FALLACY - Is an error in argumentation Formal Fallacies - Committed against the form of the argument Informal Fallacies - Committed because

of an unclear language or content or irrelevance of the premises

INFORMAL FALLACIES Fallacies in Language / Ambiguity A. Fallacy of Equivocation - using a term in different meanings in the argumentation B. Fallacy of Amphibology - using a phrase or a complete sentence whose meaning is ambiguous because the grammatical construction can be interpreted in various ways C. Fallacy of Composition - taking jointly what should be taken separately - Parts Whole D. Fallacy of Division - taking separately what should be taken jointly - Whole Part E. Fallacy of Accent or Prosody - arises from ambiguous use of a word that may result to a different meaning when accented or from a false emphasis in speech F. Fallacy of Figures of Speech - concluding erroneously a similarity of meaning based on the similarity of word structure.

Fallacies of Matter A. Fallacy of Accident - arises from confusion of what is essential or necessary and what is merely accidental B. Sweeping Generalization - arguing from the truth of an General statement to the truth of a qualified statement - General Specific C. Hasty Generalization - arguing from the truth of qualified statement to the truth of an General statement - Specific General

Fallacy of Relevance A. Ignoring the Issue - One does not prove or disapprove the point at issue 1. Argumentum ad Populum (appeal to the people) - Appeals to the prejudices or biases and passions of the people 2. Argumentum ad Baculum (appeal to might / power) - uses threat 3. Argumentum ad Verecundiam (appeal to shame / modesty) - To convince or persuade by pointing out the dignity of those who adhere to a certain view. 4. Argumentum ad Misericordiam (appeal to pity) - It leaves reasons aside and pleads for mercy 5. Argumentum ad Ignorantiam (appeal to ignorance) - Argues from a lack of evidence of a certain claim 6. Argumentum ad Hominem (appeal to the individual) Abusive - Attacks the character of the opponent Circumstantial - Implies the interest of the opponent. Hypocrisy (tu quque) You also 7. Invalid Extension - widens the question unduly by giving a more extended application than the moderate claim intended. 8. Fallacy of Diversion - One sidesteps the original question / topic and substitutes a different question on topic in its place

B. Begging the Issue 1. Equivalent term / proposition - Using the same or an Equivalent term / proposition as both premise and conclusion 2. Wider Principle - Using a premise that cannot be known to be true unless the conclusion is first known to be true

3. Vicious Circle - The conclusion is proven by a premise and later on the same premise is proven by the conclusion

C. Fallacy of the False Cause 1. Post hoc - Ascribing to a certain effect something which comes before it 2. Arguing coincidence - happens when a certain presumption is taken to be sure and certain - Probability Certainty 3. Oversimplifying the Cause - providing a simple or nave explanation or cause of a complex event which is caused by several causes 4. Slippery Slope - It involves a belief that X will lead to Y w/o any reason. Other Fallacies 1. Weak Analogy - involves the weak comparison between two things 2. Red Hearing (straw man) - Diverting the listeners attention by changing the subject or drawing a slightly different conclusion than the one that should be drawn 3. Complex Question (loaded question) - A question which contains a hidden assumption or condition 4. False Dilemma - Presents premise 2 alternatives as if they were the only available when in fact there are more