ET4266 Introduction to Ultra-Wideband Systems and Antennas

Human being imaging for concealed using UWB radars and mm-waves
Eugenio Pasqua 1399136 Fernando Moinelo Delgado 1375377 June 23, 2008

Abstract The objective of this report is to investigate the current research on human being imaging for concealed weapon detection, with a particular attention on UWB radars and mm-wave systems. Ultra-wideband (UWB) systems and antennas are a relatively new but mature technology which still has a lot of potential. UWB systems use signals with a ultra-wide bandwidth, which can be obtained both in the timedomain, by means of short pulses with instantaneous ultra-wide bandwidth, and in the frequency-domain, with the use of multiple carriers. UWB radars have a ner resolution than conventional systems, as they can gather more information of the detection space with better quality than conventional radars. Although at the present days UWB imaging radars are mostly used in SAR for airborne applications, such technology has characteristics which can potentially improve the current state-of-the-art imaging systems. Mm-waves radar imaging systems use the frequencies between 30 and 300 GHz, at which electromagnetic waves can easily penetrate the common clothing. At the moment mm-waves are one of the better available technologies for security applications and are consequently described in detail.

E.Pasqua@student.tudelft.nl F.MoineloDelgado@student.tudelft.nl

CONTENTS

Contents
1 Introduction 1.1 Overview of UWB technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 UWB radar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Methods for CW Detection and Imaging 2.1 Introduction to CWD-I . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Imaging technologies and methods . . . . . . 2.2.1 X-ray imager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.2 UWB and mm-wave imaging systems 3 Conclusions References 3 3 5 6 6 7 7 8 12 14

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INTRODUCTION

1
1.1

Introduction
Overview of UWB technology

UWB technology is recently gaining high attention in the Telecommunication eld. More and more opinions indicates Ultra-wideband (UWB) technology as extremely simple and cheap to implement and very adaptive, using dierent frequencies as circumstance require. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has given the following denition of UWB: an intentional radiator that, at any point in time, has a fractional bandwidth equal to or greater than 0.20 or has a bandwidth equal to or greater than 500 MHz, regardless of the fractional bandwidth [2], where the fractional bandwidth is dened as ff ract = 2 and the absolute bandwidth is f = fup flo with fup and flo dened at the 10 dB level. FCC made also several regulations for UWB: frequency allocation: 3.1 to 10.6 GHz low radiated power (max 41.3 dBm) some roll o allowed at minimum and maximum frequencies stringent requirements for interference with GPS (at 1.5 GHz) However, this formal denition denes an UWB signal only based on the bandwidth of the signal, completely ignoring the properties of the objects interacting with the signal. Many researchers prefer to dene an UWB signal as a signal whose spectrum is wide enough to cover the essential spectrum (resonance frequencies) of the objects with which interacts. An example of an UWB system could be the human eyes: they work like passive antennas, covering the essential spectrum of light. This spectrum bandwidth is wide enough to permit us to recognize the objects around us. Ultra-wide bandwidth can be obtained with two dierent approaches, in the time-domain and in the frequency-domain (see g. 1). In the timedomain approach or Impulse UWB (I-UWB), an UWB antenna transmits very short pulses (hundreds of picoseconds, g. 2), which have an instantaneous ultra-wide bandwidth. The pulses are transmitted without a carrier, which eliminates the need of expensive oscillators (mixers) at the receiver. Although the average transmitted power is low (orders of microwatts), a short-duration pulse requires a high peak transmit power, and it can possibly fup flo (fup + flo )

INTRODUCTION

Figure 1: UWB system types interfere with the existing narrowband services. Anyway this requirement can be relaxed with pulse compression. In the frequency-domain or Multi Carrier UWB (MC-UWB), the ultrawide bandwidth is obtained using multiple carrier frequencies. At any moment the system works with a narrow bandwidth signal, whose frequency varies over time. This can be done essentially in two ways: the stepped frequency approach, in which the frequency of the signal jumps from a xed value to another, waits for a xed dwell time and then increases again until the whole bandwidth is covered; and the swept frequency approach or Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW), where the frequency slowly varies with time, covering the whole operational bandwidth. An approach analogous to stepped frequency CW is the Spread Spectrum, where the frequency changes according to a Spread Code or sequence of frequencies so that the signal is spread over a much wider bandwidth than is needed for the information being sent. With the appropriate spread codes is then possible to avoid the frequencies with narrowband interferences, making the signal both dicult to intercept and robust. Another dierent approach to UWB systems are OFDM systems which use multiple carriers simultaneously conguring an instantaneously wide bandwidth. In both the time-domain and the frequency-domain approach, UWB technologies has advantages in many other ways.

INTRODUCTION

Figure 2: UWB pulses

1.2

UWB radar

Radar is one of the main application of UWB technologies since its early years. The down-range resolution R is indeed related to the operational bandwidth B of the signal: c R = 2B with c being the speed of light in the medium. The cross-range resolution, or lateral resolution is given by A = r = r B 2L

where is the wavelenght of the radar signal, r the distance of the target, L is the antenna length and B is the antenna beamwidth. UWB radar has a very wide bandwidth and thus a very ne down-range resolution. The main advantages of a wider bandwidth consist in improving the accuracy of range measurements as it has higher resolution. In addition, it reduces the eects of passive interferences and improves the immunity to narrowband radiation and noise. Narrowband systems use sinusoidal signals as carriers for the information. The sinusoidal waveform is generated by oscillators that could be simple RLC circuits or expensive VCO. Also, sinusoidal waveforms keep their shape when linear systems are used, with changes only in amplitude and phase. In the other hand UWB could be carrierless and so does not

METHODS FOR CW DETECTION AND IMAGING

Figure 3: UWB radar applications require any mixer at the transmitter. Also, this implies that the changes of signal shape in UWB occurs during the detection and ranging processes. Antennas do not radiate in the range of frequencies closer to DC, so essentially the antenna is a high-pass lter that derivates the shape of the signal. If it is assumed that the UWB signal lenght is less that the size of the local scattering elements of the target, each discrete target reects the signal and forms a pulse sequence called target image which can be used to identify the target. UWB radars have many dierent applications, like synthetic aperture radars (SAR), stealth targets detection, but are also remote sensing at short distances for several other applications (g. 3). Radar imaging is certainly an interesting application of UWB radars, due to the essential increase of the quality and the quantity of the information which can be gathered. However, nowadays the use fo UWB signals for image formation is limited to SAR systems mounted on airborne platforms.

2
2.1

Methods for CW Detection and Imaging

Introduction to CWD-I

Greater security at sensible location like airports, banks and many other public buildings is needed because of the risks linked to terrorism, like hijacking or sabotage, but also smuggling incursions. A concealed weapon detection and imaging system is designed to nd items considered to be weapons or in general objects that can be a threat to the public security.

METHODS FOR CW DETECTION AND IMAGING

Research in this eld is addressed toward the development of an eective, non-invasive method to screen people for the presence of concealed weapon or contraband. Technical challenges are decreasing the false alarm rate and improving the velocity of processing for real-time imaging systems. The rst technology used to check for concealed weapon and contraband was a metal detector. It was rst employed in airports in the early 70s in a walk-through portal security device for passenger screening. Metal detectors could be active or passive types. An active detector produces a time-varying magnetic eld that interacts with any electrically conductive or magnetizable material, generating eddy currents in it that are then detected. The more conductive is the material, the stronger is the response of the object. Thus, such a system is only able to detect highly conductive materials (most of which are metals), and unless it is provided with multiple detectors, it will not be able to locate the object. On the other hand, a passive metal detector (like a gradiometer), is capable of detecting variation of the local magnetic eld of the earth which are caused by the presence, in the detection space, of ferrous materials. Though these systems were continually improved over the years, metal detectors remains limited to the detection of metal objects, like hand gun or box cutters, and are useless against plastic or ceramic threats. Moreover they cannot discriminate between simple objects as coins, keys, metal bottons, etc. and actual threats, leading to a rather high number of false alarms. Metal detectors are in general detection-only systems, and they provide poor information. To obtain better performances and more information, some detection systems use an image-based detector: the system acquire images of the detection space, and then compare the acquired image with an electronic database of images or signatures recorded for a large number of possible threats, like handguns, knifes, etc. With this approach, the systems is able to recognize the target, if its signature is already present in the database. The problem is that in order to be sure to recognize an object, the system needs to store all the dierent signatures. This means a system of this kind would require a large information storage capability to contain all the images and an image processing system, and would be much more expensive than a detection-only system.

2.2
2.2.1

Imaging technologies and methods

X-ray imager

An X-ray system uses low-power collimated x-rays to illuminate the subject under control, performing a 2-D scan. An image of the body is then reconstructed using the intensity of X-rays backscattered by the body via Compton scattering. Such a system has a very good spatial resolution, which permits to identify possible threat items of every type of materials. X-rays

METHODS FOR CW DETECTION AND IMAGING

are a form of ionizing EM, and they can penetrate a few mm into a human body. This penetration capability is not enough to nd items concealed into the body cavities, or in general covered by heavy esh. Moreover, the ionizing radiation of such system poses serious health risks to the people being scanned. This systems also have privacy issues. X-ray systems produce high clarity images which contain very detailed anatomical information. In most cases, displaying anatomical details of a person is considered a violation of that persons privacy. 2.2.2 UWB and mm-wave imaging systems

Among the emerging technologies, millimeter-wave (mmw) imaging systems are one of the most inquired in security applications. Millimeter waves are generally between 30 GHz and 300 GHz, with wavelength ranging from 1 to 10 mm. These wavelengths are quite longer than optical wavelengths, and they can penetrate many optical materials, such as common clothing. Moreover, millimeter waves are non-ionizing, so they dont have any health issues when used at low power, making them ideal for security screening of people. They also have less privacy issues than x-rays (there are algorithms which can cover some anatomical details on the image). The fundamental mechanism on which radars for human being imaging are based, is very simple: the subject under control is illuminated by an incident eld Ei radiated from the radar. The radiation is then scattered by the body, and the scattered eld Es is measured over the detection space and used to form a image of the body by means of a reconstruction algorithm. The way EM waves scatters from a surface depends and their frequency, and on the reectivity of the surface, which in turn is related to its physical properties. For concealed weapon detection systems, in order to detect any item concealed over a human body, it is necessary that such items have a detectable reectivity contrast with the human body. At millimeter-wave frequencies, metal objects like guns or knives have a high reectivity contrast with the body, while non-metal objects, like plastic or ceramic, have a smaller contrast. Mm-waves can easily penetrate clothing, but they do not penetrate deeply into the human body. Indeed, the human body highly reects frequencies higher than 15 GHz. This means that the sources of the scattered eld are distributed over the body surface, and reconstructing the 3-D distribution of the scattered eld it is possible to reproduce the shape and the curvatures of the body, with anomalies which could indicate the presence of objects with dierent physical properties concealed over the body. The quality of the 3-D images is characterized with respect to the point scatterers by the size of the voxels (or volume pixels or cells). Each volume cell represents a distinct volume on a regular grid in the 3-D detection space, which can be lled with the measured eld data. Voxel data usually have

METHODS FOR CW DETECTION AND IMAGING

Figure 4: Holographic system conguration low resolution, as precise data are only available at the center of each cell. Anyway the data within each cell and their amount characterize the image resolution. As the size of voxels is dependent on frequency, it is possible to increase the volume which is covered by data and thus the resolution by using wide-band signals, as well as a CW source swept over a large bandwidth. In mm-wave systems, imaging of the detection space is typically achieved with two dierent techniques, which are also suitable for lower microwave frequency bands. The rst technique uses a focal-plane 2-D array of millimeterwave antennas placed at the focal point of a large lens system. The scattered eld is collected at the lens aperture, which focuses the RF energy into small volumes within its eld of view. This makes possible to scan image voxels in front of the lens, and to display a 3-D image in real-time. Anyway, such a system also have some disadvantages, as a low resolution, a small aperture and a limited eld of view, in addition to the high costs due to the 2-D array. The second technique, called holographic imaging, is a means of 3-D imaging of targets from data measured at dierent points of a 2-D aperture. With this technique the detection space can be rapidly scanned to eectively illuminate a target and the collected coherent returned signal can be recorded and mathematically reconstructed in a computer to form a focused image. A simplied millimeter wave transceiver is shown in g 4. A millimeterwave signal is generated by a voltage controlled oscillator (VCO), whose frequency is swept over the bandwidth of interest. A signal whose frequency increases or decreases with time is called a chirp signal (g. 5). The chirp signal is then transmitted using a wide-band antenna (e.g. a small pyramidal horn antenna), reected from a target and received by the receive antenna. This antenna is typically of the same type of the transmitter, and

METHODS FOR CW DETECTION AND IMAGING

10

Figure 5: a) chirp signal; b) spectrum of a chirp signal; c) frequency variation with time it is positioned approximately in the same location of the transmit antenna. With such a conguration, also referred to as quasi-monostatic, the two adjacent antennas simulate a single transmit and receive antenna, with the advantage of a best transmit to receive isolation compared to a monostatic conguration. The received signal is then divided into an in-phase component (with 0 phase shift) and a quadrature component (with a phase shift of 90), which are coupled to the VCO. The complex signal is then sampled over a 2-D aperture using a 2-D scanner, and nally inputed to the image reconstruction algorithm which form the image. The reconstruction algorithm in most cases involves some form of back propagation, back projection or time-reversal procedures. After the holographic image are reconstructed, they can be sent to and displayed in a video monitor where a trained operator can detect and identify objects concealed over the person under control or, in cases where displaying of images with detailed anatomical features may have privacy issues, an additional computer image recognition system can automatically identify the target, by comparing this image with an electronic database of all the possible threats. The advantages of holographic imaging are higher resolution, the ability to mathematical focus at any single depth and a large aperture which allows a full-body eld of view. An example of such a system for CWD has being developed by the Battelle Pacic Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) [7]. It consists of a sequentially switched linear array of antennas driven by a wide-band millimeter-wave transceiver, both mounted on a fast mechanical scanner. During the operations, the array is electronically scanned over an horizontal aperture of 0.75 m, while being mechanically swept over a vertical aperture of 2 m. The system uses coherent illumination and detection (magnitude and phase) of the scattered wavefront. The measured data are digitalized using an A/D converter and stored in a computer. After a full-aperture of data is collected, they are focused to form a full 3-D image, using an image reconstruction algorithm developed at PNNL. The use of a wide bandwidth

METHODS FOR CW DETECTION AND IMAGING

11

Figure 6: Wideband (27-33 GHz) images of a man carrying two handguns, one checkbook and one leather wallet is essential in this application, as it improves the down-range resolution allowing the whole body to be in focus at the same time. The 3-D image is then collapsed into a 2-D image, which can be displayed on screen. Imaging results of this systems, in the bandwidth (27-33 MHz), are depicted in the gure 6. The person under test was carrying two handguns, one tucked at the belt line under the mans shirt, and a second small one in the mans left pants pocket, as well as several innocuous items. The images were taken from dierent angles. As it can be see in g. 6 the objects that were concealed are quite evident. In the rst image is clearly visible the gun concealed under the belt. In the second image, the small handgun concealed in the left pocket shows up evidently. In the third image a paper checkbook inserted in the left back pocket is also visible. In the forth image, a leather wallet on the mans rigth back pocket is shown. Similar systems have also been built at PNNL, operating at dierent bandwidths as from 22 to 47.5 GHz, 40 to 60 GHz and 90 to 120 GHz. Such systems could be farther improved in resolution using an UWB array antenna to scan the detection space, although at the present days this application of UWB radars is still in a development stage. UWB radars could be used in holographic systems, for example, to achieve higher resolution at much lower, more practical parameters, and with fewer array elements than conventional systems. The UWB radar arrays also have the ability to focus received energy into the main lobe by adding elements. This practically eliminate the side-lobe eects that limit the sensitivity of conven-

CONCLUSIONS

12

tional systems. Moreover, only low transmit power is required due to higher sensitivity and wider dynamic range in the receiver. Imaging the obtained returns from the steered UWB array is principally a matter of implementing the appropriate processing software for a correlated merge of multiple 2-D images of the target object(s). The systems described above, all use active illumination of target to measure the scattered returns. A passive system detects the natural radiations that all objects naturally emit and reect over a broad spectrum of frequencies. The level of radiation emitted by an object is determined by a number of factors such as the physical properties of the object and by its temperature. The human body is an especially good emitter of millimeter waves, with near to unit emissivities. By contrast, at millimeter wave frequencies metal objects have emissivities of about 0.2 or less, thus being very poor emitters and excellent reectors of radiations. Dielectrics objects such as plastics and ceramics, have emission properties that are between those of the human body and metals. Passive millimeter wave imaging systems typically use two basic mechanism of detection. A rst mechanism measures the temperature contrast caused by emissions of the human body, which has a temperatures of about 37 , and the background radiation at ambient temperature (about 25 ) reected by the concealed items. Metal object show up quite well with this type of measurements, as they have a very high reectivity. The second mechanism utilizes the fact that objects concealed over the surface of a human body will partially block the emission of the body itself, substituting its own at lower temperatures. This mechanism is exploited for the detection of non-metallic items.

Conclusions

In this paper an overview on current state of human being imaging for concealed weapon detection has been presented, with particular attention on ultra-wideband (UWB) radars and mm-waves systems. Among the available technologies, mm-wave are one of the most eective systems for the detection and identication of concealed threats. An example of this system, developed at the Pacic Northwest National Laboratory, has been presented. The images taken show the high resolution and high delity of the image that are available with this method. In spite of the good results showed, there still remains some important problems to be solved. First of all, it is still an open issue which frequency band is better for concealed weapon detection. The achievable resolution depends on the the bandwidth and the wavelength of radiations. The use of higher frequencies allows to obtain ner resolution, but it requires high-frequency transmitters and receivers which at the the current state are more expensive than the

CONCLUSIONS

13

components for lower frequencies. Moreover, higher frequencies are also characterized by high atmospheric attenuation, mainly due to the inuence of water vapour. A second question regards the type of antenna which can be used. In the early holographic imaging systems, a single transceiver was used to scan both dimensions of the detection space. Such an embodiment would require quite a long time to mechanically scan the entire 2-D aperture and reconstruct the image, and it is thus impractical for CWD purposes. On the other side, with a 2-D array antenna, the sensors are electronically switched over the aperture. The scan is performed without the need of any moving part, thus allowing for real-time operations. The major drawback of such antennas is the high cost of the antenna system. At the current state, a linear array of antennas is a good compromise between the above solutions, as it can be scanned quickly to gather full-aperture image data. Further improvements can be obtained using UWB systems. Although UWB imaging radars have not still been widely tested for human being imaging for concealed weapon detection, they are a very promising method, which could further improve the resolution and the accuracy of the systems developed since the present day.

REFERENCES

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References
[1] N.G. Paulter, Guide to the technologies of concealed weapon imaging and detection NIJ Guide 602-00, 2001. Available: http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/pubs-sum/184432.htm [2] FCC Ultra-Wideband Notice of Propose Rule Making (NPRM) Federal Register, vol. 65, no.-l15, 14 June 2000; modied 2002 3 [3] A.G. Yarovoy, Ultra-Wideband Systems Proceedings of the 33rd European Microwave Conference - Munich 2003 [4] D.J. Taylor, Introduction to ultra-wideband radar systems CRC Press, 1995. [5] W. Steinway, G. Stilwell, H. Duvoisin, III, D.H. Fine, Concealed Object Detection CyTerra Corporation, U.S. Patent 6 831 590 B1, Dec. 14, 2004 [6] D. M. Sheen, D. L. McMakin, H. D. Collins, T. E. Hall, and R. H. Severtsen, Concealed explosive detection on personnel using a wideband holographic millimeter-wave imaging system AEROSENSE aerospace/Defense Sensing and Controls, Orlando FL,USA, Proceedings of the SPIE, Vol. 2755, 1996. [7] D. M. Sheen, D. L. McMakin, and T. E. Hall, Three-Dimensional Millimeter-Wave Imaging for Concealed Weapon Detection IEEE Trans. on Microwave Theory & Tech., Sep. 2001, p. 1581-1592, vol. 49, No. 9, USA. 10 [8] J. Detlefsen,A. Dallinger, S. Schelkshorn, Approaches to millimeter-wave imaging of humans In European Radar Conference EuRAD 2004, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, October 2004, pages 279-282.