PRESENTATION ON RESEARCH PROPOSAL BY: HARRY BARNES-DABBAN, PhD Researcher, Environmental Policy Group, Wageningen University, The Netherlands

SUPERVISORS: Prof. Dr. Ir. A. P. J. Mol & Prof. Dr. Ir. Kris van Koppen TOPIC: Governing Environmental Flows From Shipping: West and Central African Ports and the Network Society Research Background In an era of sustainable development with growing concern about threats to global environmental quality and increasing pressures on world resources, ports are under pressure to deal with environmental challenges generated from maritime shipping as well as those generated in port areas. They have to balance their commercial orientation and goals with ecological concerns by implementing multilateral environmental agreements, particularly International Maritime Organisations (IMO) international conventions for the protection and prevention of marine pollution from ships. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) as the specialized United Nations agency responsible for maritime safety and pollution prevention from ships has since the 1970s developed and adopted seven international conventions for the prevention and protection of marine environment from pollution. Most of these conventions primarily deal with shipping related environmental impacts, as they were largely conceived and designed to regulate shipping activity (Nauke, 1992). Over time, however, it has been realized that ports and port areas are the only place to effectively regulate shipping related environmental impacts. Attention is therefore on ports to implement these conventions in addition to national and local environmental regulations. The West and Central African (WACAF) region (stretching from Mauritania to Angola) has 46 ports who are IMO members and contracting parties to most of IMOs international conventions. The ports are thus obliged to implement and enforce these conventions to guide their environmental performance. Unfortunately however, policies in this direction have received low priority and attention in the region. Though there is environmental awareness with an interest and concern, implementing the conventions remains a challenge for them. Like all other ports, WACAF ports face common shipping related environmental challenges which are trans-boundary with local impacts. Prominent among these are; ships waste reception and treatment, ballast water control and management, and oil spill preparedness and response. These environmental challenges navigate from the globe via ships to the local, being ports. They have impacts that know no boundaries and are governed by international regulations that have to be implemented at the local. The global maritime community acknowledges that trans-boundary issues can be prevented and managed through coordinated action from international through regional to national and local. In this vein a number of innovative forms of steering have emerged to create cooperative and collaborative machinery among ports and other maritime operators to adopt technically sound and internationally acceptable environmental standards for the prevention, protection and control of ports and the marine environment from pollution. European ports under the European Sea Ports Organisation (ESPO) set up ECO-information, an environmental information exchange platform with a quickly expanding network proactively aimed at selfregulation for higher environmental standards (www.ecoports.com). This Eco-ports collaboration has not only promoted environmental self-regulation but taken the participating European ports beyond just conforming to international regulations and

standards. In Asia we have the Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA). Through such coordinated approaches, the capacity of ports is strengthened to comply with international marine environment conventions and also enabled to take collaborative actions for continuous environmental improvement. Unfortunately, this has not caught up with ports in the WACAF region. They operate inherently as fragmented individual entities mostly focusing on modifying and renovating their infrastructure in a bid to strengthen the economic position of their individual ports at the cost of protecting and improving the quality of the national/supranational marine environment. To be able meet global environmental demands, forms of environmental steering and cooperation within the region to improve environmental performance like their European and Asian counterparts may have to be initiated. Through regional cooperation, WACAF ports would be able to leverage their synergies, exchange information and experiences, and collectively develop capacity for environmental protection initiatives in meeting their marine environment protection commitments. A coordinated approach would create an interface that will present an opportunity to reconcile global and transnational interests and concerns with those at the local (Carins et al., 2004) and form governing arrangements in addressing environmental challenges in a manner sustainable and consistent with international regulations, standards and practices. The research focuses on regional forms of environmental cooperation in linking global and local environmental strategies to improve environmental performance in WACAF ports. A conceptual framework for analyzing the research is developed from the Networks and Flows Theory as developed by Castells and Urry. From this theory which seeks to substantiate the emergence of a shift from nation-states and national societies to networks of flows of capital, people and technology that can be understood in terms of time-space organization of social practices, two spaces of environmental practices; global environmental strategies and local environmental strategies, are created for this research. These are to be used to investigate the actual and potential contributions that regional forms of environmental steering and cooperation can make in linking local and global environmental strategies to improve environmental performance in WACAF Ports. Environmental performance and cooperation among some European ports and organizations will also be studied to learn their forms of environmental steering and cooperation. The scope will cover shipping related environmental issues that impact on the marine environment and requiring ports in the WACAF region to play a role in their prevention, protection and control. Case studies and interviews are to be used as the main methodology in the study which is expected to contribute to knowledge on environmental management for ports in West and Central Africa. Research Problem Efficient ports and maritime transport are crucial for economies in the WACAF region as more than 90% of their foreign trade and a substantial part of their domestic trade are sea bound. With continuing programmes for export-led growth and diversifying their economies, the share of foreign trade in GDP is expected to increase. This means increasing shipping activities to meet economic needs of the region, with implied environmental challenges for their ports. WACAF ports, like all others, have a responsibility to promote safety and sound environmental practices, and build appropriate institutional capacity to prevent degradation of the marine environment. They face eight major environmental challenges that can be categorised as (i) shipping or water side generated (flow bound), and (ii) port area or land side generated (place bound). These are presented as follows:

Shipping/Waterside Generated Reception and treatment of ships Waste Ballast water control and Management Oil spill preparedness, response and cooperation Air pollution from ships Dredging and disposal of dredged Material

Port Area/Landside Generated Port waste management Pollution from port industrial Activities Oil spill preparedness, response And cooperation Dredging and disposal of dredged Material Handling and transportation of Hazardous substances

To deal with these challenges, the ports rely on both domestic and international environmental legislations, both of which are generally ineffectively enforced. Although some of the ports have clear environmental policy guidelines, they lack capacity (human, financial, technology, knowledge etc.) to develop environmental institutions and measures that are sustainable and consistent with international standards and practices. Though most of the regions port countries have ratified relevant international marine environment conventions, they lack capacity for carrying out the necessary legislative review to enable them develop compliant domestic regulations to guide environmental performance. There is therefore inertia with practically not much capability to prevent and protect the marine environment from pollution from ships, particularly; (i) providing adequate port reception facilities for ship generated wastes as required by the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships 1973 and modified by the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto (MARPOL 73/78) (ii) providing adequate reception facilities for ballast water and sediments as required by the International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships Ballast Water and Sediment (BWC 2004), and (iii) preparing to respond and cooperate in cases of major oil pollution as required by the International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Cooperation (OPRC 1990), and the regions own Convention on the Development and Protection of Marine and Coastal Environment of West and Central Africa (Abidjan Convention) with its related protocol on Pollution Cooperation, adopted in 1981. Annexes I, II, III, IV and V, of MARPOL 73/78 requires ports to provide adequate reception facilities for oily wastes, noxious liquid substances, harmful packaged substances, sewage, and garbage, respectively for calling ships (a recent addition is annex VI, dealing with prevention of air pollution from ships) (http://ww.imo.org/conventions). These facilities are hardly available in the regions ports and where they are available, they are inadequate. It can therefore be safely assumed that illegal discharge of ship generated wastes is going on somewhere within the regions seas. The International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships Ballast water and Sediment (BWC 2004) also requires ports to provide adequate reception facilities to receive ships ballast water and sediments in consistence with international law (http://ww.imo.org/conventions). This is to prevent, reduce or eliminate the transfer of harmful invasive aquatic organisms or pathogens through ballast water. Though ballast water is necessary for ships to keep their balance, stability and structural integrity, it is associated with one of the greatest threats to marine biodiversity and ecosystem. The emergence of new markets under globalisation has opened up ports and shipping routes

of the WACAF region1. Several ports in the region are exporting bulk commodities and oil and in return receiving large amounts of ballast water. This places the region at risk as they are potentially receiving harmful invasive organisms into their ecosystem but there is the lack of resources and capacity to implement the new BWC 2004 to address this threat. IMOs OPRC 1990 and the WACAF regions own Abidjan Convention aim at facilitating cooperation and mutual assistance in preparing for and responding to oil pollution incidents. They are to encourage nation-states to develop and maintain adequate capability to deal with oil pollution emergencies (http://ww.imo.org/conventions; http://www.unep.org/abidjanconvention/). Under these conventions, operators of oil facilities such as ports are required to establish stockpiles of oil spill combating equipment and develop detailed contingency plans for dealing with pollution incidents and also hold oil spill combating exercises. The WACAF region has lots of oil and cannot ignore its dire need of cooperation to prepare and respond to oil spills and pollution incidents. Explorations and exports from countries like Nigeria, Equatorial Guinea, Angola, Senegal, and Sao Tome and Principe makes the region vulnerable to oil spill incidents from offshore installations and tanker traffic which may be remote from ports though. Other circumstances such as dependence on importation of petroleum products, bunkering of vessels, and discharges at oil terminals also put the regions ports at risk of oil pollution ranging from small operational spills at oil handling facilities to larger and more serious accidental spills from vessel collusions in ports, for which major response is required. Studies in WACAF ports show that there are real risks of small operational spills occurring and that there have been many recent incidents2. Ports in the WACAF region together with other oil facility operators have been working on implementing these conventions but efforts have suffered setbacks. It has been slow and staggered due to ineffective coordinating structures. Environmental performance relating to both shipping and port area generated issues is one of the drivers for ports globally to thrive, and WACAF ports are no different, but they however lack what it takes to comply with required international environmental standards. The question therefore remains as to how WACAF ports can improve their environmental performance in compliance with international demands, standards and practices. Recognising that the disposal of ship wastes, release of oil and other harmful substances at sea by ships can primarily be prevented through coordinated action (Nauke, 1992), WACAF ports will have to devise a cooperative environmental mechanism within the region to deal with their trans-boundary environmental challenges relating to pollution prevention from ships. A cooperative mechanism within the region would present opportunities for linking local or national ports to the global. Environmental Cooperation among WACAF ports would increase local capacity of the ports to deal with their environmental challenges and also facilitate implementation of relevant international environmental regimes. It would help the ports make significant efforts to streamline and standardise environmental practices and also collectively contribute to implement commitments and targets of international environmental conventions. This would nurture and coordinate various efforts of the regions ports and other related actors towards new steering forms for protecting the marine environment.

1 Draft Discussion Paper for 1st Guinea Current Large Marine Ecosystem (GCLME) Workshop on Ballast Water Control and Management, Accra , 30th January 2nd February 2 Draft Discussion Paper for 1st Guinea Current Large Marine Ecosystem (GCLME) Workshop on Ballast Water Control and Management, Accra , 30th January 2nd February

Research Objective To analyse the dynamics of global and local environmental strategies and the opportunities they present for regional forms of environmental steering and cooperation to improve environmental performance in WACAF ports. Research Question What are the actual and potential contributions that regional forms of environmental steering and cooperation can make in the linking of global and local strategies to improve environmental performance in WACAF ports? Conceptual Framework This is developed from Manuel Castells work, Network Society (1996), in which he observed that a network society had emerged since the 1980s and 1990s with a shift from nation-states and national societies to networks and flows of capital, people, money, information technology, images, goods and materials stemming from the global, and becoming the dominant spatial manifestation of power and function in societies (Castells, 1996, 378; Mol and Spaargaren, 2006). He defines the network society as one whose social structure is made of networks powered by electronic information technology. He says that in an age of internet, social practices are organised without any connection to geographic location. This development which can be seen as a by-product of globalisation processes is already manifesting in ports and the maritime sector. Ports are opening up to global/international operators who are seeking strategic locations to invest and control. Their operations are being organized in real time by their ability to control and move cargo and services from almost anywhere to everywhere around the globe through electronic information technology. To explain his concept, Castells distinguishes two contrasting spaces of social action, the space of flows and the the space of places from which the conceptual model for the research is derived.

Global Environmental Strategies

Interface Local + Global

Regional Environmental Co-operation

Port A

Port B

Port C

Local Environmental Strategies

Figure 1

Global Environmental Strategies

Regional Environmental Cooperation

Improved Environmental Performance

Local Environmental Strategies

Figure 2

The model for the research distinguishes two contrasting spaces (upper and lower) of environmental actions for WACAF ports that are to be explored. The upper space space of flows, is referred to as global environmental strategies. This concerns international/supranational marine environment protection regimes and organisations, multinational port and shipping (maritime) operators, and international marine environment protection practices. The lower space space of places, is referred to as local environmental strategies, and concerns local environmental regulations, policies, and practices as promoted by port authorities, operators and relevant agencies and networks in WACAF ports. The upper space (global) would be analysed by investigating marine environment regimes and how they affect ports, international/supranational/regional maritime and allied organizations (including international NGOs) and how they relate to ports, environmental practices of multinational port/terminal/shipping operators, and international marine/port environmental protection practices. The lower space (local) would be analysed by investigating the environmental regulations, policies and policy-making structure, management systems, practices, and standards promoted by WACAF port authorities, local port operators, port tenants, agents and users. From these analyses, the driving and restraining forces, factors and conditions for regional forms of environmental steering and cooperation, and the actual and potential contributions it can make to improve environmental performance in WACAF ports will be identified. Environmental steering and governance practices among Western European ports will be studied to draw lessons.
Methodology

The research is based on case study and given that it is within a globalised context, cases of contemporary trends will facilitate the possibility of analysing embryonic space of flows processes in an African context with the benefit of indicating coherent trends for the future (Mol, 1995). To achieve this, four ports in the WACAF region, Abidjan, Douala, Lagos (Apapa), and Tema, which have increased public-private partnership through the concession of some operations, have been selected as case studies. To be able to get a good and general background of the environmental situation of ports in the WACAF region, the environmental situation in all WACAF ports will be reviewed through questionnaire and available literature. Their legal compliance and environmental management practices will also be reviewed.

Questionnaires will be mailed to various actors in the ports to find out the situation, their opinion and the contribution of regional cooperation in environmental performance. Regarding the four selected case study ports, their environmental regulations, actors and practices regarding the three identified environmental challenges; (i) provision of adequate port reception facilities for ship generated wastes (ii) provision of adequate reception facilities for reception of ballast water and sediments, and (iii) preparation for response and cooperation in cases of major oil pollution, will be the focus of analysis. The environmental profile, policy and management systems of the ports will be investigated. Existing environmental networks and collaborations within and among the ports, how they operate, their motivation and challenges will also be investigated. Also to be investigated will be the relationship of the ports and international/supranational maritime and allied organisations, the extent and how their environmental practices are influenced by international marine environment regimes and how they also influence these. The study will also seek to know the needs, expectations and views of the ports on global environmental regimes, actors and practices, and also what and how regional forms of environmental steering and cooperation does in improving environmental performance. Regarding the global, international marine environment regimes relevant to the three identified environmental challenges will be studied. How these regimes influence ports at the local and also how ports affect these regimes will be investigated. International/supranational organisations that develop, promote, coordinate and govern these regimes and other port/marine environment performance standards and practices will also be identified and their programmes and activities studied. The relationship between these organisations and ports will be investigated. Multinational operators who have acquired concessions in WACAF ports would also be identified and the extent to which their operations and networks influence environmental performance of ports and vice versa will be analysed. Two European ports, Rotterdam and Antwerp would also be studied to draw lessons from existing forms of environmental steering and cooperation among European ports. Port of Rotterdam for its advancement in environmental performance, and Antwerp for the high number of vessel calls from there to the WACAF region. Expected Results/ Scientific Significance The subject of environment is new to WACAF ports and has hardly been studied. Environmental literature and performance strategy is therefore hardly available. While there have been some studies on the regions port and maritime transport sector, these have mainly focused on port operational reforms and infrastructure modernisation for improved port efficiency in the light of global developments and international trade (see Audige, 1995; Harding et al., 2007; Addo, 1994; Addo, 1996; Gilpin, 2007). Studies on the environment has generally been on marine pollution and protection from land-based activities and sources, mostly with reference to the Guinea Current Large Marine Ecosystem (see for instance Scheren et al, 2001; Ukwe et al., 2006). There is also an encouraging history of cooperation between some WACAF countries bordering the Guinea Current Large Marine Ecosystem (GCLME) on Coastal Erosion (WACAF/3), Integrated Watersheds (WACAF/11), among others. However, research on regional forms of environmental steering and cooperation for improved environmental performance in the light of global and local dynamics is largely unexplored. The study is therefore expected to (i) contribute to existing knowledge on port environmental governance (ii) promote awareness and support environmental reform for WACAF ports (iii) identify what contributions

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