SA 21- Introduction to Sociology and Anthropology Lecture Notes 2- Sociological Investigation I. The Basics of Sociological Investigation.

Sociological investigation begins with two key requirements:

Look at the world using a sociological

series of numbers arranged in order of magnitude

Measurements also require reliability, the quality of consistent measurement, and validity, the quality of measuring precisely what one intends to measure III. Relationships Among Variables Cause and effect is a relationship in which change in one variable leads to change in another variable The independent variable is the one that causes the change The dependent variable is the one that changes Correlation exists when two (or more) variables change together
Spurious correlation means an apparent, although false, association between two (or more) variables caused by some other variable Spurious correlations can be discovered through scientific control, the ability to neutralize the effect of one variable in order to assess relationships among other variables

perspective. Be curious and ask questions Sociology is a type of science, a logical system that bases knowledge on direct, systematic observation Scientific knowledge is based on empirical evidence, information we can verify with our senses Scientific evidence sometimes contradicts commonsense explanations of social behavior II. The Elements of Science. Concepts, variables, measurement
Concepts are mental constructs that

represent some part of the world, inevitably in a simplified form Variables are concepts whose values change from case to case Measurement is the process of determining the value of a variable in a specific case
This requires researchers to

Sociologists strive for objectivity, a state of personal neutrality in conducting research, whenever possible following Max Webers model of value free sociology One way to limit distortion caused by personal values is through replication, repetition of research by others in order to assess its accuracy IV. Limitations of Scientific Sociology
Human behavior is too complex to allow

operationalize variables, which means specifying exactly what one wishes to measure in assigning a value to a variable Statistical measures are used to describing populations as a whole. Three common measures are the mode, mean, and median. The mode is the value that appears most often in a series. The mean is the arithmetic average of a series of numbers. The median is the value midway in a

sociologists to predict any individuals actions precisely Because humans respond to their surroundings, the mere presence of a

researcher may affect the behavior being studied Social patterns change constantly; what is true in one time or place may not hold in another Because sociologists are part of the social world they study, being value-free when conducting social research is especially difficult

V. The Methods of Sociological Research A research method is a systematic plan for conducting research. Four commonly used research methods are: An experiment is a research method for investigating cause and effect under highly controlled conditions. Typically experiments are explanatory, that is, used to test hypotheses, unverified statements of a relationship between variables. Most experiments are conducted in laboratories and employ experimental and control groups.
The Hawthorne effect is a change in a

Subjective interpretation is always an important element in sociological analysis Some sociologists argue that the value-free ideal is unattainable because all research is inherently political Research can be contaminated by gender bias in five ways:
Androcentricity, or approaching an issue from the male perspective Overgeneralizing or using data drawn from studying only one sex to support conclusions about human behavior in general Gender blindness or not considering the variable of gender at all Double standards Interference because a subject reacts to the sex of the researcher

subjects behavior caused by the awareness of being studied A survey is a research method in which subjects respond to a series of items in a questionnaire or an interview. Survey research is usually descriptive rather than explanatory.
Surveys are directed at populations, the people who are the focus of research. Usually we study a sample, a part of a population researchers select to represent the whole. Random sampling is commonly used to be sure that the sample is actually representative of the entire population National Political Surveys. Early political polls were sometimes very inaccurate due to faulty sampling design Surveys may involve questionnaires, a series of written questions a researcher presents to subjects. Questionnaires may be closed-ended or open-ended. Most surveys are self-administered and must be carefully pretested Surveys may also take the form of interviews, a series of questions administered personally by a researcher to respondents Table Reading: An Important Skill

Feminist research rejects Webers notion of objectivity in favor of being overtly political. Sociologists attempt to follow codes of professional research ethics. Conducting Research with Other Cultural/Subcultural Groups Be careful with terms Realize that cultural values may differ Realize that family dynamics may vary Be aware that attitudes toward time and efficiency may vary Realize that attitudes toward personal space may vary

Participant observation is a method in which researchers systematically observe people while joining in their routine activities. Participant observation research is descriptive and often exploratory. It is normally qualitative research, inquiry based on subjective impressions. In contrast, survey methodology, is usually quantitative research, investigation based on the analysis of numerical data Secondary analysis is a research method in which a researcher utilizes data collected by others Interplay of theory and method
Deductive logical thought is reasoning that transforms general ideas into specific hypotheses suitable for scientific testing Inductive logical thought is reasoning that builds specific observations into general theory Most sociological research uses both types of thought

Putting it all together: Ten steps in sociological investigation

What is your topic? What have others already learned about

the topic? Whatexactlyare your questions? What will you need to carry out research? Are there ethical concerns? What method will you use? How will you record the data? What do the data tell you? What are your conclusions? How can you share what youve learned?