 census the male/Iemale ratio was 103 males Ior 100 Iemales (1.03). The number oI males was
5
2003 District Census Report Mustung
20
Illustration 6. Location of Mustung District on the Map
66,835 against 65,209 Iemales. InIants (below 1 year) were 3.06. The adult population (i.e. 18 years
and above) was 48.95 and the population eligible to vote (i.e. 21 years and above) was 41.36. The
number oI women oI child bearing age (15 49 years) was 59.62 oI the Iemale population. The
dependent population was about 50 and adult population was about 49.
In terms oI rural-urban dimensions, in 1981, the total population oI the district was 132,000, oI which
87.51 lived in rural areas. OI the rural population 49.1 was Iemale. Only 12.49 oI the total
population resided in urban areas; 51.4 oI them were Iemales. To avert rural-urban migration, it is
essential that rural liIe is made more attractive and the diIIerence in rural and urban income should be
narrowed down through government policies. More than 4/5 oI the population lives in rural areas. The
population density in 1981 was 22.4 person per sq. km and estimated to have increased to 34 persons
per sq. km in 1995. In Mastung there are 280 villages. They are small and lie scattered over the district.
They normally range Irom 10 to 250 households.
The district is economically impoverished with a majority oI people relying on agriculture and cattle
grazing-most unreliable oI trades in a largely arid region. A small percentage oI population, especially
in Mustung city, depends on cross-border smuggling oI goods Irom Iran as a source oI income. There
are also a large number oI people Irom the district working as labourers in GulI countries. Remittances
sent in by these overseas workers provide liIeline Ior many poor Iamilies. Ethnically, the district is
predominantly Baloch with a small AIghan, local Pashto and Urdu speaking population. The main
tribes oI the district are Bangulzai, Shawani, Lehri, Dewar, Sarparha, Raisani,
The geographical area oI district Mastung is 589,600 ha. The Reported area is 436,586 ha, which is
almost 3/4th oI the total geographical area; 38.28 oI the total area is not available Ior cultivation. The
potential area available Ior cultivation is 247,466 ha, oI which nearly 45,600 ha are arable land and
165,466 ha is cultivable waste. Thus more than 165 thousand ha area has potential Ior Iuture
agricultural development, but due to scarcity oI water, the potential has not yet been exploited. The
available data shows that the district is rich in Iorest resources. This resource could be Iurther
developed. The district is mountainous and includes barren lands. There is acute shortage oI water in
the district and wherever water is available people use it Ior high value cash crops like Iruit and
vegetables.
21
Land Use Area Ha oI total district area
Total Geographical Area 589,600 100
Area not Reported 153,014 25.95
Area Reported 436,586 74.05
Area under Forest 143,520 24.34
Culturable waste 82,000 13.90
- Arable land 211,066 35.80
Potential area available Ior
cultivation
293,066 49.70
Source: Irrigation Department, GoB, Quetta. Extra Assistant Director, Agriculture Extension,
Mastung.
The district, due to its Iertile land, holds bright potential Ior agriculture/horticulture development. The
resources oI the district, particularly minerals and land, are under-utilised. Being adjacent to Quetta and
the RCD road, Mastung has much potential Ior development. The use oI modern energy has increased,
however, in rural areas animal dung and wood bushes are still used Ior Iuel purposes. This has given
rise to problems like soil erosion and deIorestation. As an aItermath oI drought which lingers on since
1998, and consequent rampant, water harvesting through tube well irrigation, the water table in the
district has hit the lowest ebb. In various parts oI the district, it ranges Irom 500 Ieet to 1000 Ieet Irom
the ground level. While the district`s underground water resources are depleting Iast, there is relatively
little public action in checking its over exploitation. Despite, sporadic interventions by donors and
NGOs in the province, there is a big gap in the oIIicial drought mitigation policy and the disaster
situation on the ground.
Crops 2005-2006 Area (Ha). Production Tonnes Yield Kg/Ha
Wheat 19,250 36,160 1,982
Barley 5,000 7,580 1,516
Cumin 4,300 2,600 605
Fodder 4,215 98,420 38,127
22
Jowar 70 70 1,000
Melons 394 5,160 13,096
Fruits 3,891 34,083 8,759
Onion 4,170 98,000 23,501
Potato 262 3,700 14,122
Vegetables 692 10,390 15,697
Source: Agriculture Statistics of Balochistan 2005-2006, Quetta.
Political Profile The Mustung city, is a little nondescript town with a bare minimum oI civic
inIrastructure. Nonetheless, it`s a politically vibrant city with a long standing tradition oI radical
nationalist politics. The city is a stronghold oI Balochistan National Party (BNP), while other
nationalist parties such as Jamhori Watan Party (JWP) and Pakistan National Party (PNP-Bizinjo) also
have a substantial presence. A large number oI elected representatives at the local level are aIIiliated
with BNP. However, many councilors are said to be handmaidens oI one tribal leader or the other, who
had them elected using their personal clout. Like many other districts in Pakistan, the relationship
between elected representatives and local bureaucracy is marred by mutual distrust and accusations oI
undue interIerence and non-cooperation.
Despite a tradition oI radical politics and pervasiveness oI progressive political rhetoric, patron-client
relationships still persist within the political system. The basic assumption behind this relationship is
that patron (tribal leader/elected representative/bureaucrat) has access to political and economic
resources that the client needs. The means to gain access to these resources under a patron-client
relationship is Ior the latter to adopt a posture oI deIerence towards the Iormer and/or appeal to and
manipulate personal and kinship ties and codes oI reciprocity (Davis 1977: 132). Such a relationship is
strongly linked with the moral system oI honor and shame. In return Ior access to resources, clients are
obliged to honor the patron by political support or other oIIerings. Patrons usually emerge to control
resources where the state Iails to provide universal access to resources (Gellner 1977:4).
Despite a tradition oI radical politics and pervasiveness oI progressive political rhetoric, patron-client
relationships still persist within the political system. The basic assumption behind this relationship is
23
that patron (tribal leader/elected representative/bureaucrat) has access to political and economic
resources that the client needs. The means to gain access to these resources under a patron-client
relationship is Ior the latter to adopt a posture oI deIerence towards the Iormer and/or appeal to and
manipulate personal and kinship ties and codes oI reciprocity (Davis 1977: 132). Such a relationship is
strongly linked with the moral system oI honor and shame. In return Ior access to resources, clients are
obliged to honor the patron by political support or other oIIerings. Patrons usually emerge to control
resources where the state Iails to provide universal access to resources (Gellner 1977:4).
The religious right represented by Jamiat-e-Ulema-e-Islam (JUI) has some Iollowing in rural areas and
so does Pakistan Peoples Party. The ruling Muslim League has made some political gains recently with
a Iew leading tribal leaders joining the party. Mustungi does not have a separate National Assembly
seat. SigniIicantly, clerics or mosque imams have a ceremonious role conIined to religious duties such
as leading prayers and delivering sermons. Beyond that, they are said to have very little inIluence on
basic social issues including water management.
24
25
Fig. 2. Fruit Tree Harvesting
Illustration 9. Fruit Trees Harvesting bv
Khuskhaba
Illustration 8. Fruit Trees and Cultivated
Fields
Illustration 11. Fruit Tree Harvesting bv
Sailaba
Illustration 10. Arid, Grassv Landscape
with Metaled Road
Illustration 7. Fruit Trees Harvesting bv
Kare:
Access to Driking Water
Access to and availability oI potable water has always been a major problem in Mastung district,
particularly in the rural areas, where people use water Irom wells and perennial streams. Water is
supplied through diIIerent sources: tube wells, hand pumps, open surIace wells, karezes and springs.
Tube wells have by Iar become the major source oI water supply through P.V.C pipes, which have
advantages over iron pipes. According to the estimates provided by P.H.E.D authorities, 40 oI the
total population has been provided with piped drinking water Iacilities. These Iacilities have been
provided to 10,470 houses. All the schemes run by P.H.E.D are either piped schemes or tank schemes.
In the case oI piped schemes water is supplied Irom the source to the houses in pipes. Forty percent oI
the total population in the district has access to potable water supplied by PHED and 59 percent oI the
population is getting water Irom wells, tube wells and perennial water. Local government also provides
community hand pumps. These schemes cover one percent oI the population.
Despite the coverage by PHED, many people still have to Ietch water Irom remote areas. Normally
children and women are involved in this water Ietching activity. Goat skin and rubber containers are
used by women to transport and store the water. In Iar Ilung areas, nomads Iace many problems in
getting drinking water. The management oI water supply in the district is the responsibility oI PHED,
except in Mastung town where the water supply is administered by the Municipal Committee. The
consumers who wish to join the schemes have to be registered with PHED and have to pay the cost oI
connection Irom the main connection to their houses. Local government provides hand pumps to the
community on cost sharing basis. There are many illegal connections in the district. One oI the
common issues raised by community and PHED staII during PRA were the irregular bills, and the
unwillingness oI the powerIul segments to pay their bills. At times the community as a whole reIuses to
pay.
Percentage of Population served
Source Number House Connection Total percentage
Piped water supply 34 10470 40
Perennial streams 10 - 7
Springs - - 1
Karazes - - 1
Wells (open surIace) 733 - 20
26
Hand pumps 7 - 1
Tubewella 2252 - 30
Total 3037 10470 100
Source: Public Health Engineering (PHE) Department, Mustung 2007.
Ground Water Extraction and Public Health Engineering (PHE) Department
The Public Health Engineering Department (PHED) was created in 1987. BeIore, PHED was part oI
the Irrigation Department. The main objective oI the Department is to plan, implement and manage
water supply schemes throughout Balochistan, excluding Quetta City. Among other things it is planned
to provide piped water in suIIicient quantity Ior domestic use. It was also planned to improve the
sewerage system and sanitary conditions. PHED is not yet involved in sanitation works, though it
intends to be in the near Iuture. Through PRA exercises, it transpired that water supply schemes need to
take into account the social and cultural constraints, i.e. tanks and taps should be installed away Irom
public places, enabling women to Ietch the water. The hygienic conditions in the district are very poor,
there is no proper drainage system. Even in the urban areas the state oI sanitation is miserable.
In district Mustung the quality oI ground water varies Irom place to place. In most oI the places where
PHED supplies water, the water is oI very good quality. There have been some studies indicating that
there is potential Ior exploiting water in the district valley, but due to the very low water table it will be
very expensive to use that water in Iuture. According to the Irrigation and PHED authorities in
Mustung district, however, the ground water has much potential. The resource can be developed by
utilizing modern technologies such as drilling Ior tube wells and supply oI electricity Ior the
installation oI tube wells or turbines. Moreover, the communities expressed their preIerence Ior
rehabilitation oI Karez, rather than encouraging private pumping through tube wells.
Sanitation
The prevailing hygienic conditions in the district are not satisIactory. To being with the Mustung town,
which like other cities oI the province have grown without any planning, thereIore it lacks a proper
sewerage system. Due to lack oI education and social and civic responsibilities, the general hygiene
situation is poor. The Iacilities Ior toilet and drainage are quite inadequate. There is no data available to
show the waste disposal method oI the various households. However, it has been observed that a
27
growing number oI households in Mastung have linked their Ilush system with septic tanks. Still most
oI the houses have dry pits in their houses, while in rural areas most oI the people go out into the Iields.
The sanitation Iacilities can be improved by the supply oI water and through awareness among the
masses.
The waste water Irom the houses is disposed oI through open drainage systems. The hygienic
conditions are even worse in the rural areas oI district Mastung. The streets are unpaved and have no
drainage at all. Waste water remains stagnant outside the houses, creating breeding grounds Ior Ilies
and mosquitoes, thus creating health hazards. PHED is not yet involved in sanitation. Local
government, through the municipal committee and town committee is involved in the disposal oI waste
and in the provision oI sanitation Iacilities. According to the Municipal Committee authorities they
have not received any grants Irom the provincial government since 1994. Their income Irom octroi is
not even suIIicient to cope with their non-development expenditure.
Coverage
Water and
Sanitation
Services
Local
Govt.Local
Govt.
Prov. Govt.. Fed. Govt NGONGO Internat.
Donor
Private Entr.
Construction X XX - - x -
Management X XX - - - -
Operation &
Maintenance
X - XX
Legend:
- no involvement, X minor involvement, XX substantial involvement, XXX major involvement
Economic Irfastructure of District Mustung
Economic inIrastructure and communication play a vital role in accelerating the pace oI development;
their advancement is essential Ior expanding the size oI the markets. The construction oI roads
promotes the development oI towns. District Mastung is linked to other parts oI the province by three
national highways, roads and rail.
28
Roads
Road maintenance is the responsibility oI the C&W Department, headed by an Executive Engineer at
district level. There is a network oI SDOs, overseers and other staII. The total length oI roads is 557
km, divided into 269 km oI shingle road and 288 km oI metaled road. The total length oI the three
national highways running through the district is 215 km. The three national highways are: i) Quetta
Kalat Karachi, ii) Quetta Nushki TaItan Iran, and iii) Quetta Sibi Sukkur.
The single roads in the district link all villages within the district and their proportion in provincial
roads is very high. Most shingle roads are in a bad condition.
Type oI Road National
Highway
Provincial
Roads
District Council Other Agencies Total
Metaled (km) 215 73 - - 288
Shingle (km) 0 194 75 269
Total (km) 215 267 75 55
Source:XEN, Provincial B&R Division Mastung
Transport
Mastung has no separate Vehicle Registration OIIice, but Ialls under the oIIice in Quetta. Some
vehicles are registered in Khuzdar. The Vehicle Registration System is the same as in other Districts oI
Balochistan. The procedure Ior imported vehicles is somewhat diIIerent Irom that oI the Pakistani
manuIactured or assembled vehicles. For imported vehicles, the Iollowing documents have to be
produced beIore the authorities: bill oI entry, import permit, octroi receipt, K.P.T. receipt, a bill oI
landing Ior Pakistani manuIactured vehicles, an invoice oI the Iirm, and a sale certiIicate Irom the
distributor. The number oI non-registered vehicles and motorcycles is not available. However, there are
many vehicles smuggled in Irom Iran, because oI the price diIIerence between smuggled and imported
vehicles. The main means oI public transport in the district are vans and buses. A bus services links
almost all main towns and villages. It is diIIicult to estimate the exact number oI passengers. Buses are
normally overloaded. There are 55 vans and 20 buses going daily Irom Mastung to Quetta, Khuzdar,
Nushki, Kalat and Shahdad Kot (Sindh).
29
Railways
The total length oI the railway line which passes through the district is 104 km. There are two tracks.
The Iirst one, Irom Quetta to Sibi, is about 24 km and has three railway stations in Mastung: Spezand,
Mastung Road and Karidoo. The second track, which was completed in 1905, runs Irom Quetta to
TaItan. This track covers 80 km and has stations in Mastung at Spezand, Wali Khan, Kanak, Sheikh
Wasil and Kardigap. Howsoever, in the past Iew decades, the railway on the tracks have been badly
eIIected by the insurgencies in the province.
Radio and Television
There is no radio and television station in Mastung district, but almost every household has a radio or
tape recorder set. Most oI the people listen to programmes Irom Quetta Station. Radio is very popular
in villages and remote areas. It provides the cheapest recreational Iacilities to the people. Radio is also
used to provide educational programs. It is a big source oI entertainment and awareness Ior the public.
The programmes produced by various stations are mostly in local languages. There is no data available
on the number oI television sets. The only proxy Ior the number oI T.V. sets is the number oI issued T.V
licenses, but most radio or television owners are not registered. In the urban areas television sets are
common and every tenth household has a satellite dish.
Telecommunications
The district headquarters Mastung is linked with the nation-wide dialing system. There is a very good
network oI telecommunication in the district. There are many more privately owned public call oIIices
(PCOs) than government PCOs. The number oI registered private PCOs is 2, but some are doing
business without registration. The total number oI household and commercial telephone connections is
483. Other towns, i.e. Spezand, Kirdagab and Kanak, have an operator telephone Fax Iacilities are
available only in the Deputy Commissioner`s oIIice. However, with the spread oI private sector
telecommunications, the mobile phones have become operational in the district and have cut the
reliance oI people on public sector communications.
Post Offices / Courier Services
Post oIIices not only provide postal services oI receiving and distributing letters, but they are also
30
engaged in providing other services like registration and collection oI token Iees oI vehicles and
ammunition etc. Two type oI post oIIices are Iunctioning in the district: sub-post oIIices and branch
post oIIices. A sub-post oIIice is a regular and Iull Iledged post oIIice. It has Iull-time staII, while
branch post oIIices are run by teachers, shop keepers etc. There are 3 sub-post oIIices, in Mastung,
Spezand and Kardigap, and 5 branch post oIIices, in Pringabad, Wali Khan, Kanak, Sheikh Wasil and
Shamsabad. The General Post OIIice (G.P.O) is in Mastung. In remote areas, where it is not possible to
open a Iull Iledged post oIIice, arrangements are made with the school teachers to act as part time
postmaster. Such arrangements were made at 5 places in the district. The part-time postmasters are paid
600 rupees per month Ior their services. The postal service network is operational throughout the
district, but it may not be speedy in the rural areas. There is no proper courier service available in the
district.
Banking/Financial Institutions
The United Bank and the National Bank have a branch in the district. Their services include the
provision oI credit Ior business. The Agricultural Development Bank oI Pakistan (APBP), which
provides loans Ior landowners and Iarmers Ior agricultural activities, also has a branch in Mastung. The
Balochistan Rural Support Programme (BRSP) has launched a small loans scheme Ior the poor so they
can develop economic activities to generate additional income.
Electricity and Gas
Electricity is the most important source oI energy and it is used in many ways. It is used in the
agricultural sector to run the tube wells. In the industrial sector it is vital Ior running machines. For
households, electricity is not only used Ior lighting, but also as a source oI Iuel. Electricity is not
produced locally but is generated at Giddu and Terballa and transmitted to Mastung. There are six grid
stations in the district. There are 12,383 electricity connections, supplied by WAPDA. The number oI
domestic consumers in rural areas is increasing more rapidly, as compared to the number oI industrial
and commercial consumers. The agricultural connections are all tube well connections. According to
the Agricultural Statistics oI Balochistan 2005/2006 the number oI electric tube wells in Mastung was
3,633. DiIIerent rates are charged Ior the above mentioned categories. Domestic users pay according to
their consumption. Incentives are given Ior limited use, by applying lower rates per unit to a certain
maximum. Commercial consumers pay a higher price Ior using electricity. Industries pay according to
31
the type oI machine used, while the agricultural consumers are charged a Ilat rate depending on the
capacity (hp) oI the motor used.
According to WAPDA authorities, 80 oI the population has been provided with electricity
connections. According to oIIicial sources only 15 oI the consumers pay their bills. Due to poor
administrative ability, WAPDA is unable to deliver and recover its bills in time. Currently, WAPDA
tries to recover unpaid bills with the help oI the district administration. As the payment oI the
accumulated bills is very diIIicult Ior the consumers, law and order problems have arisen.
Piped gas supply started in early 1996 in Pringabad Iollowed by Mastung. Since 1996, seventeen
villages have been provided gas connections. Total number oI gas connections up to June, 1997 was
404.
It can be concluded that economic inIrastructure and communication Iacilities are very poor in the rural
areas oI the district. The district has a Iairly good network oI roads, but rural roads are not properly
maintained. TraIIic pressure has increased during the last decade and the roads are not technically able
to sustain that traIIic. Due to urban development, the demand Ior economic inIra-structure services is
increasing. This has been observed particularly in the case oI transport. Due to limited seating capacity
in the buses people have to sit on the rooI oI the buses.
The rural population is getting more and more access to public utilities. However, when the time Ior
payment comes, they are reluctant to pay Ior these services. The number oI domestic consumers oI
electricity vis-a-vis commercial and industrial consumers has increased very rapidly and there is scope
Ior Iurther expansion. The major issue seems to be the gap between demand and supply oI electricity,
giving rise to the load shedding problem. Further development oI gas supply will reduce the need oI
traditional sources oI cooking like wood and as such also help the eIIorts aiming at protection oI the
environment.
32
33
Illustration 12. Mustung Citv Bus Illustration 13. Nationalist Slogans
on the Public Transport Jehicle
Illustration 14. Flag of BNP on the
mud walls of house
Illustration 15. BSO Poster
Illustration 17. Nationalist Wall
Chalking Against Federal
Development
Illustration 16. Electricitv Poles in the
Jillage
6.1.2. Intervention Mapping in Mustung district.
The Iederal government is involved in almost all the major economic inIrastructure services, including
water management particularly where huge investment is needed. Provincial government also plays an
important role, particularly in road works. The intervention oI NGOs in the district can be divided into
two categories: relieI and rehabilitation. In the wake oI earthquake oI June 2007, Islamic RelieI (IR)
started disaster mitigation measures, both to help recover Irom earthquake as well as cope ensuing
drought precipitated by low rainIalls, causing havoc in Balochistan.
With the exception oI BRSP providing loans, the role oI NGOs does not exist in any oI the economic
inIrastructure activities. Local government and international donors are involved in road works. The
private sector is also actively involved in the provision oI certain economic inIrastructure Iacilities,
particularly in transport and in the provision oI gas cylinders.
Baluchistan Rural Support Program (BRSP)
In the non-government sector, Baluchistan Rural Support Program (BRSP) established in 1991 on the
Rural Support Program model, pioneered by Agha Khan Rural Support Program in Northern Areas oI
Pakistan, Iirst comprehensive program Ior participatory sustainable development in the province. In
2001, BRSP developed a comprehensive Integrated Rural Development Program (IRDP), largely
Iocusing in the district Mustung, with Iinancial and technical support oI Poverty Alleviation Fund
(PAAF). Under this program, BRSP Iocused on social mobilization, community physical inIrastructure,
micro-credit, in addition to special projects on health, education, livestock. Lately, the rehabilitation oI
traditional water supply scheme, karez has emerged as one oI the key areas oI intervention. Working
through community organizations, Ior the planning, management and cost sharing oI oI all schemes
under IRDP, BRSP has 85 percent oI rate oI successIul recovery on its project. In 2007, BRSP extended
the scope oI to its work to Zhob, Pishin, Kalat and Kila SaiIullah (BRSP Annual Report 2005-2007).
34

BRSP at Rehabilitation of Karez in Baluchstan
Kare: Dand, was one of the 56 Kare: villages identified bv BRSP for rehabilitation. Located in UC Kare: Noth,
at a distance of 2 km from the Mustung citv, the village comprised of 135 households, with a total population of
827 individuals. The Kare: which had historicallv supplied ample water for agriculture had now a dwindling
supplv of water. Through stakeholders dialog, conducted bv BRSP, it was decided to improve the water supplv
bv undertaking to clean, extend, and linned channels. A irrigation reservoir was to be constructed to save
water wastage to allow cultivation of more than 100 acres of land. Through meetings with water share holders
(Shurka) numbered 47, the cost of the rehabilitation profect was estimated as 2,104,757. Out of the total, Rs
631,427 was to be contributed bv the Shurka and donors PPA contributed Rs, 1,473,330a X of the total
cost. The rehabilitation profect was to be managed bv a committee of village water mangers, headed bv Water-
Master (Mir-a-aab), Master (Malik) and four Mangers (Rais). Six members of Shurka were drafted into the
profect committee, headed bv Water Master, who were responsible for implementation and maintained of the
profect, after its completion. The communitv members were to provide labor and skills and the costs of the
materials and additional skilled labor was assessed at prevailing market rates. Most of the costs incurred on
earthwork excavations, construction of brick masonrv wall, supporting walls, plaster floor....BRSP civil
engineers provided advice on the lavout and excavations, as well as on cleaning and extension of channels
35
36
Illustration 18. BRSP Profect Plaque
Illustration 19. BRSP Development
Advocacv Wall Chalking
Illustration 20. BRSP Water Advocacv
Illustration 21. Kare: Dund Rehabilitated bv
BRSP
Illustration 22. Kare: Dund rehabilitated
bv BRSP
37
Illustration 23. Water Advocacv bv
CBOs
Illustration 24. Communitv Advocacv
for Awareness Around Water Issues
8. Drought Mitigation through Ground Water Resource Harvesting in Baluchistan
In many parts oI scarcely populated semi desert wester Province, groundwaer is the only source oI
irrigation and drinking. Indus canal supply water only to Nasirabad and Dera Mura Jamali districts
only. In the remaining part oI the province, spate Ilows and small surIace streams irrigated a small
portion oI the land, but large tracts remain uncultivated.
Historically, the aquiIiers the underground water channels were only exploited by animal driven
Persian wheels, liIting water Irom shallow wells and by gravity driven Karez water channels. In the
second halI oI the 1960s, dug wells became a popular alternative. This development was stimulated by
a range oI government programmes, that provided subsidized dug wells to Iarmers. Moreover, the
thinking in the 1960s and 1970s was that water was wasted Irom karezes, since they were Ilowing
throughout the year, whereas commercial peak water requirements occurred during a three-month
interval in the summer, when high value Iruit and vegetable crops needed to be irrigated. In addition to
the installation oI subsidized dug wells, well development was Iurther promoted through the provision
oI cheap electricity. For ease oI collection oI dues, a system oI Ilat rates was used Ior most electriIied
tube wells, which Iurther encouraged over pumping, because electricity charges bear no relation to
consumption .

In the same period, improvements in the transport network Iacilitated an upsurge in the cultivation oI
high-value Iruits and vegetables. The expansion oI groundwater irrigated agriculture was unstoppable.
According to oIIicial Iigures, 21.8 oI the perennially irrigated land in the Province was supplied by
groundwater in 1989 (Agricultural Statistics 1989-1990). In 1993, there were oIIicially 9,639
electriIied agricultural wells in Balochistan. To this should be added the substantial number oI electric
tube wells without a legal connection as well as the diesel-driven wells in the valleys that were not yet
connected to the electricity grid. Diesel pump sets also became popular in the commands oI the small
and scattered surIace irrigation systems, where they helped to saIeguard adequate supplies in the
summer irrigation season. In many valleys oI Balochistan, groundwater exploitation soon exceeded
sustainable yields oI conIined aquiIers. Groundwater levels declined at a rate oI 0.25 to 1.10 l/annum
(WAPDA, 1992).
Soon aIter the large-scale introduction oI dug wells in the 1960s, the Ilow oI many nearby karezes was
38
aIIected. This process had a hydrological as well as a social component. At the early proliIeration oI
dug wells many parts oI Balochistan were going through a dry climatic cycle, causing lowered
groundwater tables, Iurther accelerated by the increased withdrawal Irom the new dug wells. Karezes
became less viable and oIten the Iirst to release their share in the communal systems were the larger
Iarmers, who had the resources to develop a private well. The heavy burden Ior maintaining the drying
kareze then Iell increasingly upon smaller Iarmers. The Iinal outcome oIten was the collapse oI the
traditional system (Syukurallah et al, 1990) and a polarization in the access to groundwater. On the
opposite side oI the tally-sheet were land owners who traditionally had no share or only a small share in
the karez supplies and who now made use oI the new technical opportunities and invested in the
development oI dugwells. Water Irom these dug wells was also sold to Iarmers without a well oI their
own.
In the late 1970s, the provincial Government, however, took a number oI initiatives to address the
destruction oI Baluchistan's groundwater reserves. The response, however, was mixed. While the public
subsidies to dug well and tube well development and operation continued, Iunds were now also made
available Ior artiIicial groundwater recharge. Throughout the Province, so-called delay action dams
were constructed, that collected water aIter the sporadic rain storms, in order Ior it to inIiltrate and
contribute to the groundwater stock. The cost eIIectiveness and hydrological eIIectiveness oI these
dams has been questioned: a recent study established that several oI the 110 delays action dams
constructed in the Province up to 1997 had a noticeable impact on groundwater availability (Nippon
Giken Inc., 1997). The average area served by the delay action dams was small (85 ha).

The Balochistan Government was also the Iirst, and so Iar only, provincial Government to issue
legislation to control groundwater mining. In 1978, the Groundwater Rights Administration Ordinance
was announced. The objective oI the new Groundwater Rights Administration Ordinance was "to
regulate the use oI groundwater and to administer the rights oI the various persons therein". Under the
legislation, the groundwater users were considered individuals with a direct relation to the law
implementing agencies. The right oI the various persons were not quantiIiable entitlements as such, but
consisted oI permissions to develop and operate groundwater abstracting inIrastructure. The Ordinance
established the procedures and Iramework within the district civil administration to issue permits Ior
the development oI new karezes, dug wells and tube wells. The relevant authorities were the District
39
Water Committees, composed oI government oIIicials as well as two appointed local notables. BeIore
giving out a permit, the committees would Iirst hear objections Irom surrounding landowners. Appeal
could next be made to the divisional commissioner (representing the next highest administrative level)
and the Provincial Water Board. The permits were indeIinite, as a well owner could always replace a
dried well with a new one.

On paper, the legislation had the makings oI an enabling Iramework Ior local resource management by
involving the local administration as well as tribal elders and allowing Ilexibility in determining usage
rules Ior the common groundwater property. In principle the strategy oI promoting common property
management regimes made sense in the valleys oI tribal Balochistan, but unIortunately the
announcement oI the legislation was not complemented by an eIIort in establishing such local rules.
Since it was not realistic to expect community initiatives to Irame local groundwater management rules
to evolve spontaneously, the legislation Iailed.

From a social perspective, the development oI groundwater exploitation has brought major changes
too. The Ialling groundwater tables in Balochistan led to the decline oI karezes throughout the Province
and denied many Iarmers access to the vital resource. On the other hand, earlier 'have-nots gained
access to groundwater by developing a dug well. In areas, where groundwater has Iallen beyond the
level that can be exploited by a dug well, deep tube wells appeared on the scene. Since the investment
costs oI these tube wells are high, access to groundwater was monopolized by those who could aIIord
the tube well.
5"#"$637&4/3,2'$%),248($9,:;&34$<()=(/4&/'
Karez (Underground Water Channels)
For centuries, liIe in the region has been supported through intricate mechanism oI water resource
management keeping the delicate balance between discharge and recharge. The center piece oI natural
water resource management is called Karez (meaning to work underground) or qanat, which is one oI
the oldest traditional irrigation system being practiced in Baluchistan oI Pakistan, AIghanistan and parts
oI Iran. According to an estimate, there are about 500 karezes in whole oI Baluchistan,some oI which
are over 100 years old (IUCN). Mustung residents report the number oI karez in the district as 286.
40
The Karez was devised as a means oI tapping ground water supplies using gravity Ilowing consist oI a
mother well dug into the water table and connected via tunnel to a string oI wells. The water Ilows by
gravity to a daylight point, Irom where it can be used Ior irrigation. It usually convey and collect
groundwater over a length oI 500 to 3,000 m. The slope oI the karezes is less than the land gradient and
they surIace close to the command areas. Since the system relies upon the passive tapping oI grounder
water, it has no impact on water table. A Karez can be anything Irom 1 to 5 km long, but some are as
long as 50km especially in the past.
A karez is either privately owned by a Iamily and water sold to the members oI community or owned or
managed communally. For the construction oI karez, the Iirst step is to dig a well in the ground to the
appearance oI groundwater, which becomes the mother well, Irom which the water Ilows downward.
More wells are dug in the expected direction oI sub-soil Ilow oI water, each at a distance oI 50-100
meters. A typical karez with all its components is shown Iigure X. The development and maintainence
oI Karez is highly labor intensive. The digging oI long range underground water channels and deep
man holes requires large scale use oI rudimentary technology oI humans, animals and hand digging
implements. As a result, in terms oI social organization, it is simply beyond the capacity oI single
individual either to develop or maintain a Karez as well as the perennial water source is plenty more
than individual needs and beneIits the social group as a whole.
The water distribution oI a Karez is most oIten based on time division, where a share holder is entitled
to the Iull Ilow Ilow oI the channel Ior a Iixed period oI time during a water cycle that revolves over
7-30 days, depending upon the cropping pattern. The magnitude oI an individual water share is pro rata
to the investment made the by the shareholders (Ior his IoreIathers) in the development oI the Karez. In
the same vein, the distribution oI the onus oI recurrent obligations Ior the periodic repair and
maintenance oI the karez is also proportionate to the initial entitlement oI the individual.
Although the initial costs oI establishing karezes are high and in most cases prohibitive Ior individuals,
the karez dug and managed with the help oI community oI land users collectively can oIIer a perennial
source oI ground water supply Ior years. A typical karez in Balochistan will yield anything up to 200
l/sec. and will serve a maximum oI 200 shareholding Iamilies. Not only establishment costs are high:
41
karez maintenance is equally expensive. The cooperative strength oI the karez shareholders is thus
constantly tested.
A committee oI village elders is responsible Ior organizing the labor needed Ior Karee maintainence,
levying penalties on any deIaulters, resolving water related disputes and dealing with other aspects oI
sustainable water management. The head oI the village committee is a person known as Rais
(headman), hisbagar (Accountant), or Mir-a-Aab (head oI water). The position is hereditary or iI the
candidate is not suitable Ior the job, could be elected too and was compensated by the allocation oI
extra water shares or an exemption Irom the onus oI Karez maintenance.
The karez is not only a perennial source oI water but an established socio-cultural institution, which
involves a shared expectations and patterns oI cooperation and conIlict. Commonly the karez share
holders have landholdings distributed along the head, middle and tail reaches oI the main irrigation
channel downstream Irom the daylight point. This ensures that, in addition to every shareholder
retaining an equitable share in the water scarcity. This mutual interdependence oI community Ior
keeping a shared resource intact knit them into a intertwined Iabric oI cooperative enterprise where the
communal mode oI power is the deIining character oI the social organization.
Karez is a permanent source oI water both Ior daily consumption and irrigation purposes, In places,
where supply oI Iresh water is limited karez water is used Ior drinking, washing oI clothes, and utensils
and Ior the construction oI mud clay houses. The karez water brings strong agricultural and livestock
economic interdependency among community members, A key advantage oI the karez is that it delivers
water year round, even in years when rainIall is below the average perennial supply oI karez water
supply allowed horticulture possible, leading to extensive land development and a blossoming
agricultural economy supported entirely through karez.
The traditional water harvesting and management interventions used by the rural communities are
sustainable compared to the introduction oI the new technologies during the last three decades in
Baluchistan. For example, karez as a traditional water harvesting and irrigation system, which was
sustainable Ior the development and utilizations oI scarce water resources oI ground Water in the
Iragile ecosystem oI Baluchistan. The Karez water harnessing and irrigation system was designed local
42
knowledge and skills to address the needs oI the rural communication irrespective oI their Iinancial
position. As a result, both resource rich and poor Iarmers were equally involved in the development oI
karez and the system was aimed to have social equity, where water was available to all households
based on their contribution in the development oI Karez system.
43
Illustration Schematic of a Karez Project:
InIiltration Part oI the Tunnel
(2) Water Conveyance Part oI the Tunnel
(3) The Open Channel
(4) Vertical ShaIts
(5) Small Storage Pond
(6) The Irrigation Area
(7) Sand and Gravel
(8) Layers oI Soil
(9) Groundwater SurIace
44
45
Fig. 4. A chain of Deep Wells in a Row
Fig. 3. A Chain of New Deep Wells in a Row
Fig. 5. Under Ground Water Channel
Access Point
Fig. 6. Underground Water Channel from
Inside
Fig. 7. Kare: Shallow Well
Fig. 8. Kare: Deep Well Covered
46
Fig. 10. The Kare: Water Manager pointing to
the water level in the underground water
channel.
Fig. 9. Kare: well with Wooden Pullev
Fig. 11. Kare: well
Fig. 14. Kare: Water Channel
Fig. 13. Kare: Water Channel. Another
Jiew
47
Fig. 15. Kare: Water Channel Flows in the
Jillage
Fig. 17. Water Diviner
Fig. 16. Jillage Water Diviner
Illustration 25. A PRA Map of Kare:
<:=(/$6))&4=(&,3$,)$<=&.=>=
Spate irrigation is a type oI water management that is unique to semi-arid environments oI the world.
In spate irrigation, Iloodwater Irom mountain catchments is diverted and spread over large areas to
support agriculture through moisture conservation. This is usually done by Iree intakes, by diversions,
spurs or by bunds, that are build across the river bed. The Ilood water typically lasting a Iew hours oI a
Iew days is channeled through a network oI primary, secondary and some times tertiary Ilood channels.
Command areas oI spate irrigation may range Irom year to year depending on intensity and Irequency
oI Iloods.
According to the Agricultural Census, the area under spate irrigation Iluctuates between 30,000 and
150,000 ha. The areas under canal irrigation and minor (including groundwater) irrigation each are
comparable and are 140,000 ha. All spate diversion systems in Baluchistan, however, are marked by
intrinsic uncertainty in water supplies and related to this, a marginal agricultural production system.
The uncertainty in water supplies comes in two shapes. The Iirst is recurrent uncertainty in a way that
water availability diIIers widely between the years: there are either no Iloods or several Iloods. The
Iloods may be too violent to control and wipe out diversion structures in one year, and in the next years,
the Iloods may be mild and controllable. The second element oI uncertainty is the dynamic character oI
spate irrigation in Baluchistan. In the medium term the conIiguration oI the spate system changes: the
bed believe oI the spate rivers, the Ilood channels, and the intake structures need to be adjusted. As a
result oI this dynamic nature, some areas go out oI command because the Ilood channel silts up or
because it sours so much that the Ilood can no longer be controlled and other areas become easier to
irrigate. In the worst case, entire systems are lost, because the river changes its course.
Spate irrigation also supports a low value agriculture. The recurrent uncertainty in water supplies lies at
the root oI it. There may either too much or too little spate Ilows. In the Iirst case the spates may be
beyond control, breaking the diversion structures or the Ilood channels, beIore land is irrigated. In the
alternate scenario, the seasons may not bring any Ilood or only a small Ilood, that peters out beIore it
irrigates all Iields. A variation on these problems is that the downstream water users are deprived,
because upstreams users monopolize the Ilow. A Iurther source oI insecurity is the additional
misconstrue Irom rains at later stages oI crop growth, particularly oI wheat. These rains may not come
48
and the crop may be suitable Ior Iodder only.
The Iarming system oI spate irrigation in Mustung district are dominated by drought resistant, low
yielding sorghum, millet, wheat, pulses, cotton and oilseeds. Most oI the land is under local cultivators.
Even iI optimal conditions were to prevail, crop returns would have diIIiculty competing with alternate
source oI income.
Spate irrigation receivuncertainityly less attention, because oI the general low rates oI returns and the
diIIiculty oI making it work technically. The motivation to invest in spate irrigation ws sometimes
secondary to the spate themselves: the public investment was justiIied on the basis oI ground water
recharge or Ilood protection. However, when Mustung was part oI state oI Kalat, it was directly
involved in the management oI spate irrigation system in Balochistan. The Khan oI Kalat appointed the
Tehsildar Ghandajat, who was to supervise the breaking oI the diIIerent barrages in the Nari River at a
speciIied time. The ruler's vested interest in the spate irrigation was that his land at the tail oI the
system will not be inundated without the smooth Iunctioning oI the system. AIter Kalat State was
dismantled and incorporated in Iederal system, the Iormer administration oI the water rights was
dismantled and the upstream landowners reIused to break their barrages aIter the previously speciIied
time. In the ensuing vacuum, water rights were oIten determined by the relative strength oI the
communities, along the Ilood river rather than by Iormal regulation. In contrast, in the Ilood irrigated
areas oI Punjab, the government involvement has been more persistent. In the colonial period, the
British administration, in order to saIeguard the land revenue Irom the Ilood irrigated areas oI Punjab,
directly managed the use oI Ilood water, and organized the repair oI bunds and Ilood channels by
coercive labor and posted watchmen, who were to break the barrages in time. The system has slackened
somewhat, but still the District Collector supervises the water distribution and timely breaking oI the
earthen bunds in the area. (PARC/UNEP/ESCAP, 1994).
Kushkaba System
The Kushkhaba System comprise oI in-situ conservation oI incidental rain water and catching run oII
Irom large uncultivated blocks and diverting it to cultivated Iields. Fields receive moisture directly
Irom rainIall or Irom localized run-oII. The Khushkhaba is merely a chance cropping with a successIul
crop being raised on an average once in Iive years. The main Ieature oI the Khushkhaba lands
49
distinguishing Irom Sailaba lands is that the catchment area is small and sometimes is not bigger than
the Iield enclosed by embankment or bund. Embankments are made Iacing the hills, so that the natural
gradient
within the bunded area helps the run-oII to collect above the embankment. The area inside the bund is
deliberately leIt uneven with the areas closer to the bund being the lowest. This is done so that in the
case oI high rainIall the run-oII Irom areas upslope collects near the embankments and provides enough
moisture to at least grow crops int eh lower halI oI the Iields (0.5-1) to encourage incidental rainIall
to run oII onto the tilled bunded Iield below to increase its sil moisture content and consequently the
yield oI dry land crop....The Kushakaba cultivation was estimated to be 319106 ha in 1980 and 342074
ha in 2000 and 30687 ha in 2007. (GoP, 2007).
! 1,7/)3$1=*),$1=3=4/?/3(
Tube Well Irrigation
As mentioned earlier, the over-exploitation oI ground water started oII as a enterprise in the 1970s
when Baluchistan was increasingly brought under national electricity gird. Since then as more rural
areas are being electriIied, and government has continued its policy oI imposing Ilat Iee Ior tube well
electricity use in the province, much the same as in neighboring India, the largest groundwater user in
the world. The Ilat rate at present is Rs. 4,000 (US $66.5), whereas the actual average cost oI electricity
Ior operating a tube well round the clock is estimated to be Rs. 52,000 per month (US $867) (Secretary
Irrigation, Government oI Balochistan (GoB), personal communication).
In the 1990s, the trend oI tube well installation accelerated as it coincided with a drought in the second
halI oI the 1990s, which adopted only in 2005. Furthermore, the availability oI cheap AIghan reIugee
labor in Balochistan in the 1990s allowed Ior expansion oI Iruit orchards, providing Iurther impetus Ior
tube well expansion. In 2005, there are approximately 14 400 tube wells in Balochistan receiving an
annual subsidy oI Rs. 7 billion (US $117 million) on electricity alone (Secretary Irrigation, GoB,
personal communication).
@)&*A./$6))&4=(&,3
In Balochistan, Pakistan, irrigation methods currently Iollowed by common Iarmers include the
controlled Ilood irrigation technique on either wide border strips or basins. It is a very simple, cheap
50
method, requiring little maintenance, yet it is also very ineIIicient and wastes almost 50 per cent oI the
precious water during conveyance Irom the source and by leaching Irom the Iield. Modern irrigation
systems have been introduced among the more progressive Iarmers to control water losses and to
improve the eIIiciency oI water usage.
Trickle irrigation is most commonly micro-irrigation and involves dripping water on to the soil at very
low rates (4 to 24 litres/h). It is commonly used in orchards and Ior vine crops, it is adaptable to any
slope, and is applicable to a variety oI soil textures. A typical drip irrigation system can be described as
Iollows: A supply oI water with adequate pressure is essential. Tube wells Iitted with centriIugal
electric pumps, which can pump water directly with a minimum pressure oI 30 Psi at the well outlet,
are the most appropriate. The control head consists oI valves to regulate discharge and pressure in the
entire system. A 200 liter pressurized vessel with an inlet and outlet is used to inject soluble nutrients
into irrigation water with a 140 mesh screen Iilter to clean water Irom any debris and undissolved
nutrients, and it includes gauges to indicate the correct pressure oI the system. Usually a locally
manuIactured PVC pipe connecting diIIerent sub-mains is used as a main line. The sub-main supplies
water to the laterals on one or both sides. The laterals supply water to the emitters - pipes laid on the
ground's surIace to receive water Irom the sub-main. Each lateral has a stopper Ilushing Iacility at the
end. Water drips Irom the emitters at a constant low discharge Irom the lateral to the atmosphere.
The trickle irrigation oIIers marked advantage to the Iarmers. Due to the slow rate oI water application,
the extent oI penetration increases in problem soils. Water savings are made due to the application oI
water around the root zone, especially when trees are young. Frequent light water applications can
maintain soil water within a narrow range, usually closer to soil Iield capacity, and this enhances
growth and increases yields. Because irrigated areas are limited, weed growth is reduced. This system
permits nutrient induction (Iertigation) to the plant root zone in automatic and accurately controlled
quantities. It allows much easier, more eIIicient, and economic control oI weeds and pests. Could be
used successIully on Iields with great slopes where traditional surIace irrigation cannot be applied.
There is a highly eIIicient water application, i.e., 90 per cent.
One oI the major disadvantages oI the system is that it is a costly system and unIordable Ior small
landholders. Most growers are reluctant to plant orchards on all oI their land, and they also practice
51
inter cropping until trees start Iruiting. This inter cropping oI certain vegetables and melons gives
growers a good cash return until their orchards start bearing Iruit, but it is a key constraint in the
adoption oI this system. Drip irrigation results in the accumulation oI tons oI salt at the outer edges oI
wet soil, especially in areas oI low rainIall. The emitters are susceptible to blockage.
Delay Action Dams (DADs)
Tillage operations in Balochistan, Pakistan depend largely on irrigation using groundwater by tube
well, karez irrigation, and Ilood irrigation by spreading the Ilood water Irom hill torrents. In recent
years, excessive groundwater exploitation by tube wells Ior irrigation, corresponding with rapid
expansion oI orchards, has caused considerable lowering oI the groundwater table.
Simultaneously, a mismanagement oI watershed areas Iollowed by a sharp decline in vegetable cover is
accelerating runoII with diminished natural groundwater recharge. To avert the risk oI completely
exhausting underground water resources within a Iew decades, delay action dams (DADs) were
constructed to induce artiIicial recharge. DADs recharge groundwater using Ilood water.
Components oI the system are as Iollows :A DAD is constructed just within the hills where a river or
creek with its Ilood water enters any gravelly Ian. Using modern technology to construct a huge
embankment, a large reservoir is created. This reservoir is located on river alluvium in transition to a
Ian. The stored water is supposed to inIiltrate and percolate to the groundwater. UnIortunately, DADs
are silting up rapidly so that the stored water tends to become Iinite, with water evaporating rather than
inIiltrating.
B/*8=)4/$%=?'
Irrigation department has the sole responsibilities oI establishing small dams and reservoirs to recharge
the basin and to mitigate Iloodwater. Since its inception in 1983 in Mustung, Irrigation department has
established 19 small dams and reservoirs. In 1987, Amaj dam was built with the Iinancial support oI
international donors which has contributed to the rising oI water table in the areas adjacent to the dam.
52
PHED water supply schemes comprising oI tube wells have been dug in the Ioot oI dam, where 24
hour water supply is possible.
9,3*.2'&,3'
As part oI ecological conditions oI arid zones, population in Mustung have adapted to the scarcity oI
water and learned the diIIicult art oI surviving under drought. Their strength laid in cooperative system
oI natural resource management which has been tested to its limit as well as the perennial supply oI
Karez water dwindled. The karez has been threatened Irom two directions: by the Iive-year drought and
by tube well drilling that has lowered the water table. The drought has wreaked havoc on the economy
oI Baluchistan, destroying communities and livelihoods, and reducing livestock herds by 80.Out oI
300 number oI Karezes, 200 have dried up and the socioeconomic organization oI water management
have Iallen apart. In that context, the Karez management has been disrupted with the drying up oI
karez. However, a signiIicant number oI studies on indigenous water management in Baluchistan tends
to corroborate the Iindings oI the present study based on intensive Iield research that there is a adequate
demand Ior indigenous water resource management among the communities in district Mustung. In the
community dialgues conducted by NRSP among 160 villages in the district, management oI water
resources through karez technology was identiIied as the key priority by almost all communities. The
overwhelming support Ior rehabilitation oI Karez among the communities, is contrasted with almost
total disregard Ior indigenous techniques, by the water management agencies.
On the other hand, the state managers oI water resources, such as Irrigation department, lack well-
qualiIied, trained and experienced personnel. The existing staII is mostly busy in the operation and
maintenance oI the ongoing schemes thus Iinding little time to conduct technical surveys, and plan and
design new projects. The department relies on out-dated equipments. Library Iacilities and
computerized access to data are non-existent. The data generated is scanty and has to be oIten guessed
or extrapolated in the design oI water development projects. This is one oI the major constraints in
estimation, scientiIic planning and sustainable development oI water resources in the province.
53
9. Project Area Ethnographic Profile: Punjab, Bahawalpur
Bahawalpur Division (deIunct) is the largest Division oI the Punjab Province oI Pakistan. With a total
surIace area oI 45588 sq. km (11.3 million acres), it houses 7.64 million people. Over 78 percent oI the
total population (7.636 million) oI Bahawalpur Division (deIunct) lives in the rural areas and depends
directly or indirectly on agriculture Ior livelihood. Despite their substantial contribution to both the
provincial and the national economy, the rural masses oI this area have a relatively low per capita
income, suIIer under employment and have highly inadequate access to basic inIrastructure and social
services. This has, over the years, tended to create a weak human resource base. The eventual result is
poverty, the most pernicious oI social evils. The rural poor largely comprise small Iarmers, tenants, and
the landless laborers.
The Bahawalpur city, is the divisional headquarter, lies in 29 22 North and 71' 41 East. In 1748, Nawab
Bahwal Khan I raised a wall around the village oI Muhammad Panah Khan and within it built a town
which he called Bahawalpur aIter his own name. For its irrigation, he dug a canal which ran until early
twentieth century. The traditional walled city grew with time spreading over 3 miles with six gates,
with narrow streets lined with shops into a big bustling city thriving outside the city boundaries. When
the Nawab oI Bahawalpur shiIted the capital oI the state Irom desert city oI Drawar Fort to Bahawalpur
emerged as the nerve center oI the Bahawalpur state: a status that it still enjoys as the divisional
headquarter oI the Punjab province.
Police Stations/Posts, Mauzas, Urban/Rural Union Councils, and Cantonment Boards
By District, The Punjab: As on 31st December, 2007
District Police
Stations
Police
Posts
Mauzas Total Union
Council (UC)
Urban
(UC)
Rural
(UC)
Cantt
Boards
Bahawalpur 22 6 916 107 29 78 1
Source: Bahawalpur Commissioner OIIice Record.
9.1.1. District Profile, Bahawalpur, Cholistan.
A large part oI Bahawalpur district comprise oI parts oI Baluchistan, which is spread over 6655360
54
acres in the districts oI Rahim Yar Khan, Bahawal Nagar and Bahawalpur. Cholistan is an extension oI
the Great Indian Desert, which includes the Thar Desert in Sindh province oI Pakistan and the
Rajasthan Desert in India, covering an area oI 26,330 km. It lies with in the southeast quadrant oI
Punjab province between 2742' and 2945' north latitude and 6952' and 7305' east longitude
(FAO/ADB, 1993).In terms oI general topography, the Cholistan desert consists oI sand dune, sandy
soil, loamy soil, and saline-sodic clayey soil Cholistan desert has a length oI about 480 km while the
width varies Irom 32 km to 192 km. (Khan, 1987). Based on the topography, soil and vegetation, the
whole oI Cholistan comprises oI two topographic regions. The northern region or Lesser Cholistan
borders the canal irrigated areas and covers about within area oI 8081 Sq. km or southern region or
Greater Cholistan which comprise oI an area oI 18852 Sq.kms. The Lesser Cholistan consist oI saline
alluvial Ilats (locally called Dahars) alternating with low sandy ridges. The clayey Ilats oI Lesser
Cholistan are generally homogeneous to at depth ranging Irom 30 to 90 cm. These soils are saline with
pH ranging Irom 8.2 to 8.4, but serve as the main source oI catchments area Ior rainwater. The Greater
Cholistan is a wind resorted sandy desert and comprised oI river terraces, large sand dunes, ridges and
depressions. (Baig et al. 1980; Khan, 1987).
The word Cholistan has multiple derivation, all oI which may equally be true. According to one source,
the word has come Irom Turkish word, Chol, which means a desert, while others consider it a Kurdish-
Iraqi word Cholistan, meaning waterless wasteland. The local word Ior Cholistan Desert is Rohi, which
has been derived Irom Pushtu word Roh, meaning a sandy desert. The people oI Cholistan in turn are
called Rohiala. (Auj, 1987, 1991). According to the last census, the human population in the desert is
about 1.2 million and livestock population is nearly 2.0 million. The population is scattered at diIIerent
places on the availability oI drinking water. Low and sporadic rainIall (166 mm average annual), high
temperatures (up to 550 C in summer), low humidity, high rate oI evaporation and strong summer
winds are the main characteristics oI the climate. The groundwater is mostly saline and unIit Ior human
and livestock drinking (PCRWR, 2004a). The irrigation Iacilities are available during Ilood season only
Ior 75 days i.e. Irom 1st to 15th September. For rest oI the period, the irrigation is dependent on
agriculture. Total number oI notiIied Chaks in Cholistan is 407 out oI which 205 Nos. Chaks are under
irrigation boundary.
For parts oI lesser Cholistan and whole oI Greater Cholistan, rainIall is the primary source oI water,
55
especially sweet drinking water. Rainwater is harvested by collecting in natural depression or man
made ponds locally called 'tobas`. At present, there are 598 tobas in Cholistan where desert dwellers
collect and store rainwater Irom natural catchment. Dahars act as good catchment Ior rainwater
harvesting. Water loss through evaporation Irom such ponded water was estimated as the highest as
compared to seepage losses (Khan etal, 1990). The average rainIall in Cholistan is 199-200 mm. Most
oI the rainIall is received during monsoon seas Irom July to September; however, some oI it may Iall
during winter as well. A large amount oI water is harvested and iI stored properly, can serve human and
livestock as well as can be used Ior raising nurseries and Iorage.
The secondary source oI water is underground water, which is saline and partially Iit Ior drinking and
agricultural purposes. It is tapped through ground water wells, which are sunk near settlements. At
times, however, the brackish water Irom wells is used Ior agricultural as well as domestic purposes.
The absence oI active canal system has led to deep acquiaIiers in Cholistan with neglible
corresponding recharge through rainwater. The changes in the water quality oI wells depends on the
amount and type oI salts present in the soil. The groundwater located at the depths Irom 30 to 90
meters is mostly saline, and two major qualiIiers in Cholistan have sweet water, but they are
surrounded by saline water. (FAO/ADB, 1993). Besides, the sweet water is also present along the
abondoned Hakra River bed.
Low and spatially erratic rainIall, water scarcity is Cholistan is endemic in the region. Low rainIall and
high Iiltration in sandy soil and rapid evaporation preclude the establishment oI permanent sources oI
surIace water in the desert. However, shallow ephemeral lakes are Iormed in dahars, which have highly
impervious loam or clay soils bottom, oIten oI a saline or saline-sodic nature. The dahar is surrounded
by sand dunes so that drainage ends blindly with the dahars. Traditional methods oI water storage and
delivery include soil erosion, prevention, rainwater harvesting, irrigation and drinking water-delivery
structures, some which have survived Ior many centuries. These structures being long lasting prove that
advance procedures had been Iollowed in their design and construction. This indigenous knowledge
has neither been well documented nor scientiIically analyzed in order to utilize it Ior supporting the
sustainable development oI rain Ied, runoII and spate-irrigated Iraming.
Around 4000 B.C. the Cholistan was a cradle oI civilization commonly known as the Hakra valley
56
civilization. This was when the river Hakra Ilowed through the region. The river supplied permanent
water until 1200 B.C. About 600 B.C. it became irregular in Ilow and consequently vanished within
a century or so. The Hakra civilization that Ilourished here was one oI the longest in the course oI
world history. It was also the earliest civilization oI the Indian subcontinent. In cultural advancement it
can be compared with the Mesopotamian, Anatolian, Egyptian, and Babylonian civilizations (FAO
1993). No one is sure how this great Aryan civilization ended. Probably a variety oI problems such as
hostile invading tribes, changes in the course oI the river and depletion oI irrigation Iacilities
contributed to the ultimate disappearance oI this great civilization (Khan 1987; FAO 1993).
It is signiIicant to note that until the late nineteenth century under the princely state oI Bahawalpur, the
system oI water resource management was so eIIective that the State chronicles did not report any
cases oI Iamine at the times oI drought within the state boundaries. In contrast, thousands oI reIugees
Irom the neighboring Rajputana states swarmed the Bahawalpur state. Food and grains were generously
supplied Irom the State granaries to the reIugees and a large number oI them were employed on public
works. The Gazetteer oI Bahawalpur State reports a Iamine in 1896 in Rajputana and the State was
inundated by Bikaner, Jaisalmer and Marwar reIugees, who Iound ample labor on the canals. Three
years later in 1899, again Iamine broke out due to continuous crop Iailure due to inadequate rainIall and
40,000 reIugees Ilooded Irom the neighboring states. Nawab oI Bahawalpur also set up poor houses
(lanagars) at Bahawalpur, Ahamadpur and Dera Nawab where hundreds oI women and children were
Ied by the State oIIicials and no deaths by starvation were reported despite sever drought. Sadly,
hundred years later, the situation in present day Bahawalpur - Cholistan has reversed in Iavor oI Iormer
Rajputana States, where the customary methods oI rain water harvesting, sometimes helped by canal
irrigation have regenerated the desertiIied regions.
57
58
Illustration 27. Cholistan Desert Before
the Rain
Illustration 26. Cholistan Desert After
the Rain
Illustration 28. Camel
Illustration 29. A Rohilla Familv in the
Desert Settlement
Illustration 30. A Rohilla Bov Carrving
Drinking Water from Toba to Jillage
Illustration 31. A Rohilla Bov Collecting
Water from a Toba
Climate
Cholistan Ialls within the arid subtropical continental monsoonal zone. Its low rainIall is highly
variable both in time and space.The mean annual rainIall varies less than 12.5 mm in the west, and 200
mm in the east. Monsoonal rain in the Iorm oI heavy showers usually Iall between July to September,
turning the desert into lush green. During the monsoons, vegetation growth, plant composition, biomass
and plantability is better than rest oI the years. A small amount oI runoII is accumulated in temporary
water holes (tobas) while a large amount evaporates due to high temperature.
According to the table below, the estimated amount oI 350 million cubic meter (Mm) runoII potential is
available Ior storage in the desert, iI the rain water is harvested serving the desert population and
livestock in the times oI drought.
Potential Runoff in the Cholistan Desert
Year Rainfall (mm) Potential Runoff
(mm)
Runoff for Storage in
Cholistan (Mm3)
1989 84.2 38 168
1990 144.1 42 187
1991 173.0 87 385
1992 231.0 115 506
1993 155.9 89 392
1994 299.2 152 672
1995 213.0 131 582
1996 152.0 81 359
1997 201.0 74 327
1998 172.1 65 287
1999 20.0 3 14
2000 126.4 62 273
2001 148.6 50 222
2002 2.0 - -
2003 240.0 106 467
2004 146.1 44 189
2005 177.1 70 292
2006 169.9 62 583
59
Average 160 79 284
Source: Pakistan Meteorological Department, Bahawalpur
Vegetation Cover:
At the conclusion oI monsoon, the range remains green Ior a short period. Aridity intensiIies with
gradual decrease in temperature, Irom 36 C to 14 'C and vegetation cover considerably decreases
grasses and some shrubs dry out partially while Iorbs dry out completely. During the winter, a period
between December and January, the temperature Ialls Irom 27 C to 3 C. In this season, some plans
remain partially green are Calligonm, Haloxylon, Crotalaria and Leptotene, providing Iorage Ior
camels and goats. The most common plants used as supplement oI cereals are Cenchrus, Ciliaris,
Cenchrus, and Cenchras. These grasses are very widely distributed in Cholistan. During the Iamine and
drought years the seeds oI these grasses ground in Ilour and used as supplement (Arshad, etal,
1999).The grains oI Panieum antidote are also consumed as good during the Iamine years. Panicam are
very drought resistant and Iound on high sand dunes and perpeutate by their hardy rhizomes and seeds.
Thet also protect themselves Irom overgrazing because oI their hard and unpalatable stubble. The seeds
oI both species are ground and mixed with other cereals. IndigoIera argentea is wild legume and mostly
Iound during the monsoon on the monsoon on the top oI very high sand dunes oI Greater Cholistan.
During the drought years, the seeds oI this herbage are also ground and mixed with other cereals. In
addition, many indigenous species oI plants contain high percentage oI oils. Citrulus Coloocynthis is a
perennial trailing herb, with Iruit oI sandy tract,which is used in soap industry. It also have high
medical value Ior joint pains in human and stomach ailment in animals (Sen, 1982). An important
specie oI plant used as wind breaker and shelter belt are Prosopis JuliIlora, (Valyati Kiker) Tamarosx
Aphylla (Frash), Prosopis Cineraria (Jandi) and Asccia Nilotica (Kiker).
Cholistan is rich in vegetation resources that can be exploited on commercial basis. The areas was once
green and prosperous, where cultivation was practiced. The source oI irrigation was Hakra River and
with the drying oI river the area was deserted through desertiIication processes and only Iew grazing
lands were leIt.
Socioeconomic Organization of Cholistan
Cholistan desert is home to over 1.2 million pastoral herders who are part oI a large Seraki speaking
ethno-linguistic group, practicing nomadic liIe style Ior centuries. The pastoral system is characterized
60
by mass migrations oI animal and people throughout the year in search oI water and Iorage. The cycle
oI monsoon rainIall dictate the pattern oI nomadic movement oI men and livestock. A supporting
structures oI temporary employment with the irrigated Iarming communities, opportunities Ior
livestock grazing on wheat stubbles, drinking water Ior human and livestock and steady markets Ior
selling selective livestock, and their dairy byproducts. To take maximum advantage oI available
resources, the livestock is mixed in a way that milking cows (and buIIaloes) are kept near the urban
centers where there is potential market Ior their milk, while camels, goats and sheep are sent out to
desert Ior grazing in the pastures. In nomadic culture, livestock is the primary source oI wealth and
well being and a person's socioeconomic status is determined by the number oI livestock that he may
own.
The population oI Cholistan is largely Muslims, divided into exogamous social groups (quoms), which
is extended into matrlineal descent groups (biradaris). Each quoms has a customary leader, Wadda, who
mediates social conIlicts over grazing and distribution oI water, in addition to making critical decisions
about migrations. In case oI negotiations with town Iarmers and government oIIicials, Wadda, role is
signiIicant in social cohesion oI community and protecting its rights, although he is not invested with
judicial authority. Numberdar, is a leader oI the quom/community, who used to be the oIIicial
representative oI the Bahawalpur state under Mughal administration since 1869, now selected by the
Forest Development as a grade 7 oIIicer, and approved by the CDA. He carries the judicial authority to
collect grazing tax (Tarni) Ior which he is compensated with 3 percent oI the annual cattle head tax.
(Jowkar, 1996). Most critically, a Numberdar oI a quom, oversees the water resource management oI
tobas and authorizes its use, which comes critical in case oI drought. In case oI Iailure oI conIlict
resolution, the cases are taken to civil courts Ior decisions, with CDA and Forest Department pursuing
the case on behalI oI the government. A copy oI one such cases is attached as Annex X.
Livestock:
Nomads attach high values to their herds. Livestock are the main source oI their survival and a number
oI cultural norms are linked with the animals. Livestock are Irequently used Ior meat, milk and, giIts.
Communal ceremonies like weddings, Iunerals, and tribal celebrations include slaughtering and
exchange oI animals. A person's status in the desert nomadic liIe style is chieIly represented by the size
oI the herd he owns. All livestock are indigenous breeds well suited to the environment. Herd
61
reproductive perIormance is naturally poor with low birth rates and high mortality.
The number oI livestock are in many cases under reported and discrepancies exist between Iigures
provided by relevant departments. The Livestock Services Department in Bahawalpur, which is directly
concerned with the desert livestock provides Iigures which do not match with the ones collected by
Forestry Department, which indirectly deals with the livestock, however, the latter's census based on
returns oI livestock Irom the Namdaras is considered most reliable. However to Forest Department
oIIicials, they have no means to veriIy the statistics provided by the Nambardar, and they in complicity
with herders continue to under report the Iigures.
Livestock Population:
Specie Number
Camel 2,126
Cows 6,300
Sheep 69,177
Goat 39,395
Total 1,62,883
Source: Forestry Department Census, 2006.
The Forest Department imposes grazing tax on livestock head. It is Rs 18 Ior Camel, Rs 8 Ior a cow
and Rs 2 Ior a sheep or goat. Although the grazing tax receipt serves as the oIIicial domicile oI
residence in Cholistan, which can draw agricultural land entitlements, a large number oI herder chose
not to report their cattle to the Namdar to save even a small amount oI grazing tax which has not been
revised in the decades.
Civic Infrastructure
DraIt animals and carts are extensively used Ior transport in Cholistan, whole motorcycles and tractors
are being increasingly used as the means Ior human travel and transport oI agricultural goods and
services. However, the sparse road inIrastructure and the availability oI expensive motor vehicle Iuel
( Rs 100 per liter) in the desert make their use restricted and work related.
Greater Cholistan has no means oI electriIication at all. The villages on the Iringes oI lesser Cholistan
62
are electriIied in the recent years by the CDA under WAPDA.
The department oI Public Health Engineering (PHED) provides water and sewerage Iacilities in some
rural areas oI Cholistan. As a matter oI policy, the PHED supplies water to those villages where the
sweet ground water is either not available or can hand pumped Irom 15 meters depth. In areas oI its
operations, the PHED hands over the water supply scheme to the community aIter two years oI
running.
63
64
Fig. 20. Cows being herded back to village
Fig. 19. Calfs resting in cattle shed
Illustration 32. Cows being herded back to the
village
Fig. 18. Cattle being herded back to Jillage
after Gra:ing
Fig. 22. Jillage Profile
Fig. 21. Long Shot of a Jillage
65
Fig. 24. Rohilla Women in the Desert
Fig. 23. Rohilla Bovs
Fig. 25. Rohilla Man gra:ing the cattle herd
9.1.2. Intervention Mapping: Cholistan
The presence oI NGOs in Cholistan is limited to ad hoc relieI in case oI sever drought. However there
are large number oI registered NGOS, which are working Ior inIrastructural development and
rangeland management oI Cholistan Ior eIIective drought preparedness...
Cholistan Development Authority (CDA)
In the past Iew decades, the Government oI Pakistan has made substantial inputs in drought mitigation
and preparedness in Cholistan, however, the success oI some projects is rather limited. One oI the
principal ways in which the Government has intervened in the development oI the area is by setting up
Cholistan Development Authority in 1976 with the objectives to improve the socio-economic condition
oI the people oI Cholistan and to tap the development potential oI the region. It has made substantial
impact in two areas: colonization oI government land and development oI physical inIrastructure. Some
oI its main Iunctions include: Iorestation, plantation, cultivation and reclamation oI land; colonization
and allotment oI government land; to provide means oI irrigation, and provision oI drinking water in
the desert.
Over the years, it has extensively surveyed with international collaborations the sweet ground water
resources in the desert and sunk numerous tube wells Ior drinking and irrigation. It also undertakes to
layout or construct chaks, mandi (market) town and human settlements, in addition to provision oI
communication and educational Iacilities to the community. The management and encouragement oI
rural trades, craIts and industries, arrangements Ior marketing oI produce and preservation and
multiplication oI Iorests, vegetation and wildliIe is also included in its diverse portIolios. As a result,
CDA works in conjunction with several other departments, which are involved in the irrigation and
rangeland management oI Cholistan, such as Irrigation, Forestry and WildliIe.
CDA has also emerged as the Iocal point oI development activities in the region. Drought Emergency
RelieI Program, worked through CDA and since 2005 Iour pipelines have come up and the drinking
water has been made available round the year to some extent on the Iringes oI Cholistan desert area oI
District Bahawalnagar and Bahawalpur.
66
A Physical Development wing, which was created in CDA in the year 1988-89 executes development
schemes concerning Iarm to market Roads, water supply schemes, BHUs, veterinary dispensaries and
schools buildings etc. under the supervisions oI VC/MD through an XEN who is assisted by SDOs and
Iield staII. The CDA despite Iinancial constraints has constructed about 61 rainwater-harvesting
reservoirs 108 Kunds, 131 Diggies, 32 Wells, 23 Turbines, 155.20 Kms Link Road, 19-Nos. Village
Road Bridges, 81 Primary School Buildings, 09 Middle School Buildings, 01 High School, 07
Veterinary Dispensaries, 03 Basic Health Unit, One Rest House, 03 Residences and ElectriIication oI
34 Villages. Besides we have laid 4 water pipelines measuring 243 Kms in the desert in the year
2003-04 at a cost oI Rs.404.71 millions under Drought Emergency RelieI Assistance Programme to
mitigate drought on permanent Iootings. 03 water pipeline schemes in District Rahim Yar Khan,
Cholistan measuring 177 kms will be taken up Ior execution shortly under ADP.
The CDA has allocation oI about Rs. 684.519 millions under ADP 2006-07. With the help oI ADP loan,
300 kms. Iarm to market road are being executed. Besides water supply Ior 16 Chaks, electricity Ior 35
Chaks would be provided. In addition, 10 veterinary dispensaries would be constructed.
Pakistan Council of Research on Water Resources (PCRWR)
Water harvesting through traditional methods as a new paradigm in water resources development and
management has led to several successIul examples oI water harvesting Ior drought prooIing can be
easily seen in operation in arid regions oI South Asia and Central Asia. The water resources generated
locally help in meeting domestic and livestock needs, provide water Ior supplementary/deIicit
irrigation, enhance groundwater recharge; reduce storm water discharges, urban Ilood and seawater
intrusion in coastal areas. Participatory management oI water resources ensures eIIective utilization,
maintenance and sustainable operation oI these systems.
Among the key advocates oI this policy is the Pakistan Council oI Research in Water Resources
(PCRWR) which was established in 1964 within the Ministry oI Natural Resources. It was brought
under the control oI Ministry oI Science and Technology in 1970. The Council was renamed as
Pakistan Council oI Research in Water Resources (PCRWR) in 1985. The PCRWR is an apex
autonomous body established with the objective to conduct, organize, coordinate and promote research
in all aspects oI water resources. Since its inception, PCRWR has played its role as a national research
67
organization by undertaking and promoting applied as well as basic research in various disciplines oI
water sector, more speciIically, irrigation, drainage, surIace and groundwater management,
groundwater recharge, watershed management, desertiIication control, rainwater harvesting, , water
quality assessment and monitoring, and development oI innovative water resource management,
conservation and quality improvement technologies, etc.
As a result oI Iield research on rainwater harvesting techniques, PCRWR initiated a 4-year Research
and Development (R&D) Programme in 2001 to make water available in the desert Ior drinking. The
activities were undertaken including reconnaissance survey to identiIy the suitable catchments,
demographic survey to assess water demands, hydrological studies to assess the runoII potential oI the
catchment, topographic survey to determine the slope Ior runoII; development oI catchments to
establish a network oI ditches, soil proIile investigations to determine physical and chemical properties
oI the catchment/pond, design analysis oI rainwater harvesting system to estimate
the quantity oI civil works.

One oI mega R&D project sponsored by the government titled 'Mitigation oI Drought Disasters in
Cholistan Desert by Management oI Water Resources was initiated at a cost oI $ 2.5 m Under the
project, to mitigate the drought in the area, 92 rainwater-harvesting systems and 20 deep tube- wells
were installed to extract sweet water Ior human and livestock use have been developed on pilot scale.
Each system contains the components like storage reservoir, energy dissipater (stair), boundary wall,
silting basin, lined channel, and ditches network in the catchment. The storage pond is designed to
collect about 15000 m3 (4.0 US million gallon) oI water. The depth oI the pond is 6 m. Polyethylene
sheet (0.127 mm) on bed and plastering oI slag mortar (3.81 cm) mixture oI clay, quick lime, wheat
straw and cement on sides oI the pond have been provided to minimize seepage losses. The quantity oI
the mortar Ior one pond includes 6 m3 clay, 100 kg lime, 970 kg wheat straw, and 0.06 m3 cement. The
energy dissipater having dimensions oI 1 m wide and 23 cm each length and height along one side oI
the pond protects the sides and the bed oI the pond Irom severe erosion expected Irom gushy water.
Boundary wall does not only restrict the wild animals and livestock but also provides barrier against
movement oI sand by strong summer winds. A small silting basin controls the entrance oI heavy
sediments and debris in the pond. Each pond has been connected with the catchment through a lined
channel, which has a network oI ditches. It has been observed that all the constructed ponds got Iill up
68
to their Iull design capacity during the rainy seasons (winter or monsoon). Water quality analysis oI the
selected ponds illustrated that the water quality was within the permissible limits excluding turbidity
level. In general practice, the livestock drink water Irom the pond directly. However, the dwellers keep
this water in mud pot Ior Iew hours by adding alum treatment beIore drinking.
Another project entitled 'Mitigation oI desertiIication Ior poverty alleviation (MDPA) has been
completed Ior stabilizing moving sand dunes through Iorestry practices. The Iuture plan oI PCRWR
among other activities include establishment oI 'DesertiIication Control Research Institute, primarily
to expand its desertiIication control programme in collaboration with international partners and Iunding
mechanisms.
All these pilot activities have initiated a process oI social change by creating awareness among the
desert people and the concerned development agencies working in the area. This project has harvested
about 368 million gallons oI Ireshwater annually to meet drinking water requirements oI human and
livestock population. Moreover, this project has saved 6000 million rupees per drought in the Iorm oI
livestock production due to reduction in livestock migration, mortality, diseases and damage oI crops.
Increase in production oI livestock has also been observed in the Iorm oI meat, milk and other utilities
besides reduction oI migration oI human and livestock Irom desert towards irrigated area.
SuccessIul models and practices in Cholistan are being replicated in Thar desert oI Sindh and Kharan
desert oI Baluchistan under two diIIerent projects named 'Combating drought and desertiIication in
Thar desert by management oI water resources and 'Rainwater harvesting and desertiIication control
in Kharan-Chagai desert oI Baluchistan.
However, given the substantial input oI millions oI dollars oI international development aid and the
accompanying human and physical inIrastructure has enabled the CDA to build a model agriculture
Iarm through rainwater harvesting, which may not be replicated by the target communities in the desert
Ior which it is intended to serve as a model given their socioeconomic capacities.
69
70
Illustration 33. Drinking Water Supplv
Drewar bv DERA-P
Illustration 37. PCRWR built Toba to raise
fish
Illustration 38. PCRWR built Toba for
livestock drinking
Illustration 35. Information
Plate of PCRWR profect at
Dingarh
Illustration 36. Diesl Engine Turbine at
Dingarh
Illustration 34. DERA funded CDA
Drinking Water Supplv at Drewar Fort
71
Illustration 39. Sign Post of PCRWR
model farm and Wildlife Department
Illustration 40. Treated Water Tank built
bv PCRWR at Dingarh Model Farm
Illustration 41. Broken Water Taps in
the PCRWR Plant Farm
Illustration 42. A Closed Jiew of Water
Gaughe
10. Drought Mitigation through Ground Water Resource Harvesting in Cholistan
Cholistan desert is described as one oI the most inhospitable regions oI the world, and yet it has been
one oI the most populated deserts in the world. It has been continuously habited Ior over 1200 years,
despite the Iact that a large tract oI Cholistan comprise oI desertiIication areas which have never been
irrigated ever since the drying up oI Hakra river that Ilowed through it hundreds oI years ago.
ThereIore, a number oI urban centers developed, but always in locations that had easy access to water.
The people oI Cholistan, made sagacious use oI natural resources, particularly water to sustain human
and livestock population. As a result, ever since, it has emerged as the rangeland, which oIIers rich
potentials Ior livestock production. The normal rainIall pattern is 150 to 200 mm per year, which keeps
the desert wild plants and vegetations alive as well as water reservoirs. In the desert towns oI Cholistan,
such as Drewar Fort, large catchments supplied water to tanks. The catchments and the canals were
regularly maintained and kept clean. RooI top harvesting was common in cities and towns oI Cholistan
and Rajasthan. With scanty rainIall, the agriculture largely depends on the irrigation Irom wells,
inundation canals, river Iloods, Jhalars, on the banks oI rivers and canals. Even well irrigation unless
supplemented by canals or river Iloods is a precarious means oI cultivation, except in rare seasons oI
good rainIall. There were hundreds oI water structures oI diverse technologies existed all over
Cholistan with diverse management systems to ensure equitable and sustainable water supply to all.
Structures built to trap and manage rainwater were speciIic to the terrain and meteorological
conditions. Technologies were usually simple and harnessed local material and labor. Over time, the
rainwater harvesting structures were woven into the region's cultural and religious milieu.
#C"#"$637&4/3,2'$9,:;&34$<()=(/4&/'"
Many indigenous water harvesting strategies that we discuss in this report have a cross cultural
resonance and are practiced in neighboring Tharparker in Sind and Rajasthan desert in India as well as
in similar arid ecological zones in China. At the same time, they are also strengthened through technical
and Iinancial input by the local and international development agencies Ior eIIective rainwater
harvesting.
! Village ponds D$@,>=')
72
The rainwater which is collected in natural depressions or man made ponds called Tobas Iorms the
principal source oI Iresh water, to be used Ior drinking and agriculture purposes. Toba is one oI central
Ieatures oI the agro-pastoral economy. The estimated number oI Tobas in Cholistan is around 1500.
Tobas comprise oI are small to medium sized excavated or embanked village ponds, Ior harvesting
meager precipitation to mitigate the scarcity oI drinking water and domestic needs in water scarcity
regions oI Cholistan. A Ilat, highly impervious loam or clay soils bottom, locally called dahars
provides the micro catchment area Ior the rainwater, where shallow ephemeral lakes are Iormed have,
oIten oI a saline or saline-sodic nature.
Pond water is available Ior periods Irom two months to a year aIter rain, depending upon the catchment
characteristics and amount and intensity oI rainIall. The nadis range Irom 1.5 to 12 m in depth, 400 to
700,000 m in capacity and have drainage basins oI various shapes and sizes (8 to 2,000 ha). These
Tobas can also be used Ior recharging the groundwater through construction oI inIiltration wells and
recharge pits in the bed oI the storage area.
These traditional structures are however not scientiIically designed and constructed and suIIer Irom
high seepage and evaporation losses. Pakistan government has constructed more than 1500 tobas in
Cholistan area Ior domestic and livestock water supplies. The optimized characteristics oI the village
ponds Ior minimizing the storage losses are given by Sharma and Joshi (1983,Table x). They show that
water may still be available in such structures during drought lasting up to 1 year. Some oI the Iindings
oI the research in neighboring Rajasthan desert have been incorporated into the rain water harvesting
policies in Pakistan. PCRWR in Bahawalpur has utilized the research to improve the village pond
characteristics to maximize storage capacity and saIeguard against rapid evaporation.
Table X. Optimized village pond characteristics to minimize the storage losses
Physiography Optimized
depth (m)
Optimized surIace
area (m
2
x 10
3
)
Water availability
(months)
Dune complex 2.5 29.1 4.8
Sandy plain 2.0 27.1 8.3
Younger alluvial plain 5.0 161.0 12.0
Older alluvial plain 3.0 96.0 12.0
Rocky/ gravel pediment 6.0 126.5 12.0
73
However, apart Irom improved structural changes, there is a pressing need to revive the customary
social organization Ior natural resource management.
74
75
Illustration 43. A Toba Constructed bv
Forest Department
Illustration 44. A Toba in the Desert
Illu stration46. A Dried Up Toba
Illustration 45. A CDA built Toba with
Cattle Drinking Water
Illustration 48. A CDA built Toba
Illustration 47. A PCRWR built Toba for
Cattle Drinking Water
E/..'$DA828F
In order to recharge ground water and also use it Ior irrigation and drinking purposes, the rain water is
harvested directly to the wells. This served several inter-related Iunctions: First to improve the water
quality when the ground water is saline and not drinkable. Secondly, to improve the water table that has
been reduced by the continuous discharge. The only Iorm oI well traditionally used in Cholistan was
the Persian wheel. The ordinary well is either lined with baked brick masonry and known as Pakka
Khuh or with logs in which case it was known as khachacha or Ghat da Kharaora. A well lined with
wattles is called Lei (or pilchhi) da Kharoram wattles made Irom the Lei bus. Without a linning
kachcha wells cannot be built except in Lesser Cholistan, where narrow wells, usually Iriom 2 to 3 Ieet
in circumIerence, are sunk Ior obtaining drinking water only. In the Greater Cholistan, this is not
possible due to Iineness oI the sand in the lower substrata oI the soil.
The traditional methods oI identiIy the sources oI sweet ground water is the spot over which Suchcha
kana is grown as it us understood that under that plant sweet water is supposed to exist. In comparison,
in arid zones oI Baluchstan, a water diviner is employed the source oI ground water. The site having
been selected, a hole larger than the brick cycliner proposed is excavated down to the Sach or the
stratum oI water giving sand. This hole is called par. The wooden base oI the brick word called the
chak is then laid down in the par, and the cyclinder oI brick work is built upon it till it reaches a Iew
Ieet above the surIace oI ground. The sand or han at the bottom oI the past and the under chak is then
dug out. The removal oI mud is called tobhi and is perIormed by tobhas, a class oI proIessional well
sinkers, generally called out Irom neighbouring settled districts oI Punjab. The wells generally dry in
the drought or oIIer limited hours oI water. The wells that are situated near the rivers are subject to
much inIlux oI sand and have thereIore to be cleaned out by tobhas every third or Iourth year.
BeIore the construction oI perennial canals on the Punjab rivers, the river Iloods were more than
suIIicient Ior the purposes oI irrigation and the Iarmers constructed very Iew wells. When subsequently
rivers Iailed to supply the usual amount oI water, inspite oI the construction oI new canals in the State,
irrigation was reduced to an unsatisIactory conduction, the State encouraged the Iarmers and pastorals
76
to sink wells and various encouragements were held out to them. Taqavi grants were Ireely made, and
under the rules repayment was to be made by installments within 12 years. Moreover, the wells so
constructed were exempted Irom parta or water rate Ior 12 years, and wood Ior the well gear and
apparatus was given at the halI the usual price.
In seasons oI drought some the wells ratain their water through at a lower level but most oI them give
water only Ior 12 hours in the day while others got quite dry. Each clan enjoys the sole ownership oI
wells and tobas and its use is authorized by customary and civil law. The leading members oI clan
monitor its use and were responsible Ior its maintenance. The regular maintenance oI tobas and wells
and their sustainable use is critical to the existence oI tobas. With increasing reliance on alternate
means oI getting water either through canals or water supply schemes, the community management oI
Tobas and wells is Ialling apart.
! Percolation tanks
Percolation Tanks (Kach Khu) were traditionally used to improve ground recharge. In this method, the
rainwater is harvested into unlined dug wells through which the water seeps in the ground, improving
the water table. Percolation tanks are generally constructed on the small streams or rivulets with
adequate catchment Ior impounding surIace runoII. These tanks are used entirely Ior recharging the
aquiIer through percolation. In comparison to ponds, percolation tanks conserve water to a greater
extent because the Iilling and recharge occur mostly during the monsoon when the evaporation rate is
about the halI oI potential rate in summer through which ponds contain water. Selection oI suitable site
Ior the construction oI percolation tanks and subsequent maintenance is crucial Ior its eIIective
Iunctioning.
!
! Rooftop Harvesting through Kund
Underground storage cisterns or locally called kund is the most common rainwater harvesting system in
the Pakistani arid zone, which it shares with India, Sri Lanka, China and several other countries,
generally constructed Ior storage oI surIace runoII. Almost every household, school, religious center in
rural areas constructed kund Ior meeting drinking water needs. The tanks were sometimes as large as a
room.
77
Kund is constructed by digging a circular hole oI 3.00 to 4.25 m diameters and plastering the base and
sides with 6-mm thick lime mortar or 3mm thick cement mortar. The catchment oI Kunds are made in a
variety oI ways using locally available sealing materials like pond silt, murram, wood, coal ash, gravel
etc. Improved designs oI Kunds have been developed and adopted under Drinking Water Missions in
drought prone developing countries. It is estimated that more than 200 kunds in Cholistan desert oI
Pakistan.
Nomadic Movement as a Indigenous Drought Copying Strategies
As part oI transhumant system, the population oI Cholistan moves Irom Lesser Cholistan to Greater
Cholistan throughout the year, according to the availability oI water Ior drinking and Iodder Ior
livestock. However, the cultural patterns oI movement oI human and livestock are location speciIic and
determined by a customary system oI land tenure.
The onset oI monsoon in July and August starts oII the movement oI human and livestock, Irom
irrigated, semi urban and riverine areas at the Iringes oI Lesser Cholistan towards community/quom
owned tobas in Greater Cholistan. Spreading out Irom a area oI 10 km radius, they continue to traverse
Irom Lesser to Greater Cholistan, in the Iollowing months, sometimes traveling within the range oI 100
km. By October and November, the water at the tobas begins to deplete and a reverse movement
towards Iringes begins, breaking Irequent journeys at semi permanent settlements having wells and
kunds. By March and April, the movement oI the nomads have come to a Iull circle, and the livestock
and people are back to the Iringes oI deserts in irrigated areas and aIter wheat harvesting is over, to the
Sutlej River Ior those with customary riverine rights. The canal water supplies drinking water to the
livestock and are Ied on dried Iorage on vegetation along canal banks.
The transhumant system oI Cholistan depends critically on the timings and quantity oI rainIall, which
in case oI drought could be seriously disrupted..For examples during a prolong drought over the last 4
to 6 years most oI the herders moved south and some staying only a Iew days or Ior Iew months beIore
being compeled to return. A rupture in the cycle oI nomadic movement oI people and livestock causes
inIrastructural damage to Tobas in the desert, which become silted in the absence oI herders, as the
constant repair and maintenance is necessary Ior their existence.. According to estimates by Forest
Department, which inspects Tobas in the course oI rangeland surveying, out oI 43 tobas in Greater
78
Cholistan, 25 has been reported to have Iilled with sediment .
The quality and quantity oI water also varies dramatically in the region. In the eastern arid region oI
Cholistan, Toba water is oI good quality but limited in quantity. In semi permanent settlements well
water is adequate but oI saline quality and wells being unlined needs constant repair. In the western
hyper arid region the quantaties oI both water and Ieed is inadequate.
The patterns oI cattle grazing in the desert are also potent indigenous strategies that help cope with the
scarcity oI water and become critical to the very survival oI animals in case oI drought. In the events oI
drought, since the Ieed depletes Iirst, sheep whose walking range is 4 km mist be keep ahead oI the rest
oI the animals to other tobas. All herds are kept as long as possible in the semi permanent settlements
near wells or on the Sutlej river plains. A major constraint on the pastoral system is the scarcity oI Iree
grazing land during their sojourn on the irrigated Iringe or the Iloodplain even through Iresh water is
abundant. In the events oI no rainIall, the herder desert the Greater Cholistan as the water stored in
Tobas is not recharged and tonks and other smaller water reservoirs are also dried up. They take reIuge
on the Iringes oI the desert near canal irrigated areas and buy Iodder Ior their livestock Irom the mandi
town markets.
With the consolidation oI British rule in India, the traditional water harvesting systems began to
decline. Under the princely rule, there was no water bureaucracy to regulate the water use. The
communities were expected to build rain water harvesting structures Ior themselves. But the princely
state oIIered Iiscal incentives to the communities who were encouraged to build water harvesting
structures such as wells and Tobas. The centralized bureaucracy under the British neither understood
the technological rationale oI these systems nor could manage the diverse and decentralized systems.
Moreover, the British water bureaucracy and the independent Pakistan's oIIicialdom Iavored structures
that were built entirely Ior surIace water and did not sink well with India's monsoonal spells. The
communities on the Iringes oI Cholistan desert were provided irrigation water Irom Sutlej river and
drinking water supply through underground pipes.
One oI the unintended consequences oI the modern Iacilities is that communities who had lived within
79
the conIines oI the natural water sources Ior centuries, no longer wish to maintain the existing ones,
given the Iact that water comes at the turn oI a tap. In a similar manner, the people oI Bahawalpur are
clamoring Ior an increased share oI canal water, although the tanks and wells that harvested rainwater
had served them well Ior centuries. Over the decades, the rainwater harvesting systems that needed
communities to work together, disappeared and is increasingly being replaced by state (and now
increasingly privately) sourced water. The deep bore technology oI the 1970s only exacerbated the
situation. Ground water is being ruthlessly mined, even as systems to recharge the same ground water
are destroyed. As we shall see, in case oI Baluchistan, similar process oI decline oI traditional water
systems which were based on ecologically sustainable use oI underground water resources is being
replaced by modern technologies which are depleting water at a much higher rate than then what could
be recharged.
#C"G"$1,7/)3$1=*),$1=3=4/?/3("
Canal Irrigation.
The Iirst colonization oI Cholistan Desert Ior large scale irrigation dates to early 1949s when under the
Sutlej Valley Project, Cholistan was brought into the network oI Sutlej river network Ior increasing
agricultural production. Soon aIter, Iirst round oI land allotments was made irrespective oI ethnic
origin, which consequently brought peasants Irom Punjab on the 5,758 acres oI land which was
allocated in 50 acres parcels. The next round allocated even bigger parcels oI land ranging up to 31,041
acres. The pastoral community oI Cholistan preIerred livestock grazing over settling down Ior Iarming,
thereby settling the basis Ior their present subordinate status in region's ethnic hierarchy...AIter the
independence oI Pakistan, another round oI land colonization began, in 1970s, which allocated 25,475
acre however restricting the eligibility to the local Cholistan population total number oI 6500 holders oI
Cholistan ID card were Ior the Iirst time successIul in gaining land. As canal irrigated agriculture
expanded on the Iringes oI the desert, the settler population grew in great number, market towns
mushroomed in the area, providing services to the town residents and to the wider nomadic population.
Existing towns like Bahawalpur and Yazman became important centers Ior settler activity,,, (Bakhsh...
1993). Supported by strong systems oI baradarii linking them with Punjabi dominated bureaucracy, the
settler began to occupy high status in the local power hierarchy. In the years oI land reIorms under Z A
B regime, and dissolution oI princely state oI Bahawalpur, an estimated 22,375 acres oI land belong to
80
the deposed Nawab was distributed (CDA, 2006). In 1983, Cholistan Development Authority the
agency now responsible Ior land allocation made a round oI land allocations, and henceIorth has
concentrated its attention to shiIted its development agenda to providing services
! Series of check dams on natural streams
In this system the artiIicial recharge is made to restrict the surIace run oII through streams and by
making additional water available Ior percolation. The surIace water is impounded during monsoon
behind the structure and spread over the entire stream bed and thereby increasing the whetted area. The
impounded water helps in replenishment oI groundwater. A series oI check dams can be constructed on
a stream to recharge the depleted groundwater aquiIers.
Pitcher Irrigation
! A small number oI economically viable water harvesting techniques have been developed
aIter a long term research in arid zones agriculture. Among these, pitcher irrigation is the
most successIul in Cholistan. In this technique, the plants and vegetable crops are planted
along side earthen pitchers which utilizes seepage oI water through pitchers to get
nourishment. Plants like Jojoba, the specie which are used Ior reseeding, planting and sand
dunes stabilization, and vegetable crops like Gourd and Water Melon are preIerred, oI which
latter provides maximum utilization oI seepage water and its harvest oIIers immediate cash
returns. The vegetable crops not only provide immediate produce Ior a household use but
also serve as a mulch Ior the jojoba plant to save it Irom hot desiccating desert winds.
!
! Recharge tube wells
Excess rainwater collected behind check dams, surIace ponds or percolation tanks can be eIIiciently
utilized Ior recharging groundwater through recharge tube wells. The Iloodwater, which has to be
mixed with groundwater occurring at a deeper depth, should be potable and Iree Irom suspended solids.
To achieve this, Iilter bed should be provided on top oI the recharge tube well. Recharge tube well may
be drilled in the area oI the dam or percolation tank down to the prevalent depth oI exploitation.
Diameter oI the bore hole may be around 50 cm and PVC pipe oI 6-kg/m
2
strength having a diameter oI
20 cm be used. The annular space between the bore hole and the pipe is Iilled with gravel and
developed with compressor till it gives clear water. On top a 6m x 6m x 6m dimension pit should be
81
dug out keeping the tube well at the center and the section is Iilled with rounded boulders, chips and
sand. This recharge tube well can also be used Ior pumping ground water in case oI emergency.
Hundreds oI such recharge tube wells have been constructed in Kutchh and Saurashtra (Gujarat, India)
Ior harvesting groundwater.
#C"H$9,3*.2'&,3'$
Potential oI water harvesting in arid zones oI Cholistan is not yet Iully understood, quantiIied and
implemented. Indigenous and modern technologies in the Iorm oI micro-catchments, storage cisterns,
run-oII water harvesting based Iarming, embankment ponds, check dams on natural streams,
percolation tanks, recharge tube wells, sub-surIace barriers, integrated watershed development and rain
water harvesting in urban areas oIIer a large potential even under water scarce regions. Several village
level success stories especially in neighboring Indian Rajasthan have demonstrated that water
harvesting based development paradigms were able to mitigate drought and positively impact
household economy. Indications are that rainwater-harvesting measures when adopted on a large scale
may minimize the risk oI water scarcity even during severe drought years like PCRWR in Cholistan but
such case studies are Iew, scattered and under-studied. Further research is needed to ascertain to what
extent these interventions help to withstand droughts and to what extent shall cover the deIicit.
Potential oI water harvesting as a strategic tool Ior drought mitigation can be realized through a policy
Iramework to develop institutional mechanism to water harvesting at diIIerent levels such as user,
watershed, urban locality, district, state and Iederal level by having representatives Irom local level
people`s institutions, NGOs and concerned government departments. Small and micro-water harvesting
systems should be made integral part oI basin-wise planning and water resource development at the
regional and national levels.
82
11. Conclusions and Recommendations
Drought management and preparedness responsibilities are dispersed over a number oI Iederal,
provincial and district level administrative and relieI agencies throughout the country. It would be
rather diIIicult to suggest or prescribe a universal set oI recommendations to be adapted by all these
agencies, in the event oI the occurrence oI drought. The task becomes more diIIicult given the Iact that
more research needs to be carried out to study the current coping mechanism, along with the
vulnerability assessment and lessons learnt in managing the previous droughts. A set oI general and
speciIic recommendations are made to address gaps in drought preparedness proposing actionable
programmes to be considered and adopted at diIIerent levels.
First and Ioremost, the Iailure to achieve success in addressing any oI the water
development/management constraints is common to most government institutions. This stems mainly
Irom a widespread pre-occupation with routine duties to meet the procedural requirements oI outmoded
rules and regulations as opposed to IulIillment oI substantive proIessional responsibilities. Secondly, a
widespread pursuit oI selI-interest as opposed to the public interest. Furthermore, undue political
intervention in the day-to-day aIIairs oI the departments requires arbitrary and oIten unIair decisions to
be made by the Iunctionaries, serving as a major disincentive to staII and leading to the adoption oI
malpractice on an even wider scale.
The Government should also ensure the Iormulation and implementation oI better pricing and credit
policies Ior the Iarming communities, which are aimed at providing incentives not only in irrigated
areas but also in rain-Ied areas oI the country. Achievement oI increased water availability at the
Iarmgate as well as high water-use eIIiciency to enable high crop production per unit oI water used are
some other targets Ior ensuring selI-suIIiciency in Iood, or at least Ior maintaining the current status in
the Iuture.
Most oI the problems are already receiving attention Irom the Government through the implementation
oI various programmes with assistance Irom donor agencies that have been very active in Iollowing
various developments in the sector. The water sector has experienced meagre investment in the past in
relation to other commodities, and most oI that investment has been in the development oI the water
83
sector. Yet, the management oI this huge interlaced sector has been limited. In the public sector, there
are certain limitations on making very large investments, especially on the management side Ior
operation and maintenance, regulation etc. At present, there is no signiIicant private sector investment
in the water sector. Active community participation is needed in achieving an enhanced private sector
role.
General Recommendations
Early Warning Systems
The procedures and actions oI early warning systems through which inIormation is produced in
advance about the occurrence oI droughts needs to improved. The capacity in meteorological services
oI the country is weak and underdeveloped. Meteorological Department distributes reports to
government organizations and media. This inIormation does not reach the people in rural areas who are
likely to be aIIected by drought. Early warning systems should aim at picking up the Iorecast
inIormation by the government agencies and its dissemination to communities through NGOs/CBOs.
With traditional systems oI using indicators oI seasonal Iorecast, the climate inIormation through
NEWS can enable the Iarmers to increase production in high rainIall years and avoid losses in low
rainIall years.
Vulnerability Assessment
The people who are most vulnerable to drought include nomadic graziers, women searching Ior Iuel
wood Ior heating and cooking and the small Iarmers. The Iocus is mainly on hydro-meteorological and
vegetation parameters. Review oI institutional capacity to predict and respond to drought should be a
part oI the vulnerability assessment.

Gathering Reliable Data and Dissemination of Information
The present system oI collection oI reliable data and monitoring the drought is weak and needs
improvement. The available inIormation has limited dissemination and sharing between and across
government departments and with organizations outside government system. Procedures, thereIore,
need to be developed to share and disseminate the available inIormation in order to interpret it
eIIectively Ior mitigating drought eIIects.
84
Awareness Raising
There is general lack oI awareness oI environmental problems, drought and disaster management issues
in the country. Communication at Iederal, provincial and district level needs to be improved to convey
whatever inIormation is available to others. The communities who are aIIected by drought are a
valuable inIormation source. Full use is rarely made oI this valuable source.
Drought Management Capacity
Drought management is considered as the provision oI relieI rather than covering all other aspects oI
mitigation, preparedness and rehabilitation. Currently, drought management organized at Iederal level
and provincial levels is coordinated through Deputy Commissioners and heads oI government
departments at the distinct levels, which needs much to be desired. RelieI Commissioners have
emergency Iunds Ior this purpose which are supplemented by special grants by Iederal and provincial
governments, depending upon the damage and losses caused or likely to be caused in the aIIected areas.
Provincial governments and district authorities prepare 'preparedness plans, annually but these are not
Iollowed in most cases due to lack oI coordination and limited resources and also because oI the Iact
that the authorities at the district level (Deputy Commissioners) are burdened with so many other
responsibilities oI maintao many other responsibilities oI maintaining law and order, revenue
collection, magistracy, local government supervision/management and addressing whole lot oI other
matters oI day to day nature.
Drought Management Issues
Some oI important recommendations relating to drought management and mitigation oI the eIIects oI
drought are as Iollows:
(a) Need Ior research in traditional and current coping mechanism and a sustainable community
approach to disaster reduction.
(b) Need Ior drought management structure, policy, strategy and mechanism that involve all levels in
government and civil society.
85
(d) Need Ior better understanding oI drought management concepts and strengthening capabilities at
all levels.
(e) Development oI a coordinated system oI sharing oI inIormation and data to be interpreted more
eIIectively Ior drought reduction.
(I) Strengthening oI Meteorology Department Ior improving the quality oI early warning systems.
Specific Recommendations
District Mustung, Baluchistan:
In case oI Baluchistan, district Mustung, the Iollowing measures need to be adopted to increase water
availability in the district:
(a) The government should institute metering oI water supply to all domestic and industrial
consumers in and around urban areas and rationalizing water charges.
(b) Second, the government and NGOs should run mass awareness programmes to encourage
sustainable consumer use oI water.
(c) The construction oI storage dams should be innitiated throughout Baluchstan to store Ilood
water. EIIorts should be made to improve watersheds oI dam sites to reduce siltation and increase
liIe oI the dams.
(d) Government and Ngos should Install hand pumps in rural areas where Ieasible and provide low
cost water Iiltration and treatment plants with reservoir Iacilities Ior storage in areas where surIace
water is available.
(e) The government should discourage private tubewells and install community owned tubewells in
suitable areas with community participation and active involvement.
86
(I) The rehabilitation and improvement oI Karez system should be undertaken wherever possible.
Although limited installation oI tubewells may be permited to areas where the groundwater
development is sustainable.
Groundwater harvesting
Following measures need to be taken to meet the challenge oI groundwater harvesting in the province:
(a)The government should innitaite legislative measures to ensure that undesired drilling oI
tubewells is discouraged in the stressed areas.
(b) Updating technical criteria Ior issuing permits Ior tubewell drilling and the mechanism Ior
evaluating the need and practicability oI the tubewell.
(c) Replacing Ilat rate oI electricity usage Ior tubewell operation with metered system. Anticipated
stiII opposition to the policy due to political reasons can be overcome by giving subsidies in rates.
The subsidy may be withdrawn in phases.
(d) Constructing more recharge dams at suitable locations.
(e) Complementing construction oI delay action dams with watershed improvement measures
including series oI check structures in streambeds.
Improving governance and capacity building:
(a) Establishing/improving monitoring and evaluation system Ior ongoing and completed
projects
(b)Creating an eIIective mechanism to achieve coordination between the local government
and rural development, agriculture, public health engineering, Iorest, and irrigation and power
departments.
87
(c) Encouraging involvement oI private sector and civil society organizations in need
identiIication, design, planning and implementation phases oI projects.
(d) Regular training oI technical personnel oI line agencies including research and
extension through organizing short reIresher courses
(e) Following a combination oI top-down and bottom-top approach in project identiIication,
Iormulation and execution
Improving watersheds:
(a) Constructing small earth dams equipped with in-stream inIiltration devices or recharge
basins and gabion type structures in main streams.
(b) Second, Forestation oI watershed areas with suitable varieties oI trees/bushes, which are
shallow rooted and drought resistant.

Specific Recommendation for Cholistan, District Bahwalpur:
In view oI the challenges Iaced by the water sector, the Iollowing recommendations are made to
eIIective drought mitigation in Cholistan.
Groundwater harvesting
Following measures need to be taken to meet the challenge oI groundwater harvesting in the province:
(a) Tapping existing unutilized resources, and the development oI new and unexplored
water resources;
88
(b) Managing water resources such as Tobas and Kunds to achieve the goal oI maximum
production per unit oI water used;
Improving Traditional Institutions
(a) Improving the existing traditional institutional set-up to remove constraints to better
management oI water resources;
(b) Development oI local rainwater harvesting systems Ior various potential areas;
(c) Promoting the use oI non-conventional water resources;
Improving research infrastructure
(a) Improving the research inIrastructure by undertaking user-oriented research, avoiding
unnecessary duplication oI research eIIorts, and better coordination between research
bodies, industry, and universities.
Rangeland Management
(a) Rehabilitation oI irrigation systems should be given a priority to strength desert rangelands
oI Cholistan.
(b) Farmers should be encouraged to use water harvesting including more water storage
structures both small and large. They should be trained in the use oI modern water saving
technologies and dourght resistant crop varieties.
(c) Need Ior more Iocused eIIorts on water conservation as against water development in areas
prone to desertiIication. The extension oI agriculture a prime goal oI Cholistan Development
Authority (CDA) should be replaced with a stress on indigenous water conservation through
improve range land management.
89
(d) Need Ior re vegetation oI denuded and depleted Iorests/rangelands oI Cholistan which are
managed by under Iunded Forestry Department.
Improving governance and capacity building:
(a) Keeping in view the importance oI research and development activities in the water
sector, there is a need to develop capacity-building oI PCRWR to handle present and
Iuture challenges in order to contribute to the development and management oI water
resources;
(b) Currently, there is lack oI coordination among research institutes, industry and line
agencies. ThereIore, PCRWR should involve various research organizations, industry,
universities and end-users in implementing its Action Plans. Cholistan Desert Research
Institute should be brought in active coordination with PCRWR and AERC.
(c) Keeping in view the current and Iuture water shortage in Pakistan, the country has to
learn to live with such shortages. ThereIore, NDMA should promote a culture oI
water conservation through mass media campaigns.
90
REFERNECES
! Agarwal, Anil and Narain, Sunita. 2002. Community and household water management: the key
to environmental regeneration and poverty alleviation. In (Dinesh K Marothia edt.)
Institutionali:ing Common Pool Resources. Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, India.
pp. 115-51.
! Anonymous. 2006. Drought 2006. Status Report (Part 2-Vol.I). Deptt. oI Agriculture
Cooperation, Ministry oI Agriculture, Government oI India, New Delhi. pp. 91-149.
! Asad Sarwar Quershi and Viadimir Smakhtin, Extracting Wetness from Drvness. Water
Harvesting against Drought in Pakistan....
! Daanish MustaIa and Muhammad Usman Qazi, Karez versus tube well irrigation: the
comparative social acceptability and praticality oI sustainable ground water development in
Balochistan, Pakistan. Contemporarv South Asia 16 92 (June 2008), 171-195
! Disaster Management Plan, District Mustung
! European Commission. 1995. Water Resources Management and Agricultural Production in the
Central Asian Republics, Water Resources Management and Agricultural Production (WARMAP)
Project, Phase 1: Project Preparation..Reports. Tashkent: TACIS.
! Hagman, G. 1984. Prevention better than cure. Report on human and natural disasters in the
third world. Swedish Red cross, Stockholm.
! Khan, M.A. 2001. Traditional and improved techniques Ior groundwater recharge and storage in
arid regions. Proceedings ICAR-IWMI Policy Dialogue on Ground Water Management (Eds.
Sharma B. R. & Tushar Shah), CSSRI, Karnal, India.
! Khepar, S.D. 2001. Strategies Ior ensuring hydrological sustainability oI rice wheat cropping
system in Punjab. Proceeding ICAR-IWMI Policy Dialogue on Ground Water Management
(Eds: Sharma, B.R. and Tushar Shah), CSSRI, Karnal, India.
! Kolavalli, S., and Whitaker, M.L. 1996. Institutional aspects oI water harvesting. Khadins in
Western Rajasthan, India. Proceedings oI the 6
th
Annual ConIerence oI the International
Assocation Ior the Study oI Common Property, June 1996, Berkley, CaliIornia.
! LightIoot, Dale R., 1996b. Syrian Qanat Romani: History, ecology, abandonment, Journal of
Arid Environments 33(3): 321-336.
! M S Pomee, etal, Drought Mitigation Measures: An Overview Under Pakistani Perspective,
Pakistan Journal of Water Resources, Vik 9 (2) July December 2005.
91
! Micklin, P. 2000. Managing Water in Central Asia. The Royal Institute oI International AIIairs,
London.
! Nairizi, S. 2003. Drought management strategies. Proceedings International Workshop on
'Drought Management Strategies, Iranian National Committee on Irrigations and Drainage
(13-14 July, 2003), Tehran, Iran. pp 3-12.
! Narayan, Deepa and Patti Petesch (eds.). 2002. Joices of the Poor. From Manv Lands. New
York: OxIord University Press.
! Oweis, Theib; Hachum, A. and Kijne, J. 1999. Water harvesting and supplemental irrigation Ior
improved water use eIIiciency in dry areas. SWIM Paper No.7, IWMI, Colombo, Sri Lanka.
! Raju, K.C.B. 1987. Groundwater recharge through percolation tank and subsurIace dykes.
CGWB South Region (unpublished Report), India.
! Samra, J. S; Sharda, V.N. and Sikka, A.K. 2002. Water Harvesting and Recycling: Indian
Experiences. Central Soil & Water Conservation & Training Institute, Dehradun, India.
! Sen, Amartaya. 1993. 'Economic Regress - Concepts and Features. In: Proceedings oI the
World Bank Annual ConIerence on Development Economics, pp 315-33.
! Shahid Ahmad etal, Drought Mitigation in Pakistan: Current Status and Options Ior Future
Strategies, International Water Management Institute, Working Paper 85.
! Sharma, B.R. 2001. Availability status, development and opportunities Ior augmentation oI
groundwater resources in India. Proceeding ICAR-IWMI Policy Dialogue on Ground Water
Management, November 6-7, 2001, CSSRI, Karnal, India pp. 1-18.
! Sharma, B.R. 2003. Development oI water resources and their eIIicient utilization in water
scarce regions. Proceedings International Workshop on 'Drought Management Strategies,
Iranian National Committee on Irrigations and Drainage, Tehran, Iran. pp 3-12.
! Sharma, K. D. and Joshi, D. C. 1981.Nadis- the vital water resource oI the Indian arid zone.
Arid Environments, 5:269-276.
! Sharma, K.D., Pareek, O.P. and Singh, H.P. 1986 Micro-catchment water harvesting Ior raising
fufube orchards in an arid climate. Transactions oI the American Society oI Agricultural
Engineers (ASAE) 29(1): 112-118.
! Smith, D.R. 1995. Environment Security and Shared Water Resources in Post-Soviet Central Asia.
Post-Soviet Geographv 36(6): 351-370.
! World Bank. 1996. Developing a Regional Water Management Strategv. Issues and Work Plan,
92
Aral Sea Basin Program Technical Paper Series. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.
! World Bank. 1999. Consultations with the Poor. Methodologv Guide for the 20 CountrvStudv
for the World Development Report 2000/01, Poverty Reduction and Economic Management
Network.
93
ANNEX 1
QUESTIONNAIRE
Questions Ior Line Agencies, NGOs and implementing partners` staII:
13.
1. What priority does local community generally give to customary methods compared to
modern methods oI water extraction?
2. What are the main reasons Ior customary methods being accorded low on priority?
3. What needs to be done to catalyze collective action Ior pressurizing elected
representatives/politicians to improve customary methods oI water extraction?
4. What are the major sources oI inIormation Ior people in the district?
5. Who are the opinion leaders?
6. How sensitive are elected representatives to the customary methods oI water extraction?
7. What existing Iorums/channels could be utilized to Iacilitate a sustained interaction between
the community and elected representatives Ior drought mitigation?
8. What role can Iederal and provincial departments play in this regard?
Questions Ior Community Members:
2. How important do you think drought/water management is compared to health, sanitation and
inIrastructure development?
3. What are the reasons Ior drought/water management being so low on political agenda? Why
doesn`t basic education Iigure in electoral/political campaigns?
4. What basis do you cast your vote on? Community/kinship ties or social/economic issues
5. II social/economic issues, which ones?
6. How oIten do you interact with local politicians and elected representatives and through which
channels?
7. What inIormation do you have about the state oI drought/water management in your area?
8. Who would you contact iI you needed additional inIormation?
9. Who would you consult to make important decisions about your children`s Iuture/career?
10. Are you aware oI the existence oI DERA?
94
11. How well do you understand the role oI the local government in drought/water management?
12. Have you spoken to an elected representative about drought/water management in the past one
year?
13. Whose opinion in your community do you respect and value most?
14. Do you think there is a need Ior the local community to get organized Ior pressuring local
government Ior improving the state oI drought/water management in your area?
15. Are you willing to be a part oI such a campaign?
16. Who amongst you do you think can play a lead role in such a campaign?
17. What support would you require in this regard?
Questions for Distirct Nazim, UC Nazim/Naib Nazim, councilors:
! As an elected representative what is your top most priority Ior the district/local
constituency?
! Why does drought/water management so low in electoral campaigns, party maniIestoes etc.
! What challenges do you Iace in improving the provision oI drought/water management in
your district?
! How oIten do local community members interact with you and through which channel?
! Do they discuss problems related to drought/water management in the district? Do they
bring up personal problems or collective ones?
! What support would you require Iorm the community to help you improve drought/water
management?
! How oIten do you interact with your political opponents? Where? How?
Questions for DCO and Distrinct Nazism
What priority does local community generally give to water conservation compared to other priorities
such as health, sanitation and inIrastructure?
1. What are the main reasons Ior water conservation being relatively low on priority?
95
2. What needs to be done to catalyze collective action Ior pressurizing elected
representatives/politicians to improve water conservation?
3. What potential exists Ior creating a coalition/alliance oI civil society Ior demand
articulation?
4. What are the major sources oI inIormation Ior people in the district?
5. Who are the opinion leaders?
6. How intrusive politicians are in your work?
7. What issues do you get political pressure on?
8. How sensitive are elected representatives to the importance oI basic education?
9. What existing Iorums/channels could be utilized to Iacilitate a sustained interaction between
the community and elected representatives Ior education?
10. What role can you and your departmental colleagues play in this regard?
96
ANNEX II
LIST OF INTERVIEWEES
Mustung
4. Wahid Baluch, Coordinator, Saarn Civil Society Network, Mustung
5. ShaIi Muhammad, Sharecropper, SaIaid Balundi, Mustung
6. UC Nazim, Mustung
7. Sardar Kamal Khan Bangulzai, District Nazim
8. Iqbal Zahri , Naib District Nazim, Mustung
9. Munzor Baloch, Naib Nazim, Naushki
10. Nadeem Ahmed, Sub-Divisional OIIicer, Irrigation, Mustung
11. Fazil Kareem, SDO, Wapda, Mustung
12. Khalid Jan, Executive Engineer, Irrigation, Mustung
13. Karim Jan, XEN,PHED, Mustung.
14. Engineer Sanaullah Mengal, Director, Agriculture Research,
15. Karim Qazi, Executive Engineer, Public Health and Enginnering Department , Mustung
16. Engineer, Kamran Babar, Consultant, Cameous, Quetta.
17. Muhammad Islam, Arid Zone Research Center, PAARC, Quetta,
18. Nadir Gul, Chairman, BRSP, Quetta
19. Enginner X, BRSP, Quetta.
20. Engineer, Hammad Haider, BRSP, Mustung
21. AsIand Yaar Kakar, DCO, Mustung
22. Abdul Sattar, Plumber, PHED, Musting
23. Qarban Azeem, CEO, Beej
24. Amjad Rasheed, CEO, Tarrqee
25. Haji Muhmmad Baqa, EDO, Agriculture. Mustiung
97
98