History:

The American West A timeline of the American West: Date (s) 1492 1700s 1776 1830 1833 1847 1848 1849 1861-1865 1862 1862 1864 - (Nov 29) 1866 - 1868 1867 1869 1873 1874 1876 (June 25 - 26) 1876 - 1877 1877 1881 1886 - 1887 1887 1890 1890 - (Dec 29) 1892 Detail Columbus arrives in America Sioux forced onto Plains from Great Lakes region American Declaration of Independence Book of Mormon First Published First Mormon Temple Built in Kirtland, Ohio Mormons Settle in Salt Lake Valley Discovery of Gold in California by James Marshall California Gold Rush US Civil War Little Crows War The Homestead Act Sand Creek Massacre Red Clouds War Medicine Lodge Treaty First Transcontinental Railroad Completed Timber Culture Act Introduction of Barbed Wire Battle of Little Bighorn Sioux Campaign Desert Land Act Shootout at the OK Corral Terrible Winter Dawes Act Frontier Declared Closed by US Census Bureau Massacre at Wounded Knee Johnson County War

The History of the American West is split into many various sections/periods: Section/Period Overview The Geography Of This is an introduction to the geographical regions and its America features. The climate and landscape. The Native Americans Covers Lifestyles and Religion & Tradition of the Native Americans The Early Settlers Explores the life of the early settlers, covers: - Journey West - The Mormons - The Gold Rush - Settlement and Homesteaders

 Cattle Trails and the Cowboys

This section looks at the development of the jobs and roles of the Cowboys and the cattle they raised. This section specifically focuses on: - Early Rearing and the Cattle Trails - Development of Cattle Rearing - Cowboys The Indian Wars This section looks at the various wars of the Indians and how various acts and treaties were encouraged to end them. In this section, each conflict and treaty will be covered and the effect they had on ways of life for both parties involved. The End of the Native A short section outlining how, after the Indian Wars, the white American Way of Life man gained control of the plains and the Indians wiped out. The Geography Of America Geographical Regions In this course, the American West is defined as the area of North America that is West of the Mississippi river. This area is divided into various regions that will be the focus of the course. The main areas of study consist of the Great Plains in the centre of the American West and the subsequent areas West of the Great Plains: The Rocky Mountains, Great Salt Plains and the areas of California and Oregon. These regions differ greatly from each other in terms of climate, landscape and population. It is the change and development of these areas that is studied in this topic. The Climate and Landscape of the American West Throughout the history of this area, the landscape and climate has always been a contributing factor in how the regions develop and how the population there act. Primarily, the main focus region is The Great Plains, a vast expanse of land that dominates Central North America. It is mainly composed of grassland split into the Eastern Low Plains (long grass) and the Western High Plains (short grass). A key point is that the Great Plains become drier and desert-like the more southern you travel. The weather across the Plains varies severely to an extreme degree. The mountains on either side of the region create what are known as rain-shadows (regions with very little rain). Therefore extreme drought is common in the summer and severe snowfall in winter. Furthermore, due to the landlocked state of the Great Plains, there is a vast difference in temperature from the summer to the winter months. A final note is that Tornados are common on the Plains. Another area that commonly features throughout the course are The Rocky Mountains. These mountains form a barrier across America with their heavily wooded slopes and particularly large peaks. Towards the centre of the Rockies lies the Plateaux region. It is relatively flat and consists of desert. Water can run into this

region and get trapped; only escaping through evaporation. This feature led to the creation of the Great Salt Lake; a very important geographical location later on. The pacific coastlines to the far West are the last main focus area of the course. This region consists of desirable fertile land and a pleasant, mild, temperate climate. Because of this, the region was a much sought-after area to live. The Native Americans The Native Americans, or Plains Indians, were the people who lived on the plains when Columbus discovered it in 1492. The start of this study period is 1840 where we begin to look at the lifestyle and culture of the Native Americans who lived there at that time. In this period, the Native Americans were not just a single group with set customs; they were many different tribes that all expressed differing cultures and beliefs. Lifestyle The Native American people were adapted to their environment, which enabled them to survive on these harsh lands. However, in order for this to occur, the Native Americans had a severe reliance on the buffalo that grazed on the plains. Before the mass slaughter in 1870, millions of buffalo were available to the nomadic hunter- gatherers that were essential in bringing supplies to the various Indian tribes. The buffalo provided the necessities for life in these tribes. Every single part of the buffalo was used, from sinews for ropes to dung for fuel, except for the heart. This was removed and buried on the plains, which, they believed, enabled the buffalos spirit to be reborn and therefore kept the herds of buffalo healthy and plentiful. A vast development in the lifestyle of the Native Americans came when Europeans brought over horses in the 16th Century. The horses increased the power of the tribes. They made hunting much easier and more efficient and enabled the transport of food and belongings to be much more viable. However, the Europeans also brought another feature to Native American lifestyle; one that was not appreciated. European diseases such as Smallpox and Cholera caused widespread epidemics and subsequent death. Nomadic tribes (scattered and constantly moving) were less vulnerable to these epidemics than the permanently stationed farming tribes and as such the population of Nomadic tribes increased and took majority. There were differences between tribes, however, that had nothing to do with the way they hunted. Leaderships between tribes differed; the previously agricultural tribes tended to employ a hereditary concept when choosing a Chief whereas the leadership of Nomadic tribes was very flexible. Another feature of contrast between tribes was the language they spoke. Each tribe had their own individual take on a

main language; inter-tribal communication was possible but some differences did occur. *Think of it like an Australian talking to an American* The tribes themselves had a very unique concept on the ownership on land. They simply did not acknowledge the fact that land could be seen as something that could be bought and sold. Land was free to the tribes, like air, and so anyone could settle or grow crops anywhere. Generosity was a key factor in tribal life; it was expected from everyone who could provide it to display generosity to those in need. This concept attributed to a persons prestige and power within the tribe and, likewise, a lack of it decreased their influence. A chief who wasnt generous lost their influence on the tribe. The roles of women and men were very different within a tribe. Primarily, most men were warriors. Tribal warfare was part of the culture of many Native Americans. Low intensity violence and raids on other tribes for horses and captives were a part of the lifestyle and served as a purpose of gaining prestige and stature in a tribe. A specific act to show bravery and prestige was known as Counting Coup. This meant riding up to an enemy and touching them with a symbolic stick before riding away safely. These symbolic acts reduced the need for death to show prestige and so tribal war was sustainable. The reason for this is due to the fact that the Native Americans did not view themselves as a nation but considered each tribe to be completely different. Therefore rival tribes could be considered as much strangers and enemies as the white settlers. Something to note, though, is that not all tribes were warlike, for example, the Pueblos only fought in self-defence. Women of the tribes played a separate and contrasting role in Native American culture. War and hunting were considered to be the mens business and so the women did not risk their lives doing this; they played a hard-working role within the running of the tribe: Agriculture (if any was done) Finding food for the horses and leading them when the tribe relocated Tanning buffalo hides Making tipis (traditional cone shaped home of the Native Americans) Making pemmican (a long lasting product of fruit and buffalo meat) Making most of the finished goods - what the women made they subsequently owned, giving them power. Religion and Traditions The way the Native Americans saw and interacted with the world was based around their religion, which was closely linked to nature. They believed that humans are part of nature and not masters over it. The fundamental belief was in a life force known as The Great Spirit that was present in nature. It wasnt personified and as such could not be anthropomorphised (given human features). It wasnt a sentient, conscious being in the way that the Christian god is perceived; it was simply at force

that was at one with nature. To the Native Americans, nature had a spiritual dimension and was not just a supplier of commodities and resources for exploitation. The Native Americans expressed an avid belief in the interdependence of things; they saw all entities as being connected. Therefore, circles were spiritually important to them and so religious rituals always took place in circles. They also believed that everything has spirits as part of the Great Spirit, living (such as the buffalo they hunted) and non-living (such as the mountains and rivers). To disturb these items of nature meant that their spirits were deserved. To prevent this, rituals when hunting were not only for guaranteeing success, but were clinical in keeping the spirits of creatures satisfied and content. The tribes had certain members who appeared to have a connection to the power of the spirits. Labelled medicine men (which meant: to appeal to spirits via prayer, ritual, or ceremony), they possessed strength, courage and an understanding of both the visible and invisible worlds. The Native American beliefs and traditions were continued through oral history. They did not keep physical written accounts of these and, as such, important ideas and histories of the tribes were passed down from generation to generation by telling stories and tales. The issue with oral history means that signs of change and difference were rarely noted due to the same stories being passed down from generations. It also had a tendency to be extremely fragile in the sense that a bad disease epidemic could kill off the elderly who possessed the knowledge and so this knowledge was subsequently lost. The Early Settlers European settlers first settled in the East Coast of America in the 1600s. However, it soon became apparent that the West could provide a much better quality of life; at least, thats what they believed. The Journey West The journey West was a perilous one, often fatal if attempted at the wrong time of year. Families up stakes and simply left in huge trails of wagons, miles and miles long, containing all life possessions. The development of migration meant that trails of passage had to be created and, as the years went by, more and more trails began to appear across the American landscape. These trails had been pioneered by explorers and trappers, more commonly known as infamous mountain men, and without their knowledge, the journey would have been close to impossible. *A most notable mountain man was Jim Bridger, a pioneering 40 year wanderer of the mountains who first reported the existence of the Great Salt Lake*

The map shows the most common trails. The majority begin at St Louis and either branch to end at Los Angeles or San Francisco. They all crossed the Great Plains, which quickly became known as the Great American Desert due to the fact they were first thought unsuitable for agriculture because of the extreme climate, hard ground and sparse rainfall. The majority crossed the Rocky Mountains, which provided one of the toughest challengers for the migrants. The most common trails, the Oregon and California trails, stretched about 2000 miles and the approximate crossing time was 5 months by wagon. The rivers, mountains and desert provided tough challenges for the migrants which, coupled with a lack of discipline and experience, would cause dangerous delays. It was simply imperative that the winter deadline was beaten. One infamous disaster occurred to the Donner Party. They tried an unknown short cut and ended up trapped in deep snow in the Sierra Nevada in 1846. Of the 87 emigrants in the party, less than 50 survived until the next spring, only by resorting to cannibalism and eating those who died. Taking the journey was very costly. Those who could outfit a wagon had to have money. Many were farmers who sold their farms at a profit; others included lawyers, teachers, clergy and craftsmen. Those who could not afford, such as young men, could hire themselves as helpers on the trails. The perilous nature of the journey raises questions about why the people journeyed the thousands of miles and took such a huge risk. It was well recorded that as many as 10% of people would die on the journey. The table below suggests the push and pull factors, what was pushing them out of the East and pulling them to the West. Push Factors (out of the East) Pull Factors (into the West) Poverty Prospect of gold and silver Disease A new start Religious/social persecution Tall tales/newspaper reports Taxation Fertile cheap land Overpopulation in the East Government encouraged it A large reason also was the common shared belief between White Americans, the belief in Manifest Destiny. This was the belief that they were destined to occupy

and govern the whole of North America; they saw it as their God-given right. The white settles also saw their religion and culture as superior to the beliefs of the Native Americans. They saw themselves as civilising the continent. The Mormons The Mormons were a group of people who were followers of a branch of Christianity. They were followers of Joseph Smith and his concept about religion. It is still a religion that is in practise today. Joseph Smith was the son of a poor farmer from Vermont who, in 1823, claimed he dug up some golden plates from a mountainside in Palmyra, New York State. He said he had been guided by an angel, Moroni, who then helped him to translate the mysterious writing on them. It supposedly said that whoever found the plates would restore the church of Jesus Christ in America and build up Gods kingdom on Earth ready for Christs second coming. Smith published this in the Book of Mormon in 1830. The Mormons were named after Mormon, Moronis father, and believed Joseph Smith and the Golden Plates story. Smith started with only 5 followers but by 1830, his charismatic public speaking resulted in several hundred followers. Mormon Beliefs - Against swearing, drinking, gambling (ungodly) - Believe in hard work for each other and the community - Believed they were Gods Chosen People and called themselves Saints - Gave 1/10 of their earnings to church - Later believed in and allowed polygamy The Mormons settled in the East but were driven out of everywhere they tried to settle. The table below outlines this: Eastern Place and Dates What Happened There Kirtland, Ohio 1831-1837 Labelled by Smith as Gods chosen place on Earth. They built a temple, banks and farms. The banks collapsed in 1837, the non-Mormons lost money and drove the Mormons out of Kirtland. Missouri 1837-1838 Labelled by Smith as Gods chosen place on Earth. They built a temple, banks and farms. Problems over land purchases, opposition to Mormons ideas over slavery (equal and free) and the suspicion over Danites plotting with Indians. Mormons chased out of Missouri, Brigham Young emerged to lead the Mormons to Illinois.

 Nauvoo, Illinois 1839-1846

Labelled by Smith as Gods chosen place on Earth. They built a temple, banks and farms. Again Mormon ideas on slavery, Indians, the Danites and Polygamy angered non-Mormons. Smith also ran for President but was arrested in June 1844 and was murdered later that month.

This constant opposition and the death of Joseph Smith resulted in followers leaving the Mormon faith. However, 15000 remained when Brigham Young took over as leader. Brigham Young was the leader of the Mormons after Joseph Smith. One of his first jobs as leader was to organise the move of 15,000 men, women and children into unknown, dangerous territory and ensure they survived the journey. This was a journey that they had not expected to make and were subsequently poorly prepared for. They were travelling 2250km to the Great Salt Lake and to land nobody else wanted. In order for this to be a success, Brigham Young: - Divided the Mormons into manageable groups, each with a leader - Insisted on strict discipline, giving everyone a specific role to play - Taught them how to form their wagons into a circle at night for safety - Insisted on regular resting places The advance party of the Mormons went ahead and followed the runs made by the wagon wheels of the Donner party and so there was always the treat that they would suffer the same fate. Reaching the top of the pass that led down to the Great Salt Lake in July 1847, the group had to decide whether to press on to the populated yet fertile land of Oregon or California, or descend to the empty, infertile salt flats that surrounded the lake. Brigham Young is supposed to have said, It is enough. This is the right place. The flats of the Great Salt Lake was chosen by Young because of multiple reasons influenced by past Mormon attempts at settlement. The land was still claimed to have been chosen for them by God but mainly it was away from non-Mormons. The land was not good for farming so no one else wanted it and, additionally, the land did not belong to the USA and so was not subject to US laws. They built Salt Lake City that was identical to previous settlements, minus the non-Mormons. However, these reasons for settlement also raised their own issues and problems, detailed below: Issue with Settlement Solutions Land Ownership No individual will own land - it was decided that land would be equally and fairly distributed by the Mormon Church Problem of Fresh Water Irrigation - Dry ditches for irrigation,

main ditch and side streams linked to the main source that supplied fresh water to the lake Perpetual Emigration Fund - provide money for the poorer Mormons living everywhere in America and Europe to make the journey to the Mormon towns to provide the community with skills and talents required. Emigrants then had to pay back the money in instalments.

The Need to be Self-sufficient

Once settlement had been established in Salt Lake City, Brigham Young and the Mormons made the effort to expand and gain political stature and recognition in the US. Young tried to appeal to the government for various developments; the government granted them but there were always provisions and conditions placed upon them, which restricted what the Mormons could achieve, and so they responded. Development of Mormon Settlement Provisions/Conditions/Response 1848 - Brigham Young applied to the US - Only allowed Mormon territory status, Government for the Mormon lands (salt had to be run by federal officials lake city) to become a state called - Had to be called Utah Deseret - Small and had no port US Government appointed Brigham - Laws made in Washington, not by Young to be the first governor of Utah Mormons - B.Y therefore used the Danites to crush opposition from non-Mormons 1857 - US Government sent a non- - A massacre of migrants led to Mormons Mormon governor to Utah along with blaming Indians, non-Mormons blaming 1500 soldiers to enforce federal rule Danites. The Mountains Meadow Massacre - US Government changed its mind and tried to reach a peaceful settlement The US Government agreed to let the - Utah could not become a state until Mormons live without interference they banned polygamy - Mormons agreed to a non-Mormon governor and banned polygamy in 1890 The Gold Rush James Marshall found gold in California in 1848. Gold was the prized possession in the US and whoever had it was rich. Therefore, when news leaked, people went crazy with the aptly named Gold-Fever. Matters were made worse by the boasting of President Polk, who told the congress of the riches to be found. Tens of thousands of people came to California in 1849 and quickly became known as the 49-ers. Between 1848 and 1852, the non-Native American population rose from an estimated 14,000 to 225,000 people. Many of these people lived in camps; some of

which grew into permanent mining towns. They travelled along the settlers trails mostly but some came by sea; around Cape Horn or sailing down to the Isthmus of Panama. Those who didnt want to try their luck at mining came to run the service industries such as storekeepers and saloon owners. *Not all were successful* The first gold was found by panning the stream beds but these soon became exhausted and so expensive underground mining took over. This left miners in a Catch 22 situation. Everything was very expensive, including transport home; this meant they either had to work for mining companies in foul conditions, or starve. In this time there was a sizeable issue with Law and Order. Criminals were attracted to the gold rush, con men, violent thieves and claim jumpers, all trying to gain some profit from the gold-fever. Until 1866, the USA had no law regarding mine claims; the miners formed their own system. The miners courts that were formed were flawed, however, as there were a distinct lack of prisons. This meant that the death sentence, as was customary, was carried out without the right to appeal. This was a problem identified by some civic-minded people who formed committees in growing mining towns and formed full municipal governments. Through all of this, the Native Americans and the Environment suffered badly. In California, the Native American population dropped from 150,000 to less than 30,000 during 1845-1870. This was a result of violent attacks, epidemics and being driven off their land. In the terms of environment, the timber required for mining supports used up the forests and the chemicals used in mining caused pollution. Settlement and Homesteaders As more and more people took this journey, the land in the West became less and less whereas the demand for land became higher and higher. This hunger for land, coupled with other factors (below) was so great that settlement began on the Great Plains, once known as the Great American Desert. However, this was no easy task. *Different homesteaders had different experiences of the Plains depending on WHERE and WHEN they lived* In the 1850s some settlers were on the Low Plains. This settlement moved gradually along the rivers and onto the drier lands between, advancing on the lands previously bypassed by the wagon trains. This settlement, encouraged by the government to link the East and West, was made easier and more appealing by various acts and legislation implemented in this period. These acts are detailed below: Act What it detailed The Homestead Act 1862 Allowed 160 acres of land free to settlers who occupied it for 5 years. After the 5 years the settlers could own it for $30 Timber and Culture Act 1873 Government realised that 160 acres

wasnt enough for a homesteader family. Promised another 160 acres if trees were planted on it (to combat the wood shortage) Gave settlers the option of buying 640 acres of land cheaply where lack of rainfall was a more severe problem than usual

Desert Land Act 1877

Other factors encouraged people to move and live on the Plains. One such factor was the governments plans for the construction of railroads. To expand companies, the government gave them township land parcels an either side of the tracks. In 1969, the Union Pacific Railroad Company completed the first Great Plains railroad, which, for the first time, enabled travel across these lands to be easier and more viable. By 1893, 6 companies connected the Mississippi/Missouri rivers with the Pacific Coast. One final factor that influenced the settlement onto the Plains was the role of the Civil War (1861-65). This war resulted in the southern states losing out; they had their land taken, their crops and houses destroyed, people were killed and slaves were made free. This, coupled with the desire for a new start, made people leave these southern states to move onto the vacated Plains. The Homesteaders was the name given to the people who moved onto the Plains to begin a new life. The early homesteaders were composed of farmers and their families who began to work on the plains in an effort of self-sustenance. However, life and work on the Plains wasnt an easy task. The role of the women and men homesteaders differed greatly. The men were responsible on the employment aspects of life; the ploughing, sowing, growing crops, building fencing, raising livestock. The women were responsible for the day- to-day upkeep of the housing etc. and social aspects; cleaning, controlling disease, collection of food and fuel and trying to create a community between the long distance relationships with other homesteader families. The women would also offer their services as teachers. Low paid, the women would live with the homesteader family and teach the children. To begin, the homesteaders had to build a home, called a Sod-House. They were made from building bricks made by cutting blocks of earth (sods - earning the homesteaders the nickname of sod-busters) and sealed with clay-like mud. These houses were solid and strong to withstand the extreme climate and environment of the Plains. There were many issues that arose with early life on the Plains for settler, especially I terms of general living conditions. One such issue was the problem of fuel for the sod-house. Without fuel the family would be cold, hungry and dirty. Since there were minimal trees on the plains, (could refer now to Desert Land Act 1877 in exam) the women would collect barrow-loads of buffalo dung, which burned well. A

secondary issue was the problem of dirt disease in the sod-houses. Since the houses were entirely composed of dirt; spiders, fleas and all kinds of insects would live in the walls and floors of the sod houses. These insects could and did carry dangerous diseases. Therefore, people, clothes and the houses themselves had to be kept clean; this was the role of the woman. The women would be constantly fighting an unending battle on disease. The most prominent issues arose when the men, the farmers, tried to work on the inhospitable Plains. Many early issues arose with farming on the Plains but, as time wore on, solutions became apparent and the problems were rectified. The table below sets out these issues and solutions in a clear manner: Problems of Farming Solutions Lack of Fencing/Wood - No fencing to Barbed Wire Invented - Invented in 1874 keep animals off the land and stop them by Joseph Glidden. Kept the animals of eating crops due to lack of wood the land and used very little wood Lack of Water - Temperatures varied Wind Pump Invented - Invented in 1854 dramatically during the day and night, by Daniel Halladay. Allowed water to be very hot to very cold. Rain came down in pumped from underground using wind torrents very quickly, but soon dried up power to drive the pump. Land could be again and so crops didnt get water in irrigated for crops time Ploughing - Land on the Plains had never Sodbuster Ploughs - Invented in 1830 by been ploughed before and the roots of John Deere. These were stronger ploughs the Prairie grass that resided there were that didnt break as easily as they were very deep. Ploughs from the East were made from steel and not iron. They were not strong enough and kept breaking brought in by the railroads Planting - Maize was originally planted Turkey Red Wheat - Russian immigrants but this crop couldnt stand the extreme brought a new crop to plant. This wheat changes in temperature. Therefore, could stand the extreme temperatures many harvests didnt give enough crops and give a good harvest. Homesteaders for the homesteaders to live on and could make a living from this crop and so make profit from. planted it instead of maize. Extreme Weather - Not much rainfall, Dry Farming - This was used after it had hot weather. Many homesteaders lived rained heavily. A layer of dry soil was put very far from rivers over the wet soil to prevent to wet soil from being exposed to the sun. The water could then penetrate and hydrate the crops. Natural Hazards - Plagues of Insects, No Solutions! natural weather disasters (hurricanes, blizzards, etc.)

Cattle Trails and the Cowboys Early Rearing and the Cattle Trails Cattle rearing began in the American West in Texas. The civil war left huge cattle herds that were left free to breed and prosper in the years of conflict. The early cattle that was bred and raised was the Texas Longhorn. It was hardy and had a thick hide to survive the harsh climate and the subsequent journey North. The journey North had to be undertaken due to the huge demand for beef in the North but the fact that the cattle supply was in the South. The issue was transporting the cattle up to the North and therefore, as a result, cattle driving and cattle trails came into existence. The table below shows the trails: Trail Name Detail Goodnight-Loving From South Texas to San Antonio, West then North past Fort Trail Summer, Pueblo, Denver before stopping at Cheyenne on the Union Pacific Railroad Western Trail From South Texas to San Antonio, North through Dodge City before stopping at Ogallala on the Union Pacific Railroad Chisholm Trail From South or East Texas to San Antonio, North/North-East to Abilene and Ellsworth on the Kansas Pacific Railroad Shawnee Trail From South or East Texas to San Antonio, North-East to Kansas City and Sedalia on the Kansas Pacific Railroad The journey north was very hard and tiring, the cowboys had many roles to play in ensuring the cattle stayed alive (detailed below in the Cowboys section). There were many dangers on the Drives/Trails, which made the job as hard as possible: Danger Detail Stampede Usually happened on the first days of the drives when the cattle were nervous. Wildlife Threat from wolves, scorpions and poisonous snakes. Water Rivers and undercurrents dangerous. Indians Unpredictable and stole cows in lack of buffalo. Night Cowboys relax and tired, drop their guard Armed Mobs vs Homesteaders were armed to stop cattle being driven near Texas Fever with a disease, Texas Fever which could be passed on to their own cows Lack of Food/Water Self-explanatory Rough Self-explanatory Terrain/Extreme Weather Weak/Thin/Exhausted Self-explanatory Cattle Cattle Rustlers and Self-explanatory Robbers

Once the cows had been successfully driven it was imperative that they be sold as soon as possible at the best prices, therefore, cow towns were set up as a place where cattle buyers from the North and East could meet the cattle drivers. It was also a place where the cattle could be fattened up with rest and sold at the best prices. The 1st cow town was Abilene. Development of Cattle Rearing It soon became apparent that the driving the cattle from the South was by no means the best and most effective method of gaining profits. Therefore, the new prospect of open-range cattle ranching on the Plains became more popular than driving the cattle. The drives left problems with unsold cattle as well as the issues with Homesteaders blocking trails and Indians forcing cowboys to pay a fee to continue on their path. The advantages of ranching on the Plains included: - Easier to raise cattle - No driving = no dangers - Better quality cattle - Easier to make a profit - Free Land - Better living and working conditions for the cowboys and ranchers John Iliff sought to improve open-range ranching further. He saw the advantages of Plains ranching and experimented by crossbreeding Texas Longhorn with Durham and Hereford bulls. The result was more meat and milk whilst retaining the ability to survive in the climate. A so-called super-cow. However, just like the trails and driving, the days of open-range ranching were numbered. Disadvantages included: - Open Range - cows are easily stolen/lost - Needed ranch to be near water - Cattle disease spread easily - Fights over cattle ownership The end of open range ranching had come. It was a combination of long term and short term factors. The flowchart/timeline shows what happened: LT - High demand for beef - Ranchers make money - more cows on the plains - lower stocks of grass - too much beef - beef demand decreases - fall in beef prices - ranches go bankrupt - Others leave cattle on open Plains - Grass supply diminished ST - Hot summers from 1883 - Dried and shrivelled grass ST - The winter of 1886-87 - Blizzards, thick snow, -40/-50 C, cows froze to death The winter was the final blow to open-range ranching. From then onwards, there were restrictions on the size of ranches, the amount of cattle and everything was

kept in a specific area by barbed wire. The life of the cowboy changed forever. It is this change in the lives of cowboys that is covered next. Cowboys The life of the cowboy changed dramatically as the development of cattle raising occurred. These rugged, skilled individuals were reduced to doing mundane tasks for the cattle barons as life wore on. This is described below: 1860s - Cattle The cowboys had to be skilful and display extraordinary fitness Trails and endurance. Their jobs included rounding up and protecting the cattle from any of the dangers that occurred on the trails (see above). The cowboys themselves were taken in high regard and demanded respect for their occupation. CHANGE Cows Malnourished, High Demand For Beef, Make More Money 1870s - Cow As explained before, the cow town provided a place where the Towns cattle could be fattened up and allow the cowboys to meet the cattle buyers. It was considered that once the cow town was reached that the job was done and so, since the only job of the cowboys was to check the pens every do often, the cowboys became simply riotous. Shoot-outs, gambling and drinking are just some of the features of lifestyle change. CHANGE Development of Ideas, Higher Demand for Beef, John Iliff 1880s - Open Once the implementation of open-range ranching came about, Range Ranching the life of the cowboy once again became about skill and dedication. Checking boundaries, rounding up cattle, branding were all tasking jobs which, coupled with long hours, meant the cowboys were once again respected figures of fitness CHANGE Prices of Beef Fell, Sources Drained, Conflicts Over Ownerships, Winter and Summers, Inventions 1890s - End of After the era of open-range ranching, the life of the cowboy took Open Range a turn for the worse. The enclosed ranches meant that everything Ranching was always in order and therefore the cowboys work was reduced to mundane, rudimentary tasks such as repairing fences. They subsequently felt deskilled and almost worthless which, paired with the large rates of unemployment, ensured the work of the cowboy was never the same The Indian Wars This section will highlight and explain the Indian Wars and the various treaties that became about because of the conflicts. War/Conflict/Treaty Details 1851 - The Fort Laramie In 1849, the US government had established treaties Treaty with the Comanche and Kiowa, which stated that the Indians would not attack travellers on the Santa Fe

Trail in return for promises of land. Government agent Thomas Fitzpatrick established the Fort Laramie Treaty and reached a similar agreement with the Cheyenne and Arapaho Indians (who were attacking wagon trails on the Oregon Trail), promising them the foothills of the Rocky Mountains between the North Platte and Arkansas rivers. The government also promised to protect them and pay the tribes $50,000 a year for 10 years in exchange for the Indians refraining from attacking the travellers on the Oregon Trail and allowing the government to construct roads and military posts. 1861 - The Fort Wise Treaty When gold was discovered in the Rocky Mountains in 1859, the white men surged through the lands of the Cheyenne and Arapaho Indians and established a settlement and take-over of the lands, declaring them Colorado and taking possession. The white Americans had broken the Fort Laramie Treaty, and then so would the Indians. Members of both tribes began serious attacks on railroad surveyors and travellers. In 1861, the government summoned the tribal chiefs to Fort Wise and forced them to agree to abandon the terms of the failed Fort Laramie Treaty. The government therefore established the Fort Wise treaty, which had the same details as the Fort Laramie, but the land they received was a small reservation between the Arkansas River and Sand Creek in Colorado; rather than the foothills of the Rockies. The Indian Chiefs, however, had no power to force their people to do anything. Most warriors refused to accept the Fort Wise Treaty and instead went on a warpath, raiding mine camps and attacking mail coaches in Colorado and New Mexico. The carefully planned treaties had not worked for either side 1862 - Little Crows War Little Crow and his tribe of Santee Sioux were living on a reservation in Minnesota. In 1861, the crops failed and the compensation that the Santee had been promised had not arrived from Washington, leaving 12,000 Santee facing starvation. In August 1862, Little Crow had had enough and led Santee warriors in an attack on the Agency (the organisation set up by the government to run the reservation) and took all the food and provisions before burning the buildings to the ground. They then attacked a party of 45 US Army soldiers coming to deal with the incident, killing almost half. But by October, 2,000 Santee had either been captured or surrendered. What was left of the

tribe was moved to a smaller reservation, Crow Creek in Minnesota. The land was barren, the water undrinkable and food scarce. Several hundred Santee died in the first winter. Sitting Bull, an important Sioux chief, visited the area and what he found affected his attitude to settlers and the US government. The Cheyenne, under their chief Black Kettle, faced similar problems on the Sand Creek reservation in Colorado. The starving Indians attacked wagon trains but only took food and left travellers unharmed. After 3 years of raids and attacks, the government, army and Black Kettle tried to reach an agreement. Believing he was under army protection, Black Kettle set up camp at Sand Creek. However, Colonel Chivington, responsible for dealing with the Indians and protecting settlers, led a dawn raid on Black Kettles camp on 29th November 1864. Chivingtons party massacred over 450 men, women, children and babies, even though they were waving the white flags of surrender. Black Kettle escaped and carried news of the massacre to other tribes. The Indians responded immediately, increasing attacks on white people. Once the story of the massacre broke, both the white men and Indians were horrified and called for an end to the wars. In October 1965, US government gave money and land in Oklahoma in order for the Cheyenne to stop the violence and relinquish any land claims that previously existed. The discovery of gold in Montana posed a new problem for the US government. The need for a connection between the new gold fields and The Oregon Trail led to miner John Bozeman establishing the Bozeman Trail. The Bozeman Trail, however, ran straight through the hunting grounds of the Sioux, subsequently breaking the 1851 Fort Laramie Treaty. The Indians, led by Red Cloud, chief of the Lakota Sioux began attacking travellers on the Bozeman Trail. By 1866, the US government had had enough and called for talks with Red Cloud. At the last moment, Red Cloud discovered that the government were planning on building at least two forts along the Bozeman Trail to protect travellers. He stormed out of the meeting and increased the pressure on the government, attacking builders of the forts and soldiers. Equally determined Sioux leaders, Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse, joined Red Cloud in this struggle. Coupled with Fettermans Trap (below), a stalemate

1864 - The Sand Creek Massacre

1865-68 Red Clouds War

was achieved. To resolve this; in March 1867, the US government set up peace commission to try and solve Indian problems once and for all. It was agreed that the treaties were unsuccessful, both parties had broken them, but both parties also wanted the Plains. The US government decided the only solution was to split the Indian tribes and put them separately in small reservations. In December 1866, Captain William Fetterman and a group of 80 soldiers left Fort Kearney to provide protection for a wagon train bringing wood for building. They rode straight into a trap laid by the Sioux and were wiped out. The Indians surrounded Fort Kearney in a ring with armed warriors. This meant the US army couldnt move outside the fort and no traveller could move along the Bozemans Trail. It was stalemate. The US government agreed to abandon three forts and the Bozeman Trail. Red Cloud agreed to take his people to a reservation in Dakota, stretching from the Black Hills to the Missouri River. Red Cloud was pleased with the Treaty. He believed he had won. Background Chiefs Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull refused to accept the peace of 1868. Gold was discovered in the Black Hills in 1874. The Sioux refused to sell their land in the Black Hills. The government ordered the Sioux onto small reservations. When the Sioux refused, they were declared 'hostile'. 1876 Campaign - Battle Preparation General Philip Sheridan was sent to defeat the Sioux. In June 1876 US armies, led by the generals Alfred Terry and John Gibbon, met at the Yellowstone River. Gibbon was set to march up the Little Bighorn River, and Lt Colonel George Custer was ordered to march round the Wolf Mountains, as part of a two-pronged attack on the Sioux

1866 - Fettermans Trap (Part of Red Clouds War)

1868 - The Fort Laramie Treaty

1876 - The Battle of Little Big Horn (part of the Great Sioux War - 1876-1877)

camp. To Little Big Horn The Sioux had been joined by the Cheyenne and Arapaho, making an army of more than 3,000 warriors, armed with Winchester repeating rifles. Custer marched his men through (not round) the Wolf Mountains, to arrive at the Sioux camp first. Custer divided his 600 men into three groups. Custers Last Stand Custer sent Captain Frederick Benteen scouting, and sent Major Marcus Reno to attack the Sioux village from the south. Custer headed north of the village with 215 men. The Sioux cut off both Reno and Custer. Benteen rescued Reno, but Custer and all of his troops lost their lives. The Sioux withdrew when Terry and Gibbon arrived.

The End of the Native American Way of Life November The US Army began winter campaigns against the Sioux, starving 1876 them into surrender. Colonel Mackenzie destroyed Dull Knife's Cheyenne camp - driving the Cheyenne into the hills to survive the winter without any food. January 1877 Chief Sitting Bull fled to Canada. He joined a Wild West show, but eventually returned to join the reservation. October 1877 Chief Joseph of the Nez Perc tribe tried to flee to Canada, but was intercepted. "I will fight no more forever" he vowed. 1879 1879 1881-1887 1883 Richard Pratt opened the first boarding school for Native American children. The Sioux were given cattle and forced to become cattle-herders. Geronimo led a series of rebellions by the Apache warriors, but eventually had to surrender and become a vegetable farmer. The Bureau of Indian Affairs issued the Code of Religious Offences, banning Native American religious customs such as the Sun Dance.

 1887 1889

The Dawes Act divided the Native American reservations between the different families. The Oklahoma Land Run. The government split 2 million acres of former 'Indian territory' into 160-acre plots, and people had to race to claim a plot. The race began at noon on 22 April 1889 and by next day all the land was claimed. A medicine man called Wovoka started a Ghost Dance - although it was peaceful, the Army, fearing a rebellion, tried to arrest Sitting Bull, who was taking part (he was killed during the attempt). Then when Sioux Chief Big Foot, trying to avoid the trouble, led his people to Wounded Knee Creek, they were massacred by the US Army.

1890