APPLICATION OF CENTRIFUGE IN GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

PRATHYUSH.M

The study of solute transport through soil is a complex phenomenon. It can be studied using a centrifuge is a rotating apparatus which in simpler terms, separate substances of different densities by centrifugal force. Modeling of behavior of clay and its various parameters are discussed in this report mathematical modeling and its scaling laws are also discussed. Centrifuge modeling of diffusion through saturated clays was studied in this report.

Keywords centrifuge, modeling, diffusion, marine clay 1.INTRODUCTION

The mechanism of solute transport through soils is quite a complex phenomenon and is largely influenced by the physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil-solute system. To study solute transport in soils centrifuging is used. For investigating the effects of soil characteristics that is degree of saturation, moisture content, state of the soil, nature of the soil, particle size distribution etc. On the transport processes in order to make more realistic predictions of solute migration in soil mass centrifuging is used.

2.METHOD OF CENTRIFUGING
A centrifuge is a rotating apparatus, which in simpler terms separates substances of different densities by centrifugal force. Centrifugal force is defined as a force, which impels a rotating body or objects on it away from the center of rotation. In general a centrifuge consists of a central rotational axis, an arm which sings around this axis and which controls the centrifuges intended acceleration. The test set up is put in the centrifuge. The centrifuge is then work with a certain speed to get certain acceleration value. The centrifugation is done for certain time. After each centrifugation volume changes in the soil samples can be calculated. Undergraduate student, civil engineering department NSS college of engineering, Palakkad-678008 1

3.MODELLING OF BEHAVIOUR OF CLAY

Find the properties of soil, which are to be tested. The required amount of clay for making a sample was taken and mixed with the required quantity of water to achieve a compacted state of soil .The Perspex cylinder used as a mould for making the sample in figure.

Figure 1:Test set up The mixed clay is divided into three equal parts and is then compacted in the mould in three equal layers. The soil sample is then exposed to sodium chloride soution. The whole assembly is hen subjected to an accelerated environment in the centrifuge. After each centrifugation volume changes in soil sample have been observed.

4.STUDY OF VARIOUS PARAMETERS

After centrifuging the moisture content of clay is find out.Then draw the graph m/m0 vs prototype depth.To study the effect of state of soil sample,compaction energy,dry density and saturation test have been conducted for soil samples.Thus studying above things migration of moisture from top to bottom can be explained.For explaining the diffusion through saturated clay,first the centrifuge test can be carried out.Then after centrifuging the soil sample the conductivity of soil can be calculated.By drawing the graph between c/c0 vs prototype depth and from studying the graph the diffusion through saturated clay is determined.Centrifuge modeling of vertical dain can be done using this principle.In first step the centrifuging can be done.After that the load can be applied in the soil and corresponding settlement can be calculated.By drawing the time vs degree of settlement graph,the settlement of soil can be discussed.

5.MODELLING 5.1.Mathematical Model

Experiments are usually conducted in the laboratory to understand various phenomenon that occur in the field where in an attempt is made to simulate the conditions of the prototype, in the models constructed in the laboratory. However it is impossible to simulate similar conditions in the models since the body forces due to gravity play an important role. Experiments conducted to study the body forces of the prototype in the model in the gravitational field. These difficulties experienced in the simulation of the exact conditions of the prototype in the model may be potentially overcome by use of centrifuge for modeling .It was discussed by Taylor in 1995.For thee sake of simplicity and accuracy in the obtained results it is desirable to construct a model with the same material properties as that of the prototype. It is important to account for the stress dependence of material properties. This indicates that stresses must be similar in model and prototype giving rise to the concept of homologous points. Therefore, the condition of identical stresses is imposed on the model. m/p=*=1 Stresses is equal to force per unit area. F*/(l*)2=*=1. Let the scale factor for length be l*=lm/lp=1/N It follows that F*=(l*)2=N-2 Since the model and prototype are compossed of identical materials,the scale factor for density is *=1. The scale factor for mass is calculated by, *=m*/(l*)3=1 m*=(l*)3=N-3 and scaling factor for gravity follows from Newtons law of motion for a body at rest in the gravitational field. F*=m*g*

g*=F*/m*=N-2/N-3=N. Therefore,if the identical material is used in model and prototype, and length dimensions are reduced N times, the gravity should be increased N times in order to pressure identical stresses in model and prototype .The centrifuge is used to provide an increased acceleration field to simulate this required increase in gravitational force on the model. Thus strong stress dependence of soil properties is accounted for centrifugal modeling.

5.2 Scaling Laws

Table 1: Scaling relationships for centrifuge modeling. Quantity Length Volume Velocity Acceleration Stress Strain Mass density Time Head Pressure Prototype N N3 1/N 1/N 1 1 1 N2 N 1 Model 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

6.CASE STUDY-MODELLING OF DIFFUSION THROUGH SATURATED CLAY:

To simulate diffusion through saturated clays, studies have been conducted by S.K. Nair and D.N. Singh on marine clay. Table 2:properties of marine clay. Specific gravity O.M.C Maximum dry density(gm/cc) D10(Microns) Permeability(m/s) Catin exchange capacity(meq/100gm) 2.6 2.9 1.36 0.3 9*10 102

6.1. Solute Transport Mechanism For The Soils:

To ascertain the flow conditions,Reynolds number(Re) and peclet number(Pe) have been defined.The scaling laws suggest that Reynolds number should be less than one.Diffusion is found to be predominant in soils when peclet number is less than 0.4.In this study it is found that both these conditions are satisfied in the model 4

as well as in the prototype.It is assumed that the marine clay properties remain the same for the model and the prototype.

6.2. Sample Preparation And Test Set Up:

The require amount of soil for a sample was taken and mixed with the required quantity of water to achieve a compacted state of soil as in table 3. Table 3:compacted state of soil Soil property Marine clay Water content (%) 40 Dry density(gm/cc) 1.25 Saturation (%) 96 Void ratio(e) 1.08 The Perspex cylinder used as a mould for making the sample is shown in figure 2.

Figure 2:The test set-up. It is smeared with oil to ensure proper sealing of the sample to remove the possibility of the solute discharging through the sides.This also helps in extruding the sample out of the mould after the centrifuge test is over.The mixed soil is divided in to three equal parts and is then compacted in the mould in three equal layers so as to attain a compacted state as in table.The soil sample is then exposed to 15 ml of 2Nsodium chloride solution.The whole assembly is then subjected to an acclerated environment in the centrifuge .

6.3. Centrifuge Tests:

Centrifuge details are as follows Table 4:Details of the centrifuge Type Swinging buckets on Both sides of the arm Arm radius 20cm Maximum outer radius 31.5cm Centrifuge range 250-1000rpm Max.acceleration 300g Capacity .72g tones Table 5:Details of centrifuge test N Value Model time (min) 32 49.2 126.6 208 50 20.2 51.8 85.2 75 9 23 38 100 5 13 21.3 150 2.2 5.8 Prototype time (days) 35 90 148 35 90 148 35 90 148 35 90 148 35 90

9.5 148 For different acceleration values, speed of centrifuge is calculated as (60/2)(Ng/R)0.5 Where R=r-t-(2h/3) r-radius of the arm t-thickness of the base plate. h-height of the model. g-981cm/sec

Tests are conducted for different acceleration values (n),as presented in table to simulate three different prototype times.

6.4. Analysis Of The Soil Samples Using Conductivity Meter:

After centrifuging the soil sample for the specified time,the soil sample is extruded from the mould and is sliced into four discs of 1.5 cm thickness.One gram of soil is then scraped off from depths of 1.5,3,4.5and6cm to study the intrusion of sodium chloride solution at this depth.The sampling ponts are shown in figure.

Figure 3:Sampling of the soil sample. A digital conductivity meter is used along with the conductivity cell,having a cell constant equal to one,to obtain the conductivity the soil slurry which is stirred properly for 10-15 minutes to record the observations.The observations have been recorded three times to generalize the results.The concentration of chloride ions as determined using the conductivity meter indicates the extent of sodium chloride solution.The conductivity value for virgin marine clay is noticed to be equal to 0.40ms.From conductivity values the chloride concentration can be determined using calibration curve.

Figure 4:Calibration curve for the conductivity meter. The diffusion trends are represented in the form of conductivity value as follows(in table). Table 6:Comparision of conductivity values for the soil sample N 32 Prototype time (days) 35 90 50 148 35 90 75 148 35 90 148 100 35 90 148 150 35 90 148 Top layer Top layer (c/cb) 1.12 1.14 1.22 1.10 1.14 1.20 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.09 1.11 1.11 1.11 1.119 1.13 Bottom layer Bottom layer % increase 7 7 7 5 6 6 4 5 6 5 7 7.5 7 8 9 % increase (c/cb) 12 1.07 14 22 10 14 20 8 9 10 9 11 11 11 11.9 13 1.07 1.07 1.05 1.06 1.06 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.05 1.07 1.075 1.07 1.08 1.09

6.5. Results And Discussions:-

Based on the conductivity values,the representative trends,c/cb vs prototype depth,for different centrifugal accelerations have been developed for the soils,where c is the conductivity of the soil suspension at certain depth after time tandcb is the conductivity of the virgin soil taken as 0.40ms. By the comparison of conductivity values for the soil sample we get the following results.In general,the conductivity values increases with more duration of the prototype time for all values of N indicating that the diffusion of salt water increases with the passage of time.This effect is more prominent in the initial layers of the soil sample for the lower N values.This may be attributed to the lesser extent of intrusion process at low N values.However,the bottom layers of the soil samples exhibit a tendency to achieve almost a constant conductivity value.For higher values of N the extent of diffusion of salt water in the clay is more and the tendency of the salt water is to diffuse through the full sample length.

6.6. Case Study-Conclusions:

The diffusion of salt water through saturated marine clay has been modeled using a small centrifuge.The following conclusions can be drawn from the present study. 1) The diffusion of salt water in the clay linear can be modelled using a small geotechnical centrifuge efficiently. 2) It is observed that at lower N values the initial layers hold more salt water where as at higher N values there is almost uniform intrusion throughout the sample length.

7.CASE STUDY-ADVECTION MODELLING USING A GEOTECHNICAL CENTRIFUGE:

Details of samples are as shown in table Sample properties Proctor compaction Static compaction Max.dry density(gm/cc) Misture content(%) Degree of saturation A 1.87 16 93.5 B 1.79 12.5 64 C 1.65 16 66 D 1.52 12.5 42.5

7.1. Sample Preparation: To prepare a sample,oven dry soil was taken and mixed with a predetermined amount of water.After mixing,the soil was transferred to an air tight polythene bag and kept for a minimum of 24 hours for ensuring proper mixing and hence to avoid non uniform distribution of the moisture, the samples were prepared in a standard permeability

mould.The soil was divided into three parts and packed into the mould by adopting a particular compaction procedure. This soil sample was carefully extruded on to a glass plate and small thermocol balls were fixed at 2cm intervals along the length of the sample at four points along the circumference. To verify the uniformity of moisture in the sample, after the sample is prepared, it is cut into three slices and the moisture distribution along the length is determined by taking three samples from each slice to generalize the results.

7.2. Standardization Of Test Set Up:

A Perspex cylinder with an inner diameter of 8cm has been used. Three layers of geotextile are kept at the bottom of the Perspex cylinder on which sample was placed. A geotextile piece with a largely area of cross section than the sample is placed on top to form a cup shape in which the water is held to ensure no flow occurs from the sides of the sample. This arrangement, as shown in figure.

Figure 5:Centrifuge test set-up.

7.3. Centrifuge Details And Calibration:

Details of centrifuge are as shown in table.

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Table 7: Details of the centrifuge. Type Arm radius Max.outer radius Centrifuge range Maximum acceleration Capacity Calibration Speed of centrifuge = (60/2) ( (gN/R)) Where R=[r-t-(2h/3)] =26.3 cm r= radius of the arm=31.5 cm t= thickness of the base plate=1.2 cm h=height of the model=6 cm g= 981 cm/sec2 Calibration of centrifuge is shown in the following table. Table -8: calibration of centrifuge g-value 33.33 50 75 Speed(rpm) 337 412 505 Swinging bucket on both sides of the arm 20cm 31.5cm 250-1000rpm 300g 72g tons

7.4. Test Procedure:

A water head of 0.3 cm ie.15cc in volume is provided on the top of the sample. Tests have been conducted for 3 N- values for 3 different prototype times as presented in table.

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Table-9: Details of centrifuge tests N length Model(cm) Prototype(m) 33.33 6 2 50 75 6 6 3 4.5 time Model(min) 6.7 13.5 22.5 3 6 10 1.33 2.67 4.44

Prototype(days) 5.2 10.42 17.36 5.2 10.42 17.36 5.2 10.42 17.36

Similar tests have been conducted for samples A, B, C, D.

7.5. Results And Discussions:

To study the trends of moisture migration in the soil sample, centrifuge tests have been carried out for N=33.33, 50 &75. Prototype times of 5.2, 10.42 &17.36 days have been chosen for the sake of comparison. To study the effect of state of the soil sample viz. compaction energy, dry density& saturation tests have been conducted for samples A,B,C&D and the results are presented in fig.3to6 respectively from these figures it is observed that in general(m/m0) increases along the depth of the sample indicating migration

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of moisture from top to bottom.

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Figure 6:Advection properties at N=33.33,50&75 For sample A.

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Figure 7:Advection properties at N=33.33,50&75 for sample B

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Figure 8:Advection properties at N=33.33,50&75 for Sample C

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Figure 8: Advection properties at N=33.33,50&75 for Sample D. This trend is much more prominent for less duration of centrifugation for all the samples. However, as the time of centrifugation is increased the soil samples tend to achieve almost uniform moisture throughout their length. The variation of the moisture content (m/m0), along the length of the soil sampleis almost similar for the higher saturation sample A, B&C, i.e. with S>60%.However, for the low saturations, sample D,the bottom one-third portion of the soil sample shows a marked increase in the moisture content values. It can also be noticed that for very high saturation values(S>90%), sample A exhibits equilibrium state with little variation in (m/m0) value as a function of time along the length

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of the sample. However, as the degree of saturation decreases, the same phenomenon occurs with much more movement of moisture from top to bottom in the sample as a fuction of time. This indicates that the equilibrium advection profile, for highly saturated soil samples, can be obtained with in a short interval of time.

7.6. Case Study Conclusions:

The advection mechanism in compacted soil has been modeled, using a small centrifuge. From the results and discussions, we get the following conclusions 1. Advection in soil is dependent on the state of the soil and a small centrifuge can also be employed to model it in an efficient manner. 2. Same soil with different states of compaction exhibits different advection profiles indicating dependence of advection on pore structure. 3. Advection increases with an increase in degree of saturation.

8. CONCLUSIONS:
The mechanism of solute transport through soils is a quite a complex phenomenon and is largely influenced by physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil solute system.To study solute transport in soils centrifuging is used.using the advection phenomenon in the soil,diffusion through saturated clay,the settlements in soft soil foundation is discussed.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I express my sincere gratitude to my seminar guide Sri.R.Radhakrishnan Senior lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, without whose valuable guidance and support the seminar would not have been a success. IwouldalsoliketothankDr.A.K.Raji,Lecturer,Staff in charge of seminar for her assistance during my seminar. I thank Prof. T. DIVAKARAN, Head of the Department of Civil Engineering for the good will and encouragement extended to me.Last but not the least I thank almighty, for giving me the strength and power to complete this seminar on time.

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REFERENCES

1. 2. 3.

S R Nair and D N Singh -Centrifugal modelling of diffusion through saturated clays-Indian Geotechnical Journal, 29(4), 1999. A Poulose, S R Nair and D N Singh Advection modeling using a geotechnical centrifuge-Indian Geotechnical Journal Dr.J N Mandal and V S Kanagi-Centrifuge modeling of vertical drains-Indian Geotechnical Journal, 28(1), 1998

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