Final Report (Buet) - Ifec 2007

International Future Energy Challenge 2007
Final Report
Universal Adapting Battery Charger

Submitted by
Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology Undergraduate Student Team
Faculty Advisor Dr. A.B.M. Harun-Ur-Rashid
Development of a Universal Adapting Battery Charger

IFEC TEAM, BUET
Abstract The objective of 2007 Future Energy Challenge is to develop a low cost universal battery charger for Li-ion, SLA, Ni-Cd and Ni-MH batteries. The battery charger must be energy efficient and comply with requirements regarding power factor, power loss and module size and shape. In order to fulfill the objectives as specified by the IEEE committee, a number of schemes were considered. After careful consideration, the best scheme was chosen and the project has been implemented according to that scheme. This report discusses the developed circuits of various parts of the proposed scheme and also the algorithm which is used to control the battery charging process. A hardware prototype consisting several inputs, outputs and feedbacks is developed, which is able to supply a variable dc voltage ranging from 2V to 26V, with a maximum charging current of 2A. The algorithm developed so far is programmed into a micro-controller which automatically detects the connected battery chemistry and configuration and controls the hardware to charge the given battery. This prototype has succeeded to charge all kinds of batteries as per requirements of IFEC 2007.
IFEC 2007 Final Report

Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology
CONTENTS Pages 1. Introduction 2. Battery Information 2.1. Sealed Lead Acid (SLA) battery 2.1.1.Charging 2.1.2.Discharging 2.2. Lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery 2.2.1.Charging 2.2.2.Discharging 2.3. Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) Battery. 2.3.1.Charging 2.3.2.Discharging 2.4. Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) Battery 05 06 06 06 08 08 08 09 10 10 11 11
2.4.1.Charging 11 2.4.2.Discharging 12 3. Scheme 4. Switch Mode Power Supply 12 13
4.1. Component design 17 4.1.1.Transformer Design 17 4.1.2.MOSFET Selection 18
4.1.3.Snubber Design 18 4.1.4.Feedback Circuit 4.1.5.Microcontroller Selection 4.2. Performance Analysis 18 19 20
4.2.1.Losses 20 4.2.2.No Load Power 20
4.3. Previous Approaches 20 4.3.1.Performance Comparison Between Approaches 21 5. Charger Circuit 5.1. Circuit Description 5.1.1.Buck Converter 5.1.1.1. MOSFET Switching Driver in Buck Converter. 5.1.2.Battery Presence Detection and Polarity Sensing Circuit 5.1.3.H-bridge 5.1.4.Discharger 5.1.5.Logic Control 5.2. Performance Analysis 5.2.1.Proper Charging 22 23 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 29
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Pages 5.2.2.Power Calculation .. 6. Efficiency 7. Method of Battery detection 7.1. Constant current Charging at 500mA for Approximately 10 Minutes 7.2. Discharging the Battery 8. Working Algorithm 9. Previous Approaches. 9.1. Chemistry Detection 9.1.1.From of a Battery 9.1.2.SoC Method 9.2. Capacity Measurement 10. Key Innovations 10.1. Data Logging Hardware 10.2. Data logging Software 11. Cost Analysis 12. Summary of Work Done 13. Project Timeline 14. Project Budget 15. Conclusion. 16. Team Information.. 17. References
32 32 33 33 34 39 41 41 41 42 43 43 44 44 45 46 47 47 47 48 48
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LIST OF FIGURES Pages Figure 2.1: Typical charging profile of a Sealed Lead Acid battery Figure 2.2: Typical charging profile of a lithium-ion battery Figure 2.3: Typical charging profile of Nickel-Cadmium batteries 07 09 10
Figure 2.4: Typical charging profile of Nickel-Metal Hydride batteries ............. 11 Figure 3.1: Functional block diagram of the developed scheme for the charger 12 Figure 4.1: (a) Functional block diagram and (b) Photograph of Switch Mode Power Supply 14 Figure 4.2: Circuit diagram of the Switch Mode Power Supply Figure 4.3: Circuit diagram of SMPS built using NCP1651 16 21
Figure 5.1: (a) Functional block diagram and (b) Photograph of the charger circuit 22 Figure 5.2: Buck converter with driver circuit Figure 5.3: Functional block diagram of battery presence detection and polarity sensing circuit with Hbridge 25 24
Figure 5.4: Circuit diagram of battery presence detection and polarity sensing circuit with H-bridge Figure 5.5: Circuit diagram of the discharger circuit 26 27
Figure 5.6: Functional diagram of the microcontroller section . 28 Figure 5.7: Charging profile of a 3200mAh, 6V Sealed Lead Acid battery Figure 5.8: Charging profile of a 700mAh 3.7V Li-ion battery Figure 5.9: Charging profile of 600mAh 4.8V NiCd battery Figure 5.10: Charging profile of 2300mAh 4.8V NiMH battery Figure 6.1: Plot of efficiency of the charger circuit and estimated efficiency of the device at 1A constant output current Figure 7.1: Discharging Characteristics of a 650mAh Li-ion single cell battery.. Figure 7.1: Discharging characteristics of a 900mAh Li-ion single cell battery.. 32 35 35 30 30 31 31
Figure 7.2: Discharge characteristics of a 700mAh NiCd two-cell battery 36 Figure 7.3: Discharge characteristics of a 4600mAh NiMH two-cell battery . 36 Figure 7.4: Discharge characteristics of a 3200mAh SLA 3-cell battery Figure 7.6: Discharge characteristics of a 4500mAh SLA 3-cell battery Figure 9.1: beta of the batteries of different chemistries Figure 7.2: Characteristic curve of different batteries in SOC method Figure 10.1: Block Diagram of Data logging hardware Figure 10.2: Screenshot of BUET IFEC 2007 TEAM of data logging software Figure 13.1. Project timeline 37 37 41 42 44 44 47
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LIST OF TABLES
Pages Table 4.1: Table of estimated losses in SMPS Table 4.2: Measured no load power in SMPS Table 5.1. Battery charging process of SLA and Li-ion.. Table 5.2. Battery charging process of NiMH and NiCd Table 5.3: Power loss in charger circuit when supplying 1A at 22V. Table 7.5: Table of tested batteries 19 19 29 29 32 33
Table 7.2: Table of decision in battery chemistry detection 38 Figure 11.1: Cost estimation of the device 45 Table 12.1: Summary of the achievements 46
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Introduction
The portable battery is still considered one of the most important and reliable source for portable energies. Though the nature of battery applications has changed over the years, new technologies have ensured that batteries remain a reliable and efficient source for general purposes. The rechargeable battery is one such development that allows the user to make use of a single battery over and over again by simply recharging it when the battery charge runs out. These batteries have saved the user from the hassle of acquiring a stock of batteries for continuous use, since a single battery may be used repeatedly by simply recharging it after its capacity is finished. This has decreased the necessity to use the one-time use batteries which are generally discarded after one single use.
The mass usage of these rechargeable batteries in different applications means that there are batteries of different types and capacities with varying recharging techniques. It is therefore convenient for the user if there was one single charger to recharge every kind of battery regardless of their capacity and type. Hence, the idea of the universal battery charger has come into the fore. This report discusses the development of a universal adaptive battery charger that will be able to recharge four different types of batteries of different quantities and capacities. The IFEC Challenge 2007 specifies the universal battery charger that will be able to recharge SLA, Li-ion, Ni-MH and Ni-Cd batteries up to 24 Voltage and a maximum charging current of 2A. The universal battery charger developed must also conform to several other stipulations regarding power consumption, size and economic feasibility. All these requirements were taken into consideration when designing the battery charger.
The universal battery charger designed by the BUET IFEC 2007 team meets most of the primary requirements set by the IFEC Committee and fulfills a few of the secondary features. It takes power from an A.C. supply which may vary from 95-270V rms. It converts it into a 35V fixed DC with a flyback converter which was implemented by a microcontroller. The maximum output current is regulated to 2A. This fixed DC voltage is controlled by another microcontroller to adapt to different voltages of batteries. Some key aspects of the battery charger are mentioned below: Auto-delectability of connected battery chemistry and configuration. Charging range from 2-26V battery voltages.
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Supports up to 2A charging current. Cost efficient and portable sized design. We have been able to add a few extra features of our own: This circuit may be used as a 0-25V variable DC voltage source with 2A current limiting capability. A keypad has been attached by which advanced users may provide battery information for quicker and more efficient recharging. Advanced control is enabled by implementation of an LCD-keypad.
Battery Information
Several types of rechargeable batteries has been developed till today. These batteries work on different chemistries and so they show different characteristics. Some batteries can provide very high load current, whereas some cannot take the strain of high discharge. Batteries like nickel-based ones show almost constant voltage profile regardless of their state of charge, where Lithium based batteries have varying voltage according to their state of charge. The IFEC committee has selected four types of rechargeable battery chemistry for this project. They are: 1. Sealed Lead Acid 2. Lithium-ion 3. Nickel-Cadmium 4. Nickel-Metal-Hydride These batteries require different charging procedures and also show different discharging profiles. Brief descriptions of them are given below:
2.1
Sealed Lead Acid (SLA) battery
2.1.1
Charging
The charging procedure of SLA contains two main stages and an additional third stage. The stages are as follows:
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i.
The first stage applies a constant current charge, raising the cell voltage to a preset voltage. After this stage, the battery is charged to about 70%.
ii.
The second charge is topping charge state. In this state the current is reduced gradually by applying the preset constant voltage charge as the cell is being saturated. Full charge is attained the current has dropped to 3% of the rated current or has leveled off.
iii.
The additional third stage, the float charge state, is applied to compensate for the self discharge. Correct settings of the voltage limits are critical and range from 2.30V to 2.45V. The voltage and current profile of a typical SLA battery charging are given in figure 2.1.
Voltage/cell Stage 1 Constant Current Stage 2 Constant voltage. Constant 2.4V charge Stage 3 Float Charge (2.25 V) 2.5 Charge/current
2 1.6 Current (A)
2.0 Voltage (V)
1.2 0.8
1.5 1.0 0.5
0.4
3 12
6 Time (hrs)
Figure 2.1: Typical charging profile of a Sealed Lead Acid battery. Some important factors regarding this charging should be taken in consideration: A high voltage limit (above 2.40V per cell) produces good battery performance but shortens the service life due to permanent grid corrosion on the positive plate. A low voltage limit (below 2.40V per cell) is safe if charged at a higher temperature but the cell is subject to sulfation on the negative plate. The charging current should be set between 10% and 30% of the rated capacity.
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2.1.2
Discharging
Most batteries are rated at 5-hour discharge or 0.2C; some may be even rated at slow 20hour discharge. Deep discharging is discouraged as it shortens battery life. Performs well on high pulse currents when discharge rates well in excess of 1C can be drawn. The battery can be discharged to a minimum 1.75V per cell, but it is discouraged to push the voltage below 2.1V.
2.2
Lithium-ion (Li-ion) Battery
2.2.1
Charging
Like SLAs, lithium-ion batteries require a charging method containing three stages- two main, one additional.
Stage 1 of the charging uses a constant current until 4.2V per cell is achieved. The charge level at this point is about 70%. Stage 2 maintains a constant voltage while the charging current is gradually reduced. Full charge is attained after the voltage has reached the threshold and the current has dropped to 3% of the rated current or has leveled off. Occasionally a topping charge is used, but in most cases it is omitted to guard against overcharging. The voltage and current profile of a typical li-ion battery charging are given in figure 2.2. Lithium-ion batteries require special attentions in some factors: Overcharging is disastrous in case of Li ion batteries. If charged above 4.30V, the cell causes plating of metallic lithium on the anode; the cathode material becomes an oxidizing agent, loses stability and releases oxygen. Eventually the cell is heated up, and if left unattended, the cell could vent with flame.
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A standard li-ion battery pack contains a protection circuit built in it. This limits the peak voltage of each cell during charge and prevents the cell voltage from dropping too low on discharge. The battery should be partially charged during storage. Most cells are charged to 4.20 volts with a tolerance of 0.05V per cell. Charging only to
4.10V reduces the capacity by 10% but provides a longer service life. The maximum charge current on most packs are is limited to between 1C and 2C.
Voltage/ce ll Charge current Stage 1 Max. charge current is applied until the cell voltage limit is reached. 1.25/5 1.00/4 Current/Voltage (A/V) 0.75/3 . . Stage 2 Max. cell voltage is reached. Charge current starts to drop as full charge is approached.
0.5/2
0.25/1
Terminate charge when current < 3% of rated current . 3 . Time (hrs)
Figure 2.2: Typical charging profile of a lithium-ion battery. 2.2.2 Discharging
Maximum discharging current in most cells is limited to 1C or 2C. Should not be discharged below 2.5V per cell. If the cells have dwelled at 1.5V per cell and lower for a few days, recharge should be avoided.
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2.3
Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd) Battery
2.3.1
Charging
Nickel-Cadmium requires constant current charging unlike SLA and Li-ion batteries. The voltage profile of a typical NiCd battery charging are given in figure 2.3.
1.50
1.46
Voltage (V)
1.42
1.38
1.34
1.30 0 50 State of Charge (%) Figure 2.3: Typical charging profile of Nickel-Cadmium batteries. Factors to be considered are: 100
Prefers fast charge to slow charge (as opposed to other chemistries) and pulse charge to DC charge. Overall charge efficiency is about 90% if fast charged at 1C. On a 0.1C overnight charge, the efficiency drops to about 70%. Interspersing discharge pulses between charge pulses (commonly referred to as burp or reverse load charging) improves the charge acceptance. Full-charge can be detected observing a voltage drop at full charge (negative delta V) after reaching a peak voltage ranged between 1.35V and 1.55V per cell.
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2.3.2
Discharging
Allows deep discharging to the contrary of other battery chemistries. Suffers from memory effect; if not periodically full discharged (once a month), large crystals form on the cell plates reducing performance. Relatively high self discharge.
2.4
Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) Battery
2.4.1
Charging
Like NiCd batteries, NiMH batteries require constant current charging. They also show almost same charging voltage profile as NiCd batteries. The voltage profile of a typical NiCd battery charging are given in figure 2.4.
1.50
1.46
Voltage (V)
1.42
1.38
1.34
1.30 0 50 State of Charge (%) Figure 2.4: Typical charging profile of Nickel-Metal Hydride batteries. Factors to keep in mind are: 100
NiMH battery prefers fast charge to slow charge. At a C-rate of 0.1-0.3C, the voltage profile fail to exhibit defined characteristics to measure the full charge state accurately and full charge detection becomes difficult if not impossible.
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Trickle charge settings are critical to avoid overcharge. Produces a very small voltage drop (8mV-16mV) at full charge. Making the charger too sensitive may terminate the fast charge halfway through the charge due to voltage fluctuations and electrical noise. Full charge detection is possible by observing negative delta V after reaching a peak voltage ranging from 1.35-1.5V per cell. The battery is less prone to memory. NiMH battery cannot absorb overcharge.
2.4.2
Discharging
Cycling under heavy load reduces battery life. NiMH battery requires full discharge once every three months to prevent memory effect.
Scheme The scheme for Universal Adapting Battery Charger consists of both hardware and software
portions. The functional block diagram for the hardware potion of the charger is given in figure 3.1.
Isolated-Ground 35V Dc
Battery to be charged
EMI FILTER
SWITCH MODE POWER SUPPLY (WITH FLYBACK CONVERTER)
PULSE WIDTH MODULATED BUCK REGULATOR AND ASSOCIATED DRIVE CIRCUITRY
H-BRIDGE INVERTER WITH CHARGERDISCHARGER SELECT SWITCH
DISCHARGER
~
AC Power Supply
PWM
Charger-Discharger Polarity Select Setup Command Command
Current Feedback Presence and Voltage Polarity Feedback Discharger Feedback Pulse
MICROCONTROLLER ATMega32
Figure 3.1: Functional block diagram of the developed scheme for the charger device.
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The device mainly comprises of two part: a. Switch Mode Power Supply (SMPS), b. Charger circuit. The high voltage AC is given input to the SMPS through an EMI filter and rectified to provide a pulsating DC voltage for the flyback converter to generate a regulated 35V DC for the charger. This converter has another purpose. It is used for power factor control. The converter has a over voltage, under voltage and over current protection by means of the feedback circuit, which also has an error amplifier for regulating the DC output voltage. The 35V DC output from the Flyback converter is used to drive the charger circuit. This is done by the DC-DC Buck converter. The microcontroller controls the output voltage of the Buck converter and varies the duty cycle according to the measured voltage and current of the battery as per requirement of the battery chemistry. The Analog to Digital Converters (ADCs) integrated in the microcontroller senses the voltage and charging current. A discharger circuit is built in order to allow pulse discharge of the battery to generate a discharging profile. Also, the pulse discharge between charge pulses is good for NiCd batteries and not harmful for other chemistries. An algorithm based on both charging and discharging characteristics to detect the battery chemistry, no. of cells and capacity is programmed into the microcontroller. The algorithm uses any one of the above profiles which comes first to give a certain decision about the battery. Initially the charger starts to charge all the batteries in constant current (CC) mode, which is common for all battery types using 500mA charging current. Once the microcontroller identifies the battery properly, it is charged accordingly.
Switch Mode Power Supply
The SMPS converts the ac line voltage into a dc voltage which is to be used by the charger. Th SMPS serves a dual purpose- generation of a regulated low voltage DC from the high voltage AC input .
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As the SMPS based on the NCP1651 did not satisfy one of the primary requirements- support for 48Hz to 440Hz ac line frequency, the controller IC was replaced by a microcontoller ATmega8 by Atmel, with startup circuitry. This new design is slightly modified version of the converter based on NCP1651 described in previous report. Almost all the circuit required for the NCP1651 was removed, except the ac line voltage divider and the current sensing resistance. Every other things like- high frequency transformer, feedback circuits, snubber circuits remain same, as they would be required in any controller. The functional block diagram of the SMPS is given in figure 4.1.
HIGH VOLTAGE SIDE

AUX 2 PRIMARY
LOW VOLTAGE SIDE TO CHARGER
EMI FILTER
BRIDGE RECTIFIER
FLYBACK CONVERTER
AUXILIARY
SECONDARY
VOLATAGE SENSE PWM
AUX 1
RECTIFIER AND FILTER
MAIN (35VDC)
LEGEND OV = Overvoltage UV = Undervoltage OC = Overcurrent
STARTUP
ATMega8
OPTOCOUPLER
FEEDBACK CIRCUIT WITH OV, UV AND OC PROTECTION WITH ERROR AMPLIFIER
(a)
Figure 4.1: (a) Functional block diagram and (b) Photogrph of Switch Mode Power Supply
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The AC line voltage is passed through the EMI filter and the bridge rectifier converts the AC voltage into a pulsating DC voltage. This voltage is converted to a lower voltage by a voltage divider and one of the ADC channels is used to measure this voltage. The duty cycle of the converter is changed in such a way that when the pulsed DC voltage peaks, the duty cycle is minimum and when the pulsed DC voltage is minimum the duty cycle is maximum. In this way a constant voltage is achieved at the output. However this voltage sensing is not enough to produce a regulated DC voltage at the converter output. To obtain a regulated DC output a feedback circuit with over voltage, under voltage and over current protection is used. There is also an error amplifier in this feedback circuit, which is used in regulating the output voltage. And optocoupler is used for interface the two isolated circuits. In the high voltage side, there is also a startup circuit, which is used to provide the microcontroller power during a brief period. After the microcontroller has started it can power itself through the auxiliary winding. The circuit is designed in such a way that the startup circuit will be inactive after the microcontroller gets power from the auxiliary winding. For the microcontroller and other ICs in the low voltage side another auxilliary windng is used to generate a lower voltage, which is then regulated by linear regulators. The complete circuit diagram of the converter is given in figure 4.2.
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J1 AC
2 1
J2 1A FUSE
2
CHOKE L 1
4 2
C1 2 .68u C8 2 C10 18p X1 1 2 16MEG 1 2 C9 18p 1 1n 2 1 R9 1k C2 1 2 C3 .68u2 .68u R3 R2 2 1 1 R5 56k 56k Q1 BUT11AF 2 1 2 1 R4 56k 56k R1 2 2 4 D1 BRIDGE + 1 1 2 1
14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1 U2 ATMega8 D2 1.8k 12V C4
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
1 C11 1n C5 100u
D3 100u
1 R10 10k 2
22V
1 2 3 4 5 6
PROGRAMMER J3
U1 78XX/TO C7 2 1 470p
GND
C6
VOUT
VIN
3
R6 1 82k R7
3 1
D5 470u D4
MUR160 1 1N4734 R8 1 .1 2 M1 2SK1358 82k
D6 MUR160
J4 XF
D11 MUR160 D12 1 1N4748 C15 2 100u C16 R17 0.1 C12 1500u D7 FCU10B60
100u D13
1 2 R18 220 2
R16 1 2 2.2k
R15 1 1k 2
R14 1 220 2
R13 1 220 2
R12 1 2 10k
6 7 8 9 10
R11 1 10k 1N4748
U5 7812/TO
GND
U4 7805/TO 11
VIN
VIN
U3D LM324/ON 1 1 R22 C14 3.3k 100n 2 2 11
U3C LM324/ON
U3B LM324/ON 1
U3A LM324/ON
13
12
10
GND
VOUT
VOUT
OUT
OUT
OUT
2 1 C13 1u
14
C18
C17
2 470u C19 2 1n 1 470u D10 D1N4148 D9 D1N4148 D8 D1N4148
OUT
V-
V+
V-
11 V+
V-
V+
R21 11 3.9k V-
+
V+ 1 R20 5.6k 2
U6 4N35
R24 2 3.3k 1 2
R23 1 10k
J5 OUT
Figure 4.2: Circuit diagram of the Switch Mode Power Supply
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3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1

4.1
Component Design
4.1.1
Transformer Design
For the transformer, a core which is widely available in local market was selected. The turns were calculated in the following wayV = Maximum primary voltage = 375V f= Switching frequency = 100kHz a= Core cross sectional area = .11in
2
B= Flux density in the core = 1Kgauss N= Number of turns
For safety, turns ratio is increased to 125. Using the following formula secondary turns were calculatedNp = Primary turns = 125 Ns = Secondary turns Vp = Primary minimum voltage = 134.3 Vs = Secondary voltage = 35
For safety, secondary turns were increased to 35. Similarly auxiliary windings were calculated to have 20 turns. But as they are far from the center of the core, they were also increased to 35 turns to provide the necessary voltage. The wires were selected as followsPrimary - 28 SWG Secondary - 26 SWG Auxiliary 34 SWG
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4.1.2
MOSFET Selection
Vpeak= Maximum voltage across the MOSFET V0 = Output voltage = 35V n = transformers turns ratio = 3.6:1 Vspike = Voltage spike due to transformer leakage inductance = 100V (assumed)
For safety, 2SK1358 was selected, which has a maximum drain to source voltage of 800V. Besides as a microcontroller is used to drive the MOSFET, the threshold voltage of the MOSFET must be less than 5V. 2SK1358 also fulfills this requirement.
4.1.3
Snubber Design
For snubber circuit design, the following parameteres are required-
The snubber circuit consists of a RC network. The C is calculated-
And R is calculated by
For safery, C was selected 470pF and R was selected two 82k resistance in parallel.
4.1.4
Feedback circuit:
The feedback circuit consists of an optocoupler and four op-amps. The optocoupler is used for isolation. The LED of the optocoupler is connected to the output of the op-amps and the transistor is connected in series with a resistance in such a way that the voltage across the transistor is inversely proportional to the current through the LED. And in the microcontroller it is programmed that the duty cycle is proportional to the voltage across the transistor. So finally the duty cycle is inversely proportional to the current through the LED.
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The first op-amp is used as a under voltage comparator. Until the output voltage is above 34V, output voltage of this comparator is low; current through the LED is zero, causing the duty cycle to be maximum. The second op-amp is used as an error amplifier. It is basically an inverting integrator. The output voltage of this op-amp depends upon how much the output voltage deviates from 35V. If the voltage is above 35V then the voltage at the output of this op-amp increases, causing less current to flow through the optocoupler diode and the duty cycle to decrease, which in turn reduces the output voltage. If the output voltage is below 35V, then the output of this op-amp decreases, causing more current to flow through the optocoupler diode and the duty cycle increases, generating more voltage. The third op-amp is used as an over voltage comparator. If the output voltage is over 36V, then the output of this op-amp becomes high, decreasing the current through the optocoupler diode to zero. This causes the duty cycle to be minimum and the output voltage is decreased. The fourth op-amp is used as an differential amplifier. If the output current becomes than 2.5A then the output of this op-amp goes high, causing an artificial overvoltage situation by increasing the voltage at the under voltage comparators non-inverting terminals. This would cause the duty cycle to be minimum. By using this circuit, it becomes possible to maintain a regulated 35V DC at the output of the flyback converter.
4.1.5
Microcontroller selection:
The microcontroller selected fo this converter is Atmega8. This microcontroller is selected for its low price, smaller size, ADCs and high speed. To use its maximum potential a 16MHz crystal is used. The 16 bit timer was used for generating the gate pulses for the MOSFET.
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4.2
Performance Analysis
4.2.1
Losses:
The estimated losses in loaded condition in the SMPS portion of the device are given in table 4.1. Input rectifier MOSFET Output Rectifier Transformer Snubber Miscellaneous Total 1W 4.8W .8W 6W (estimated) .4W 1W 14W
Table 4.1: Table of estimated losses in SMPS Calculated Efficiency = 60/(60+14) = 81%
4.2.2
No load power:
The measured no load power of the SMPS based on ATMega8 is given in table 4.2.
AC line Voltage 95V 110V 220V
No load power 0.3W 0.4W 0.8W
Table 4.2: Measured no load power in SMPS 4.3 Previous approaches: The SMPS was initially built using the flyback converter with power factor control IC NCP1651 by On Semiconductors. The converter gave a stable 31V with a maximum current of 2.5A. The circuit diagram is given in figure 4.3.
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Figure 4.3: Circuit diagram of SMPS built using NCP1651
The output voltage of the SMPS was later increased to 35V due to the reason that the charger prototype needs about 32V to give a output charging voltage of 25.2V, which is required for charging 6 Li-ion cells. Though the cirucit was quite satisfactory in performance, this circuit does not fulfill the frequency range support requirement (48-440Hz).
4.3.1
Performance Comparison between the approaches: As the SMPS was burnt due to an accidental short circuit during the last test with the charger
circuit, real data cannot be provided except the no load power. Efficiency and power factor could not be measured. However, from the simulations and calculations it may be said that the SMPS based on the microcontroller would be about 80% efficient, but power factor may not be controlled much. Where as, the circuit based on NCP1651 was more efficient and also it had very good power factor. So it can be said that, based on the application, where higher frequency AC source (>60Hz) is required, the ATmega8 based SMPS should be used and where normal AC source (50/60Hz) is present, NCP1651 based SMPS should be used.
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Chager Circuit
The functional block diagram of the prototype charger is given in Figure 5.1.
35V DC OUTPUT
DC-DC BUCK CONVERTER
SELECTOR SWITCH
DISCHARGER
DRIVER CIRCUIT FOR MOSFET IN BUCK CONVERTER BATTERY H-BRIDGE INVERTER
CURRENT FEEDBACK
BATTERY PRESENCE DETECTION AND POLARITY SENSING
POLARITY SETUP
VOLTAGE FEEDBACK
PWM
MICROCONTROLLER
KEYPAD
LCD
UART
(a)
(b) Figure 5.1: (a) Functional block diagram and (b) Photograph of the charger circuit
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DISCHARGER PULSE

The flyback converter supplies a stable 35V DC to the charger circuit which is used to charge SLA, Li ion, NiCd and NiMH batteries as per chemistry. The charger is in standby mode initially. If no battery is connected and the prototype is turned on, a menu appears on the LCD screen to ask for whether the prototype will be used as a power supply or a battery charger. If a battery is connected and the prototype is turned on, the prototype wait for 30 seconds and if no key is pressed, it automatically goes to the adaptive-charging mode. When a battery is connected, the battery presence detection and polarity sensing circuit automatically detects the presence of the battery and senses its polarity and then sends data signal to the microcontroller. Based on these signal data, microcontroller configures the h-bridge so that the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the positive output of the Buck converter. In the adaptive-charging mode, the charger starts the sequential process of constant current charging at 500mA of 10mmins and discharging. In this process, the algorithm programmed in the microcontroller observes some specific parameters in the charging and discharging voltage characteristics via the ADCs built in the microcontroller and decides the battery chemistry and according number of cells. After that, the charger charges the batteries constant current mode at 500mA or constant voltage mode as required for the detected chemistry.
5.1
Circuit description
5.1.1
Buck Converter
The Buck DC-DC voltage converter used in the charger is a simple asynchronous Buck DCDC converter. The input voltage is 35V. The output voltage is ranged 2-26V. The filter capacitor and inductor are calculated for 1mV p-p ripple at the output. The maximum current is 2A. The circuit diagram of this converter is shown in figure 5.2, which includes the drive circuit.
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MAIN D2 D1N4148 R3 10
1
R4 1k
M1 IRF540N D3 10. R6 D1N4148 BD244 Q3 L1 1 D4 3.9mH C7 2

1
C6 R1 1k
2
Q2 BD244 1k R5
4.7u +12 VDC PWM 2 GND 1
Q1 C5 100n R2 10k Q2N3904 MBR2045CT
BUCK_OUTPUT +
2
1.5m
Figure 5.2: Buck converter with driver circuit.
The MOSFET is driven by the driver circuitry. Switching frequency used is 20 kHz. This frequency was selected specifically so that it would not generate any sound from the mechanical vibration of the inductor, which was previously observed using lower frequency.
5.1.1.1 MOSFET switching driver in Buck converter
The switching device used here is an N-channel MOSFET, IRF540. It is selected for its low cost, low on time resistance (<77 milliohms), high current capability (max 23A) and high durability. The PWM signal from the microcontroller is a digital logic signal of 0-5V which is not sufficient to drive the MOSFET as its source pin is not in the circuit ground. So a drive circuit is used which takes the logic level signal as input and produces another signal with higher voltage level of about 0-40V, without changing the duty cycle of the signal. The driver circuit with the Buck converter is given in figure 5.2. In the circuit the signal from the microcontroller is given to a buffer IC. The output of the buffer IC is connected to the base of the switching transistor Q1. In the positive portion of the PWM signal, Q1 is turned on and the capacitor C1 is charged to 35V through the diode D1. As D1 is forward biased, transistor Q2 is turned off. So MOSFET M1 is turned off as there is no voltage at its gate. In the negative portion of the signal, Q1 is off and the voltage across C1 is 42V resulting the D1 reverse biased and Q2 turned on. This 42V is passed to the gate of M1 through diode D2 and 10 ohm resistance and the MOSFET is turned on.
Page 24

5.1.2
Battery presence detection and polarity sensing
To detect the presence of the battery and change the H-bridge to appropriate connections a battery presence detection and polarity sensing circuit is used. Functional block diagram as well as the circuit diagram of the battery presence detection and polarity sensing circuit along with the Hbridge is given in figures 5.3 and 5.4 respectively. It consists of two optocouplers. The H-bridge is connected in such a way that the default polarity is BATT1 positive and BATT2 negative. If the battery is connected in this way, then the presence of the battery is detected by the high voltage generated at the output of the optocoupler 1. When the battery is connected in the other way, then the presence of the battery is detected by the high voltage generated at the output of the optocoupler 2. The outputs of both optocouplers are logically Ored and connected to the active low reset circuit of the microcontroller. So whenever a battery is connected to the charger, the battery presence is detected and the microcontroller is turned on, regardless of the polarity.
BUCK OUTPUT
CHARGER RELAY 3
DISCHARGER
RELAY 1
PULSE LOAD BY MOSFET SWITCHING
BATTERY PRESENCE AND POLARITY SENSE
RELAY 2
Figure 5.3: functional block diagram of battery presence detection and polarity sensing circuit with H-bridge.
Page 25

U7 4N35
R11 1k
R12 1k
U8 4N35
OPTO_2 OPTO_1 C8 GND +5 V_H-BRIDGE_&_LOGIC D6 BATT_1 R7 RELAY_3 1k Q4 Q2N3904 D1N4148

2 1 3
R10 100k GND GND
R13 100k
1 100n
U4
4 5
RELAY_SPDT_3 GND BUCK_OUTPUT D5 MBR2045CT
U5 RELAY_SPDT_1 5 3 4 1 2 D7 D1N4148
U6 5 3 4 1 2 RELAY_SPDT_2 IRF540N D8 D1N4148 M2 R14 0.1
BATT_2 GND I_SENSE CHARGER_ENABLE DISCHARGER_IN
R8 RELAY_1 1k
Q5
Q6
R9 RELAY_2 1k
Q2N3904
Q2N3904
Figure 5.4: Circuit diagram of battery presence detection and polarity sensing circuit with H-bridge.
As the output of the optocoupler 2 is connected to the H-bridge, when the battery is connected in the opposite polarity, the H-bridge connections are altered. Thus the charger becomes polarity insensitive.
5.1.3
H-Bridge One of the primary requirements of this charger is to be polarity insensitive. For this purpose
an H-Bridge IC L298 was used at first. The IC was selected for high current rating (4 A), low saturation voltage, over temperature protection and high noise immunity. This IC can also handle the back EMF of motors, which is similar to battery charging application. The IC contains two individual modules, which were used in parallel to reduce power loss. The battery to be charged was connected to the output terminals of the H-bridge.
But it was found that this IC consumes about 6 watts power at all output voltages which degrades the power efficiency of the prototype greatly. So, after considering some alternatives, it was decided to construct the H-bridge with two SPDT relays. The block diagram of this H-bridge is shown in Figure 5.3 along with the battery presence detection and polarity sensing circuit.
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The relay 1 acts as the source and the relay 2 acts as the sink. The common terminal of the relay 1 is connected to the output of the Buck converter, the normally closed (NC) terminal to the BATT1 and the normally open (NO) terminal to BATT2. The common terminal of the relay 2 is connected to the drain of the Charge Enable MOSFET, NC terminal to the BATT2 and NO terminal to the BATT1. The assumed default polarity of the connected battery is BATT1 positive and BATT2 negative. If the battery is connected inversely, then the detection circuit would give a high voltage to the base of the relay driving transistors causing the relays to be tripped. In this way the positive terminal of the charger is always connected to the positive terminal of the battery and the negative terminal of the battery is always connected to the negative terminal of the charger.
5.1.4
Discharger: In order to detect the battery chemistry, number of cell and capacity, sometimes a discharging
profile is needed. So, a discharger is integrated in the charger prototype which uses discharge pulse to discharge the batteries at 400mA. The functional block diagram of the discharger integrated with the charger prototype is shown in figure 5.3. I nitially Relay 3 is has its NC contact connected to the presence and polarity of battery
detection circuit. If the algorithm finds it necessary, Relay 3 is tripped so that NO its contact becomes closed, the charging ciruit is disconnected and discharger is turned on.
R17 DISCHARGER_IN M3 IRF540N 1k R16 Q7 Q2N3904 R15 1.5 GND 1k DISCHARGER_PULSE
Figure 5.5: Circuit diagram of the discharger circuit
As shown in figure 5.5, with the discharge in is high, the microcontroller sends discharge pulses. When the pulse is high, the MOSFET is turned on and the battery starts to discharge through
Page 27

1.5 ohm resistance. As the battery starts to discharge in a higher rate, the base voltage of the BJT increases, causing it to lower its collector to emitter voltage, which is also the gate voltage of the MOSFET. As a result of the lowered gate voltage, the current through the MOSFET decreases, keeping it in the same value as before. The circuit thus uses a negative feedback to act as a current sink.
5.1.5
Logic Control The microcontroller chosen to control the charging process and utilize the algorithms
developed is ATMega32L by ATMEL. The reason for choosing this microcontroller is for its higher amount of RAM, lower price, availability, speed and above all, free and user friendly programming hardware and software. A 4x3 keypad and a 20X4 LCD display are connected for manual control and user friendly interface. The 16 bit timer in microcontroller is used to produce the PWM signal used in the Buck converter. The UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter) interface of the microcontroller is connected to a computer to log the charging voltage, open circuit voltage and charging current in real time. This system helps to realize the performance of the charger.
Battery Presence and Polarity Sense
Port D Pins 16 & 17
Port C Pins 20 & 21
Polarity Setup
Port D Pin 18 Manual Selection from Keypad Port B Pins 1-7
Charger Enable
ATMega32L
Port D Pin 19
PWM
Batt 1 Terminal Voltage Feedback
Port A Pins 36-38 (ADCs 4-2)
Port C Pin 28
ChargerDischarger Select
Batt 2 Terminal Voltage Feedback
Port A Pins 33-35 (ADCs 7-5)
Port C Pin 29
Discharger Pulse
Port C Pin 22-27 Port A Pin 39 (ADC 1)
LCD
Current Feedback
Port D Pin15
UART
Figure 5.6. Functional diagram of the microcontroller section
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To measure the voltages of the battery, voltage dividers are used so that the voltages to be measured are converted to low values. The maximum voltage to be measured is 35V. As there are 8 ADCs to be used, 6 of them are used to measure the voltages of the battery terminals. Of the ADCs for each terminal one ADC measures a voltage range of 0-5V, another measures 5-15V and the last ADC measures 15-35V. One of the remaining two ADCs, one is used to measure the charging current. Some capacitors are also connected to the ADC input terminals. These capacitors acts as filters to suppress the voltage ripples generated from the Buck converter switching at the ADC input terminals. The values of the capacitors are calculated to be 2uF, for 20 kHz higher cutoff frequency.
5.2
Performance analysis
5.2.1
Proper charging
The charger device is able to perform proper charging of batteries of all the four chemistry as required by the IFEC2007 committee, which are given in tables 5.1 and 5.2. Starting Battery mode SLA Li-ion CC CC up to 2.3V/cell 4.2V/cell CV = Constant Voltage mode CV CV Ich = Charging Current Ich<Ith Ich<Ith Ith = 3% Current Starting mode Ending Termination
* CC = Constant Current of CC mode
Table 5.3. Battery charging process of SLA and Li-ion Battery NiMH NiCd Charging mode CC CC * CC = Constant Current Termination dv/dt<0 dv/dt=0 CV = Constant Voltage
Table 5.4. Battery charging process of NiMH and NiCd
Some sample charging profiles of batteries of different chemistries are given in figures 5.6 through 5.9.
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Figure 5.7: Charging profile of a 3200mAh, 6V Sealed Lead Acid battery
Figure 5.8: Charging profile of a 700mAh 3.7V Li-ion battery
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Figure 5.9: Charging profile of 600mAh 4.8V NiCd battery
Figure 5.10: Charging profile of 2300mAh 4.8V NiMH battery
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5.2.2
Power calculation
A calculation of power loss in the charger circuit is given in table 5.3.
Components Buck MOSFET Reverse Blocking Diode Charger Enable MOSFET Relays Others Total
Loss 0.4W 0.4W 0.4W 1W 0.1W 2.3W
Table 5.3: Power loss in charger circuit when supplying 1A at 22V.
Efficiency A plot of efficiency of the charger circuit and estimated efficiency of the device is given in
figure 6.1.
Figure 6.1: Plot of efficiency of the charger circuit and estimated efficiency of the device at 1A constant output current
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Method of Battery Detection As per the project requirements, it is needed to detect 4 types of battery chemistries. They
are: NiMH, NiCd, Li-ion and Sealed Lead Acid (SLA). It has been observed that there is not much difference in the charging technique for NiMH and NiCd batteries. So they can be treated as same type. Thus, we have now three major battery types to differentiate: Li, Ni and SLA. By extensive study of battery charging and discharging characteristics, a technique has been found to identify the three battery types. The key point in this regard is that, all the experiments and tests are conducted with the available batteries in local market. A list of mostly locally available local batteries is given in table 7.1.
Batteries Li-ion SLA NiMH NiCd
Manufacturers Anik, Nokia, Samsung CoolPower, Unicol, Free Tat Holdings Sony, Sanyo, Panasonic Sanyo, Cadnica Table 7.1: Table of tested batteries
Size Cell phone batteries _ AA, AAA AA, AAA
Our implemented method for battery detection comprises two steps. 1. Constant current charging at 500mA for approximately 10 minutes. 2. Discharging the battery
7.1
Constant current charging at 500mA for approximately 10 minutes
During Charging for a short span of time (approximately 10 min), there is a possibility of detecting NiMH or NiCd batteries. This can only be possible when almost full charged battery is given and after 10 min charging the battery has reached end of charge. At that moment, Open Circuit voltage of the battery fall below peak voltage by at least 15 mV, we can say it to be Nickel battery. In this case if the fall of voltage is quite greater than 15mV we need to charge it again using Ni() subroutine where appropriate termination condition is used to charge Ni batteries.
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One more thing that should be noted is overcharging protection of Li batteries should be provided. For this purpose, continuous checking is done using the voltage range of charged Li batteries. If it falls in the specified range, the battery may be detected as Li and charging must be stopped. But using this method does not ensure that it is Li, because Ni battery of different cell numbers can show the same range of voltage as Li batteries when they are discharged. For this reason, we have introduced discharging during battery detection process.
7.2
Discharging the battery:
After a constant current charging of 10 min if battery type is undetermined, the battery is allowed to discharge at 400mA discharging current. The main philosophy behind this discharging method is that every battery type has distinctive discharging characteristics. If we are able to define suitable parameters which have different values for different types of batteries, we can easily distinguish different cell chemistry. Three parameters are defined namely N, L and DV2 which would formulate the procedure for battery detection. N = MA(DV) 400 Vpeak L = MA(dV Vpeak) 5 DV2= MA (DV) 1000 Here, DV = Vpeak(t-1) Vpeak(t) dV = Vpeak(t) Vtrough(t) MA = Moving Average
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Figure 7.1: Discharging Characteristics of a 650mAh Li-ion single cell battery.
Figure 7.2: Discharging characteristics of a 900mAh Li-ion single cell battery At first the discharge characteristics of Li-ion is considered. From the above discharge curves of two Li-ion batteries having different capacities it is observed that the relative difference between Vpeak (open circuit voltage) and Vtrough (short circuit voltage, battery delivering a specific load) remains almost constant.
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Now the discharge characteristics of Nickel batteries are considered.
Figure 7.3: Discharge characteristics of a 700mAh NiCd two-cell battery
Figure 7.4: Discharge characteristics of a 4600mAh NiMH two-cell battery
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From the above curves, it is clear that both NiCd and NiMH shows almost the same discharge characteristics. In these cases, the relative difference between Vpeak and Vtrough rises sharply at discharge point. This phenomenon can be used for both discharge point detection and for detecting Ni+ battery. At last, two discharge characteristics of SLA batteries are considered.
Figure 7.5: Discharge characteristics of a 3200mAh SLA 3-cell battery
Figure 7.6: Discharge characteristics of a 4500mAh SLA 3-cell battery
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From the six curves presented earlier, threshold values for N, L and DV2 can easily be chosen to differentiate the three types of batteries. The ranges of these parameters for different types of batteries are given in table 7.2.
Condition N > 1 AND L > 1 N < 1 AND L > 1 AND DV2 > 2.75 N < 1 AND L < 1 AND DV2 > 2.75
Decision Ni Li-ion SLA
Table 7.2: Table of decision in battery chemistry detection
The ranges presented in the table are totally exclusive and there is apparently no chance of overlapping if some initial data are discarded. The only assumption of this approach towards battery detection is that the battery should consist some charge initially. This assumption can be bypassed if the battery given for charging is trickle charged at a constant current for a specific period of time without detecting its chemistry. After a certain time of charging, we would discharge the battery for a pre-determined time and thus detect its chemistry. If the battery could not be detected in this time, the battery would be trickle charged for a longer time than the previous time interval. Then again an attempt would be taken to detect the battery by discharging.
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Working Algorithm
Automatic Charging Subroutine 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) Start. Set Cell_Type = 0. Go to Constant_Current_10min() subroutine. If Cell_Type = 0, then Battery type is undecided yet. Go to Discharge() subroutine. If Cell_Type = 4, then the battery is Nickel and it is fully charged. Go to step 11. If Cell_Type = 6, then 10 min more charging is needed without checking that if it is Li and fully charged. Go to Constant_Current_10min() again. 7) 8) If Cell_Type = 5, then Battery may be BAD and could not be charged. Go to step 9. Else If Cell_Type = 3, then Battery is Ni and some more charging is needed. Go to Ni() subroutine. 9) Else if Cell_Type = 1, then battery is SLA. Go first to Constant_Current() subroutine and then to constant_voltage() subroutine. 10) Else If Cell_Type = 2, then battery is Li-ion. Go first to Constant_Current() subroutine and then to Constant_Voltage() subroutine. 11) how to the LCD "Charging is Finished.Press Any Key to continue." 12) Wait for any key to be pressed. 13) If any key is pressed, jump to main(). 14) End.
Constant_Current_10min() Subroutine 1) Start. 2) Go to Charge Mode. 3) Set Initial DUTY according to the charging current of 500mA. 4) Start PWM Buck to make a constant current charging. 5) Check if Battery runtime voltage rises to integer multiple of 4.2V. 6) If yes break the charging. 7) Check if battery open circuit voltage falls below peak voltage by at least 15mV. 8) If Yes then assign Cell_Type = 3 and calculate N_cell = Vpeak/1.4
Page 39

9) Check if battery open circuit voltage falls below by at least 8mV per cell. 10) If Yes, assign Cell_Type = 4 and break. 11) Stop PWM Buck 12) End Discharge() Subroutine 1) Start. 2) Go to Discharge Mode. Set Discharge_current to 400 mA. 3) Record Open Circuit Voltage and Voltage with load alternatingly. 4) Using that values, calculate DV = Vopen_final-Vopen_previous, and dv = Vopen-Vload. 5) Adjust these values by taking moving average, scaling and normalizing by dividing with Vopen. 6) Calculate three deciding parameters - N, L, DV2. 7) If N>1 or L>1 and no. of iteration do not exceed 18 assign Cell_Type=6 and break the loop. 8) If N<1 and L<1 and DV2>2.75, then Cell_Type=1(SLA) and end of Discharge is reached. 9) If N>1 and L>1, then Cell_Type=3(Ni) and end of discharge is reached. 10) If L>1 and N<1 and DV2>2.75, then Cell_Type=2(Li) and end of discharge is reached. 11) End. Constant_Current() Suroutine 1) Calculate n = ceil (Vtrm/Standard Voltage at discharge point) 2) Set Charging Current to 500mA. 3) Charge the battery in CC mode until runtime voltage reaches Vtrm = n*Standard_Cell_Voltage (3.7 for Li and for SLA) 4) End Constant_Voltage() Subroutine 1) 2) Charge in CV mode until charging current falls to 6 percent of the current at CC mode. End
Ni() Subroutine 1) 2) 3) 4) Calculate n= ceil(Vtrm/Standard Voltage of Ni at discharge point) Charge in CC mode and monitor the battery terminal voltage Vtrm Detect the peak Vpeak of Vtrm If Vtrm< Vpeak-0.008*n go to step 5, else go to step 1
Page 40

5)
End
Previous Approaches
Some other approaches for the detection of battery chemistries and capacity have also been tried. But extensive testing of different batteries has proven these methods failed. Short descriptions of these other approaches are given below.
9.1
Chemistry detection From of a battery Initially, a detection technique was developed on the quantity . stands for the charge
9.1.1
acceptibilty of a battery. it is defined as
where, Vcharge = Measured voltage across a cell during charging Vbatt Icharge = Open circuit voltage of a cell = Charging current
Figure 9.1: beta of the batteries of different chemistries
From different charging profiles plotted in different times, it has been seen that the range of values of for different chemistry during almost the whole charging period highly overlaps. This
Page 41

eventually leads to faulty detection of chemistry and hence number of cells. A barchart of range of values of beta of different chemistries is given in figure 9.1.
9.1.2
SoC Method:
As an alternative method of battery detection, the State of Charge (SoC) method was formulated. In this method, it is assumed that the discharge current of a battery is proportional to the SoC of the battery and that different capacity battery would have the same characteristic curves if open circuit voltage is plotted against discharge current. Moreover, different types of batteries should show distinguishably different Open circuit voltage versus Discharge current plots. A combined hypothetical plot of three different types of batteries is shown below:
Figure 7.2: Characteristic curve of different batteries in SoC method It was first assumed that in the final circuit, the battery would be discharged for a certain period. The acquired data would be matched with the pre-mapped battery characteristic plots and thus the battery chemistry would be detected by their identical set of curves. .Experiments on this method carried out. The data from several batteries were mapped and the feasibility of the method was tested. Finally, this approach did not result in a good manner for detecting battery types.
Page 42

9.2
Capacity Measurement:
Several approaches were undertaken to measure the battery capacity. First, it was assumed that the battery having a high capacity would take proportionately longer time to be charged. It implies that the dv / dt of high capacity batteries would be lower than batteries of lower capacity. Here dt = a small time interval dv = change in battery open circuit voltage in time dt From this inverse relation an estimate of battery capacity can be found. Next, another approach was initiated. In this approach a battery would be first trickle charged for 20 minutes. Then the battery would be discharged with constant discharge current. Now, if the battery is of high capacity, it would discharge quickly than a battery with lower capacity. That is, a high capacity battery would posses a high dv / dt ratio where dt = a small time interval dv = change in battery open circuit voltage in the time interval dt Again from this relations, an estimate of battery capacity could be found. A similar approach was formulated by changing the definition of dv. It is defined as the difference of two battery open circuit voltages such that one is the current Vpeak and another is immediate previous sampled value of Vpeak. That is dv = Vpeak (t) Vpeak (t-1) This case would also result in a high dv / dt for higher capacity batteries which are discharged after a short period of charging.
10
Key Innovations
A data logging equipment is of prime importance when it comes to obseving voltges and current for a long period. As in this project, plenty of battery data had to be recorded fo analysis, a unique data logging equipment was built to record, store and display the data. The equipment consists of two parts: 1. 2. Hardware Software
Page 43

10.1 Data logging hardware
The basic block diagram of the data logging hardware is shown in figure 10.1.
Figure 10.1: Block Diagram of Data logging hardware First the data from the microcontroller is fed to Universal Adapting Receiver Transmitter (UART, in this case MAX 232 chip), which transfers data to the computer using serial port. Any of the serial ports (COMPort 1 or 2) can be used for data transfer.
10.2 Data logging software
Figure 10.2: Screenshot of BUET IFEC 2007 TEAM of data logging software
The software is created using Visual Basic language. It takes reading of battery open circuit voltage, runtime voltage and charging/discharging current and generates a Microsoft Office Excel Sheet where these data are stored. In order to get a runtime view of the current and voltage profile, a graphical interface is also attached.
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Before the charger is turned on, the software is provided with battery data such as battery type, no. of cell and capacity. Thus data for a certain type of battery can be stored and analyzed. The software may also be defined to select which serial port will be taken as source. A screenshot of the data logging software is given in figure 10.2.
11
Cost Analysis:
The costs of the components are calculated from the local wholesale price. The cost of the whole project is given block wise in table 11.1. SMPS Block EMI Filter and Bridge .75$ rectifier Startup Microcontroller MOSFET and Snubber Transformer Feedback PCB Others Total Grand Total .4$ 1.4$ 1$ .5$ .55$ .4$ 1$ 6$ 12.6$ driver H-bridge Discharger Microcontroller PCB Others Total 1$ .6$ 2.2$ .6$ 1$ 6.6 Cost Block Buck converter with 1.2$ Charger Cost
Figure 11.1: Cost estimation of the device As all the electrical components are imported in our country, manufacturing cost in high volume will be significantly lower than given here. If the manufacturing cost in high volume is 80% of this cost, then the cost is 9.76$. So it may be said that the cost requirement is fulfilled.
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12
Summary of the work done
Requirements AC power supply Charger Charging current Appropriate charging External indications Polarity insensitivity SC and OC protection No load power Power drawn after
Status Partially Achieved Achieved Achieved Achieved Achieved Achieved Achieved Not achieved
Comments Different SMPS for different requirement With optional requirements With optional requirements
LCD panel is used, LED can be used for lower cost
Implemented in SMPS Slightly greater than the requirement
Not Applicable charge finished Power drawn during Partially Achieved charge
No float charge is implemented
At low output power efficiency is low
Microcontroller based SMPS does not fulfill but Power quality Partially Achieved NCP1651 based SMPS fulfills this requirement Manufacturers Achieved recommendation Hot pluggable Connector Display Power supply Safe indoor use Cost Achieved Achieved Achieved Achieved Achieved Achieved Through the LCD 12V and Variable voltage with CV and CC mode Battery terminals are isolated from the mains 12.2$ in our country, which will be less in others
Table 12.1: Summary of the achievements
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13
Project Timeline
The team submitted their proposal on July 2006. after being selected, they started working hard for achieving the required goals right away. Except for the occasional breaks such as termfinal exams, the team worked continuously.
Figure 13.1. Project timeline A graphical representation of the project time line is given in Figure 13.1.
14
Project Budget
The estimated budget of the project was USD 1000 (70,000 BDT). However, we were able to complete the total project within a budget of USD 850 (almost 60,000 BDT). A local power management company Enercon Systems International Limited has provided sponsor for the total project. BUET has provided the IFEC team with the necessary support and facilities.
15
Conclusion
The BUET IFEC Team has worked tirelessly to complete this project. This has been a thoroughly challenging and exhilarating experience for all of the students involved in the project. The team is especially grateful to our faculties and lab coordinators for providing us with the necessary support and aid. The proposed design fulfills most of the primary requirements specified by the IFEC Committee as well as some extra features that were developed.
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During the work, the major problem faced was regarding the flyback converter. Due to unavailability of the NCP 1651 chip hinderd the development of the SMPS. An alternative plan was adapted which also met the frequency specifications required by IFEC. The scheme using microcontoller showed encouraging result, but due to an accidental short circuit, final tests could not be run and it was not possible to submit the SMPS in the final event. But other than this, the project can be considered as an successful one.
16
Team Information
The IFEC 2007 team from Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET) consists of 16 undergraduate students at present. They areSarkar Rahat Md. Anwar Ahmed Tashrif Kamal Md. Shahriar Jahan Fahmida Shaheen Samia Nawar Rahman Raina Rahman Hasan Md. Faraby Abdullah Al Helal A.T.M. Golam Sarwar Md. Naimul Hasan Ahmed Zubair Mahmudur Rahman Siddiqui Hafiz Imtiaz Md. Ryyan Khan Md. Raisul Islam Yasin Sumon
Faculty advisor Dr. A.B.M. Harun-Ur-Rashid is in constant interaction with the IFEC team providing valuable suggestions.
17
References
1) www.atmel.com 2) www.onsemi.com 3) www.wikipedia.org 4) www.greenbatteries.com 5) www.smps.us 6) www.batteryuniversity.com
Page 48

Final Report (Buet) - Ifec 2007

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Final Report (Buet) - Ifec 2007

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International Future Energy Challenge 2007

Universal Adapting Battery Charger

Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology Undergraduate Student Team

Faculty Advisor Dr. A.B.M. Harun-Ur-Rashid

Development of a Universal Adapting Battery Charger

IFEC 2007 Final Report

2.4.1.Charging 11 2.4.2.Discharging 12 3. Scheme 4. Switch Mode Power Supply 12 13

4.1. Component design 17 4.1.1.Transformer Design 17 4.1.2.MOSFET Selection 18

4.1.3.Snubber Design 18 4.1.4.Feedback Circuit 4.1.5.Microcontroller Selection 4.2. Performance Analysis 18 19 20

4.2.1.Losses 20 4.2.2.No Load Power 20

IFEC 2007 Final Report

IFEC 2007 Final Report

IFEC 2007 Final Report

IFEC 2007 Final Report

IFEC 2007 Final Report

Sealed Lead Acid (SLA) battery

IFEC 2007 Final Report

2 1.6 Current (A)

2.0 Voltage (V)

1.5 1.0 0.5

IFEC 2007 Final Report

Lithium-ion (Li-ion) Battery

IFEC 2007 Final Report

Terminate charge when current < 3% of rated current . 3 . Time (hrs)

Figure 2.2: Typical charging profile of a lithium-ion battery. 2.2.2 Discharging

IFEC 2007 Final Report

Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd) Battery

IFEC 2007 Final Report

Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) Battery

IFEC 2007 Final Report

SWITCH MODE POWER SUPPLY (WITH FLYBACK CONVERTER)

PULSE WIDTH MODULATED BUCK REGULATOR AND ASSOCIATED DRIVE CIRCUITRY

H-BRIDGE INVERTER WITH CHARGERDISCHARGER SELECT SWITCH

Charger-Discharger Polarity Select Setup Command Command

IFEC 2007 Final Report

Switch Mode Power Supply

IFEC 2007 Final Report

HIGH VOLTAGE SIDE

LOW VOLTAGE SIDE TO CHARGER

VOLATAGE SENSE PWM

RECTIFIER AND FILTER

LEGEND OV = Overvoltage UV = Undervoltage OC = Overcurrent

FEEDBACK CIRCUIT WITH OV, UV AND OC PROTECTION WITH ERROR AMPLIFIER

IFEC 2007 Final Report

IFEC 2007 Final Report

1 U2 ATMega8 D2 1.8k 12V C4

MUR160 1 1N4734 R8 1 .1 2 M1 2SK1358 82k

U3D LM324/ON 1 1 R22 C14 3.3k 100n 2 2 11

2 470u C19 2 1n 1 470u D10 D1N4148 D9 D1N4148 D8 D1N4148

Figure 4.2: Circuit diagram of the Switch Mode Power Supply

IFEC 2007 Final Report

B= Flux density in the core = 1Kgauss N= Number of turns

IFEC 2007 Final Report

For snubber circuit design, the following parameteres are required-

The snubber circuit consists of a RC network. The C is calculated-

IFEC 2007 Final Report

IFEC 2007 Final Report

AC line Voltage 95V 110V 220V

No load power 0.3W 0.4W 0.8W

IFEC 2007 Final Report

Figure 4.3: Circuit diagram of SMPS built using NCP1651

IFEC 2007 Final Report

DC-DC BUCK CONVERTER