AC POWER SYSTEM

A typical power transmission scheme is as shown below. It should be noted that electric power system is never as simple as depicted in the diagram. The figure shows generator that usually produces 11kv, which is then transformed to 132kva and 330kv for main transmission voltage. The power is then transmitted over three phase line. At the receiving stations, the voltages are transformed down to 33kv. From these stations, it radiates out a number of feeders each feeding a bulk consumer or substation where the voltages are further reduced to say 11kv and 0.415kv and number of low voltage distributors radiates out from these substations to transforming stations, thereby reducing the voltage to 415/240 volts as shown below. The electrical load may be lights, heater, electric machines, rectifiers or any other device. Generator Transformer Bus 1 Bus Coding L1 L2 To Bus 12 L3 L5 5 L6 Line Coding 3 Circuit Breaker Transmission Line 2

L4 4

Fig: Electrical power system

A very useful and simple way of graphically representing a network is the schematic or line diagram in which the three phase circuits are represented by single lines. In the figure, the generator is star connected with a star point connected to each through a resistance. The line voltage is increased from that at the generator terminals by transformers connected as shown. At the end of the line voltage is reduced for the secondary distribution of power. Two lines are provided to improve the security of the supply.

Fig: Line diagram of a simple power system

There are four main stages of step down transformation 330/132k 132/33kv 33/11kv 11/0.415kv Transmission division is responsible for national grid voltage of 30kv and sub-transmission voltage of 132kv, the distribution division is

responsible for reaching the consumers with 33kv, 11kv, 415v, 3 phase and 240volts, single phase along with marketing of the energy.

Basic requirement of transmission system

In order to provide electrical energy in usable form, a transmission and distribution system must satisfy some basic requirements, these are

i. ii.

To provide at all times, the power that consumers need. Maintain a stable, nominal voltage that does not vary by more than

+10% iii. Maintain a stable frequency that does not vary by more than +

0.1% iv. v. vi. Supply energy at an acceptable price. Observe standards of safety. Protect the environment.

Electrical properties of transmission lines The fundamental purpose of a transmission line is to carry active power. In addition the line should posses the following:

i.

There must be constant voltage over the entire length of the line.

That is, from source to load and for all loads between light load and full load. ii. There shall be small losses so as to attain high transmission

efficiency. iii. I2R must not overheat the conductors.

If the line alone can not satisfy the above requirements, supplementary equipment must be added until they are met.

Adapting higher voltages along national grid It is fundamental fact that the higher the voltage, the cheaper becomes the supply, since, P Where P V I = VI cos = transported power = applied voltage = circuit current

cos = overall power factor

It follows from the equation that, an increased voltage makes for a reduced current for a given amount of power and power factor. Under such condition, we can state that the current is inversely proportional to the voltage. A lower current obviously results in reduced cable and switchgear sizes, I2R losses and voltage drop. This is the reason for the trend in adopting higher and higher voltages along the national grid.

Distribution Systems This primarily concern with conveyance of the bulk power to consumers by means of a lower voltage. In Nigerian distribution system, power

network delivers final step down transformation below 132kv. The distribution is characterized by 33kv, 11kv and a supply to final consumer feeders at 415v, 3, giving 240v per phase.

Classification of Distribution Systems Distribution systems may be classified in various ways, among which include:

(i) (ii)

Type of Current: ac distribution or dc distribution Character of Service: general light and power, industrial power, street lighting etc.

(iii)

Type of Construction: Over head or underground distribution system

(iv) (v)

Number of wires: 2-wire, 3-wire or 4-wire distribution system. Scheme of connection: radial, ring or interconnected distribution system.

A) Radial System: The system is the simplest and lowest in first cost. In this system of connection, the distributors are fed at one end only. This system is employed when electrical energy is generated at low voltage and the power station is situated at the center of the load. This type of system suffers the following:

The end of the distributor nearest to the supply end would be heavily loaded

The consumers at the farthest end of the distributor would be subjected to various fluctuations with the variation of load.

The consumers are forced to be dependent on a single feeder. A fault on a feeder or distributor cuts off the supply from all consumers.

The

following

figure

depicts

the

circuit

representation

of

radial

connection.

Fig: Radial connection

B) Ring main system: For maintaining absolute continuity of service, this type of connection is employed. In this system each consumers is supplied via two feeders, as illustrated in the figure. This type of connection has the following advantages: Less voltage fluctuations It is more reliable. In the event of fault, the faulty section can be isolated and maintain. And the other section will have continuity of the supply. Less copper is needed as each part of the ring carries less current than that in radial connection.

Fig: Ring main system

C) Interconnected system: When two or more generating stations are connected together, the connection is known as

interconnected.

Fig: Interconnected system

Feeders & distributors The distribution system may be subdivided into feeders, distributors and service mains. Feeders are conductors which connect the substation or generating stations in some cases, to the areas to be fed by those substations. Generally from feeders, there is no tapping to consumers, as such; current loading of a feeder remains the same along its length.

Distributors are conductors from which numerous tapings for the supply to consumers are taken. The current loading in this case varies along its length.

Service mains are the conductors, which connect the consumer terminals to the distributor. Addendum Although electrical power can be transmitted and distributed by either ac or dc, but in practice 3-phase 3-wire ac system is universally adopted for transmission of large blocks of power and 3-phase 4-wire ac system is usually adopted for distribution of electrical power. Modern ac power systems usually consists of the following (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) (viii) Generating stations Step-up transformer Transmission lines Switching station Step-down transformer stations Primary (h.v.) distribution network Service transformer banks Secondary (l.v) distribution network.

Items (ii), (iii), (iv) and (v) fall in transmission systems and items (vi), (vii) and (viii) fall in distribution system.

Many systems of power transmission and distribution may or may not include all elements enumerated above. That is, some system may have no primary transmission, some may not have secondary transmission and the others may not have transmission at all.

Standard voltages To reduce the cost of distribution apparatus and to facilitate its protection, standard setting organizations have established a number of standard voltages for transmission lines. These standards are given in the following table and it reflects the various voltages presently used in North America. Table B reflect the various standard voltages as used in Nigerian power industry.

Table : Voltage classes as applied to industrial and commercial power

Voltage class Two-wire Low voltage 120 1-

Nominal system voltage Three-wire 120/240 * 1 480v * 600v 120/208 * 277/480 347/600 Four-wire

Medium voltage

2400 4160 * 4800 6900

13 800 * 23 000 34 500 46 000 69 000 Medium voltage 115 000 * 138 000 * 161 000 * 230 000 * Extra high voltage 345 000 * 500 000 * 735000-765000*

7200/12470 * 7620/13200 * 7970/13800 14400/24940 * 19920/34500 *

All voltages are 3- unless indicated otherwise voltages designated by (*) are preferred voltages. Voltage class designation were approved for use by standards board (September 4, 1975)

Table : Standard voltages as used in Nigerian power industry. Voltage class Lv Mv. Three Wire 415 11000 33000 Hv Ehv 132000 330,000 Four Wire 240

As mentioned previously, lets explain briefly the parameters used. (i) Low-voltage (lv.) lines are installed inside buildings, factories and houses to supply power to motors, electric stoves, lights etc. the line constitute operating voltage below 600v. (ii) Medium-voltage (mv) lines tie the load centers to main substation of the utility company. The operating voltage is usually between 2.4kv and 6gkv. (iii) A high-voltage (hv) line connects the main substations to the generating station. It has operating voltage between 230kv. (iv) Extra high-voltage (Ehv) are used when generating stations are far from the local centers. Such lines operate at voltages up to 800kv and may be as long as 1000 km. In Nigerian power industry.