JOHNSEN AND RAHBEK: A PHYSICAL PHENOMENON.

713

A PHYSICAL PHENOMENON AND'ITS APPLICATIONS TO TELEGRAPHY, TELEPHONY, ETC.

By ALFRED JOHNSEN and KNUD RAHBEK.
(Lecture* delivered before THE INSTITUTION, 26th May, 1921, supplemented by an account oj later investigations : A MS. received 29th May, 1923.)

In the course of some experiments in telephony, the authors discovered in 1917 that in some cases an appreciable adhesion occurs between two. bodies in contact with each other, when a difference of electrical potential exists between them. Leading up to this discovery and its later development by the authors was the observation that a weak sound was produced when a finger was rubbed lightly on a metal surface while an alternating current of audio frequency was passing between the finger and the metal. Later investigations by the authors and others have shown that the latter phenomenon has been observed by numerous persons, especially in recent times, when, in consequence of the wide application of alternating current, the phenomenon has been observed on numerous occasions. These observations, however, have generally been disregarded, and no systematic investigation of the true nature of the phenomenon seems to have been carried out. The only suggestion of practical use seems to be due to the well-known American inventor, Dr. Elisha Gray, who in 1875 patented the use of a rotating metal drum which would reproduce sound when touched by the operator's finger. Immediately after their observation of this phenomenon the authors commenced a series of experiments with different materials, and soon attained such powerful and distinct effects that a systematic investigation of the true nature and the necessary conditions for the production of the phenomenon was decided upon. During this investigation, which was successfully completed in 1918, several possibilities of the practical application of the effect suggested themselves to the authors, who devoted the following two years to the technical design of various apparatus based on this effect, chiefly for use in telegraphy and telephony, as well as to the solution of certain technical problems which soon presented themselves in this connection. Ultimately, in 1920, apparatus was produced which was extremely reliable and constant in action, and this was for the first time described and exhibited in Copenhagen in 1920, at the electrotechnical congress held on the occasion of the centenary of the discovery of electromagnetism by Oersted. The most remarkable feature of this apparatus, chiefly telegraphrrecorders and loudspeaking telephones, is constituted by the fact that, although powerful mechanical effects are produced by such apparatus, the current consumption is practically nil.

The production of sound when one's finger rubs a metal plate can be shown to be due to a variable adhesion between the finger and the metal. The natural adhesion" is increased when the current is passing, and the direction of the current is in this case of no importance. With a pure alternating current a note is therefore heard which is one pctave higher than that produced in an ordinary (polarized) telephone by the same alternating current. This " electrical adhesion " can, by means of other materials than the finger and by the application of direct current, be demonstrated in a continuous and highly intensified form, as shown in the following experiment. This illustrates the very considerable adhesion set up between a metal plate and a slab of lithographic stone, if the two parts are connected to a 440-volt d.c. supply. Plane, polished

d.c.

FIG.

1.

lithographic stone brought into contact with plane, polished metal shows the electrical adhesion in a much higher degree than does the human skin in contact with metal.
Experiment.A slab of lithographic stone about 2 inches thick (see Fig. 1) is placed on a table. The underside of the stone is covered with metal foil,'(as a cement for fastening the foil, fish-glue or, better, water-glasV may be used). It is essential that the cement should not possess highly insulating properties, as, for instance, shellac and most varnishes do. The upper surface of the stone is plane and very smooth," preferably polished, and on this is placed a plane, polished disc of metal (brass) 2 inches in diameter. If the metal foil' on the-underside and the metal disc are connected to a source of E.M.F. (440 volts d.c), the disc will cling tightly to the stone. By means of a scale balance it can be shown that more than one kilogram is necessary to separate the disc. from the stone. An equally large force is necessary to move the disc alongthe surface of tne^storie, thus showing that a considerable friction has been set up between them. The electrical resistance of the stone is very'high, and therefore the current passing between the stone-and the disc is very' small, in spite of the high voltage applied". As the stone1

* The commercial exploitation of the subject-matter of the Lecture is protected by British Patents 144 761, 146 747, 194 747, and by Colonial and Foreign Patents. I.E.E. JOURNAL, VOL. 61, No. 320, JULY 1923.

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714

JOHNSEN AND RAHBEK: A PHYSICAL PHENOMENON AND

but not quite, proportional to the square of the E.M.F., the corresponding curve in many respects resembling the lower part of the characteristic curve of a thermionic valve. If now (see Fig. 2) H is a semi-conductor, I and II metal plates in contact with H (for the sake of clearness a small air-gap 8 is shown between H and each of the two plates), then if a potential difference E be applied between the plates, the diagram of the distribution of the drop of potential from I to II will be as indicated. Across the semi-conductor there is only a small drop of potential p, while at each point of contact, on account of the large contact-resistance, a relatively large drop of potential, namely ^P, takes place (E = P -f- p). This distribution of potential can

possesses some hygroscopic properties, its conductivity is dependent on the humidity of the surrounding air, so that an exact value of the current cannot be given ; moreover different specimens show different conductivities. Generally, hoWever, the current will not exceed a few microamperes. That this is so can be shown by the fact that there is no perceptible diminution of the adhesion when the current is passed through the body of the operator. If the circuit is broken, the adhesion disappears. It is obvious that there are some points of resemblance between this device and an electromagnet. Both have the property of producing mechanical force by means of electricity. The very small current sufficient for the operation shows that the adhesive effect can, in certain cases, be used with advantage instead of electromagnetism. An essential difference, however, lies in the fact that an electromagnet is able to attract its armature from some distance, and thus do mechanical work, whereas the electric adhesion is only manifest between two surfaces which are in,'Contact with each other. It is true that if one of the surfaces is elastic and only partially in contact with.the other before the E.M.F. is applied, a certain small amount of mechanical work can be effected, as will be shown later, but generally the utilization of the electrical adhesion is confined to the governing of extraneous forces, and its use will be advantageous where only small currents are available for this purpose, and also where relatively large forces are to be exerted on bodies of small mass. While the attraction exerted by an electromagnet on its armature is, within limits, proportional to the mass of the latter, the electrical adhesion is independent of the thickness of the metal: a thin, 'light metal foil will adhere to the stone quite as well as a thick, heavy disc. The principal explanation of the nature of the electric adhesion, as given by the authors in 1917, is as follows : The lithographic stone belongs to a class of substances which will here be termed semi-conductors. These substances are solid electrolytic conductors, and they combine a moderate internal resistance with a relatively high contact resistance to conducting solid bodies applied to their surface, if no conducting liquid, cement or the like is interposed between the surfaces. The true nature of the contact resistance proper has not yet been completely revealed, but it appears that the very thin film of absorbed air which ordinarily covers the surface of solid bodies plays a certain role, as does the fact that two solid bodies are in reality in contact in relatively very few points, even if the greatest care is taken to fit them exactly together. It may be mentioned that the contact resistance exists even with thin, bright tinfoil which is smoothed very carefully on the semi-conductor, while it is absent with mercury. Further, it appears that a relatively large potential difference is necessary to draw electrolytic ions, which in this case are the only carriers of the current, across even the. smallest air space, while electrons pass freely across even a light metallic contact. That the majority of the ions have to cross} a certain free space at the point of contact is also made probable by the fact that the value of the contact resistance is by no means constant, but decreases with increasing potential difference'. Indeed, the current is over a wide range nearly,

FIG.

2. '

easily be verified experimentally by means of an electrostatic voltmeter. It is obvious therefore that there must be a very large electrostatic attraction between the semi-conductor and each of the plates, if it is remembered that the attraction between the two plates of an air condenser is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the plates, the potential difference being maintained constant. The air-gap being in this case theoretically infinitesimal, an infinitely large attraction should be expected. In practice, however, only a limited attraction is manifested, but, nevertheless, an unusually strong attraction can be obtained with relatively moderate potentials. The attraction is, as has already been mentioned, also manifested by an increase of the friction between H and each of the plates I and II. If a sufficiently high potential difference be applied, a considerable force is necessary to cause I or II to slide on H. It is especially this increase of friction that has been utilized

ITS APPLICATIONS TO TELEGRAPHY, TELEPHONY, ETC.

for the various apparatus which will be described in the lecture. - The attraction varies somewhat with different semiconductors, but it is mainly dependent on the interior conductivity of the material and the degree of polish which can be imparted to the surface. Amongst those which the authors have found to be most effective are the lithographic stone, some sorts of slate, limestone and marble, flint, agate, species of jasper and other silica minerals (not pure quartz, which is highly insulating), and many organic substances such as bone, ivory, gelatine, cellophane, pyroxyline, some sorts of paper, etc. When dry, the human skin shows semiconductive qualities, and this explains the production of sound by a finger rubbing a piece of metal. x\s cold metal is apt to condense moisture from the skin, the effect is increased if the metal is slightly heated. The thin skin of the wrist or forearm gives better results than the horny skin of the finger-tips. That skin possesses a large contact resistance to dry bodies is well known, as is also the fact that the electrical resistance between two fingers or even from hand to hand is reduced to a fraction of its initial value if the skin is moistened. The authors have in most of their apparatus used agate, chiefly because this stone possesses adequate conducting qualities, and because it is hard and is capable of receiving a high degree of polish. With it, a surface attraction several times larger than that of the lithographic stone can be obtained. It is difficult to give a satisfactory definition of semiconducting materials, as every conducting solid might be so termed and will certainly show some degree of surface attraction. The semi-conductors proper are, however, easily differentiated from the insulators proper, as the orders of magnitude of their conductivities are quite different. A piece of slate or agate will under normal conditions possess a conductivity many million times larger than that of a similar piece of glass, hard rubber, mica, sulphur or similar substance. Several well-known soluble salts possess such interior conductivity, independent of atmospheric moisture, that they may be classed as semi-conductors, but their surface resistance is so widely dependent on the humidity of the atmosphere, and their mechanical properties are so inferior, that no technical application has so far been made of them. In addition to the above, the chief group of semiconductors proper may be said to consist of materials which are able to absorb and retain moisture, and these again can be divided into two classes, (1) finely porous substances, and (2) colloidal substances, which permit of the diffusion of moisture. Both classes are to a certain degree hygroscopic. To the first class belong chiefly inorganic substances, e.g. slate, marble, steatite, agate, flint, etc. Their conductivity is chiefly due to atmospheric moisture absorbed by their innumerable pores, and the conductivity disappears practically entirely if the material is heated well above the boiling point of water. Agate and flint form a transition to the cplloidal substances. To the second class belong chiefly organic substances, e.g. skin, gelatine, cellophane, pyroxyline, collodion,

715

albumen, etc., which swell more or less when immersed in water, and which also lose their conductivity nearly completely if heated sufficiently in the dry state. On this chief group of semi-conductors a flow of current through the material has much the same effect as heat on the conductivity. If a constant potential is applied the current will steadify diminish, the moisture being, in the vicinity of the electrodes, gradually decomposed by electrolysis. When an appreciable layer next to the electrodes has thus been dried, a considerable diminution of the surface attraction is observed, and ultimately the attraction will practically disappear in the course of some hours or days, according to the circumstances. On the other hand, the conductivity and consequently the full attractive power will be

FIG.

3.

restored if the material is left to itself for a day or two. How this inconstancy has been eliminated in the practical apparatus will be described later. If one of the metal plates (II in Fig. 1) is connected to the semi-conductor by means of a sufficiently conducting cement or glue, the contact resistance, and consequently the drop of potential, will almost entirely disappear at this place. As shown in Fig. 3, nearly the full potential. will appear between the other plate, I, and the semi-conductor ; the interior drop of potential p' is ordinarily only some few per cent, sometimes a fraction per cent, of the total potential E. The values of P, p, P' and p' in Figs. 2 and 3 only correspond if the value of the contact resistance between H. and I is assumed to be independent of the drop of potential, but this is, in reality, not the case. It is obvious that a larger attraction is obtained between I and H in the case illustrated in Fig. 3'than in that shown in Fig. 2'; in the actual apparatus the contact resistance between the semi-conductor and one

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JOHNSEN AND RAHBEK: A PHYSICAL PHENOMENON AND

liquid which fills the interior of the semi-conductor and conducts the current from the central shaft, as will be described in detail later. In Fig. 4, II therefore only indicates the position of the interior conductor. 1 and 2 represent the leads supplying the potential; lead 2 may, for instance, be connected to the base of the spring, s, and lead 1 to a slip-ring, though it is generally sufficient to connect it to the bearings of the shaft carrying the semi-conductive cylinder. So long as a potential difference is applied between 1 and 2, the increased friction between the cylinder and the band maintains the spring, S, stretched, while
500

of the electrodes is, for this reason, eliminated as far as possible. As only a relatively small drop of potential exists in the interior of the semi-conductor, the thickness of the latter has little bearing on the magnitude of the attraction. Indeed, the lithographic stone would give very nearly the same attraction if its thickness, instead of being 2 inches, were only a fraction of an inch. It is, of course, a practical advantage that a fairly thick and therefore robust semi-conductor can be used. This point is particularly emphasized because attempts have previously been made by others to construct electrostatic relays by the insertion of a thin dielectric between two conducting plates. As, however, the attraction across a dielectric is inversely proportional to the square of the thickness of the latter, an extremely thin layer of dielectric (1/2 000 inch or less) has to be used in order to obtain a reasonable sensitivity, and thus the dielectric in such apparatus is very delicate and liable to be punctured. The earliest apparatus of this description appears to be due to the American inventor R. A. Fessenden, who used mica as a dielectric in a telegraphrecorder, which was operated by means of alternating current. It is not possible to operate such apparatus by means of direct current, as a surface charge (similar to the well-known residual charge in mica condensers) will in a short time collect on the dielectric and coun-

FIG.

4.

teract the attraction across the latter. This again, means that telephonic apparatus cannot be developed on this principle, as a continuous polarization potential is necessary in all electrostatic telephones. The general arrangement of the semi-conductor in relays, etc., is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 4. The cylindrical semi-conductor, H, is mounted on a shaft and is kept in continuous rotation by means of a motor (not shown) ; the direction of rotation is indicated by the arrow. Round a part of the circumference of the semi-conductor is placed a metal band, I, which at the point, a, is connected to a spring, S. A weaker spring, s, serves to keep the band, I, taut. Inside the semi-conductor is shown the metal lining, II, which is to be cemented to the semi-conductor. In reality, this metal lining is in our more recent apparatus replaced by a

this spring will contract if the potential difference decreases or disappears entirely. The members to be operated by the relay may thus be coupled to the point,* a, where the band is connected to the spring, S. This arrangement forms the basis of a number of different apparatus. If the point, a, is connected to a recording stylus, an ink siphon or the like, the apparatus may be used for receiving telegraph messages, and if relay contacts are operated in the same way the apparatus forms a telegraph transmitting relay which may be used either for receiving or transmitting purposes. If the spring, S, is replaced by the diaphragm of a sound-box, the apparatus may be used as a loudr speaking telephone. Instead of a cylindrical semi-conductor encircled by

ITS APPLICATIONS TO TELEGRAPHY, TELEPHONY, ETC.

a metal band, a metal cylinder partially encircled by a flexible semi-conductor, for instance thin gelatine, could be arranged, but this is not used in our later apparatus. It would be thought that the electrostatic attraction at the surface of a semi-conductor would be proportional to the square of the E.M.F. impressed, according to the law for an air condenser. In reality, however, the attraction increases much more rapidly; it is in fact nearly proportional to the fifth power of the E.M.F. This is, however, only approximate and only valid from about 25 to 300 volts. At higher potentials the attraction rises more slowly, and ultimately a strong ionization partly breaks down the contact resistance, so that a decrease of attraction may actually be observed. In Fig. 5 the ordinates represent the friction between a small cylinder of agate and a piece of thick tinfoil placed round half of the periphery. The increase in friction due to the electrostatic attraction is proportional to the latter. It will be observed that, as far as the curve goes, the friction is approximately proportional to the fifth power of the E.M.F. The fact that the attraction increases more rapidly than the second power of the applied potential has not yet been fully.explained. The considerable attraction at higher potentials no doubt helps the attracting surfaces to come into more intimate contact. On the other hand, various observations made by the authors point to the fact that this is not the entire explanation. Possibly, a phenomenon analogous to the space-charge in electron tubes may be a contributor)' cause. The very rapid rise of the attraction is, moreover, found only if the surfaces are in very intimate contact. If the surfaces are hard and rigid and do not fit very closely together, the attraction will generally not be found to rise more rapidly than with about the third power of the potential, and if the surfaces are quite rough the square law of electrostatic attraction will be found to be nearly fulfilled. This is, of course, only to be expected, as in this case the greater part of the surfaces is separated by a definite, un-ionized air space. If a semi-conductor capable of absorbing water is soaked with a liquid electrolyte, such as a salt solution, and then allowed to dry, it will generally be found that both its interior resistance and its contact resistance have diminished. If suitable salts are used for this impregnation, the interior resistance is reduced to a smaller amount than the contact resistance, so that the semi-conductive qualities of the material may be enhanced. It is thus possible to impart a desired conductivity to the majority of semi-conductorsa fact of vital importance, because a certain conductivity is needed for most practical applications, as will be explained later in the lecture. The conductivity of such impregnated semi-conductors is, however, still very inconstant when current is passing through the material, because the absorbed moisture is still being dried off, and, moreover, the salt itself will gradually be decomposed by electrolysis. Attempts were made by the authors to secure a constant conductivity which might be sufficient for practical purposes, and they found that some moistureabsorbing semi-conductors could, when in the form

717

of a hollow cylinder, in which water or an aqueous solution was present, absorb and remain soaked with the water or the solution without their exterior surface becoming moist. Agate (but not- slate, lithographic stone, etc.) shows this quality in a very pronounced degree. This material is unable to absorb any large percentage of water, so that its conductivity is not excessive even if it is fully soaked with moisture ; on the other hand, when current is passed through it the small percentage of moisture on the surface disappears rapidly. If a hollow cylinder of agate is filled with suitable electrolyte, moisture will, however, diffuse from the interior to the point where the metallic conductor touches the outer surface, and this is sufficient to prevent the conductivity near the surface from decreasing below a certain value. This diffusion is, however, so slow that the outside of the agate cjdinder keeps perfectly dry on account of the evaporation. On the other hand, only the moisture which, by slow diffusion, has actually reached the surface will be evaporated, as practically no circulation of air can take place inside the extremely fine pores. The loss of moisture by evaporation is therefore extremely small, in spite of the stone being in reality entirely and continuously soaked with moisture. In our actual apparatus such hollow agate cylinders are used. These cylinders are mounted between two bosses on a shaft, so that a space for the liquid is formed between the shaft and the interior surface of the cylinder. The shaft and bosses are silvered in order to prevent corrosion. The electrolyte is substantially a solution of a somewhat hygroscopic salt, which will not easily crystallize in the pores of the agate. It has been found that the formation of crystals in the pores of the agate will produce partial cracks and ultimately cause the stone to disintegrate. The loss of electrolyte by evaporation and electrolysis is extremely small, the average life of the filling being at least two years, after which time the cylinder can be refilled in a few minutes. If desired, the electrolyte can be taken up by some absorbent powder such as flour, as is done in dry cells. In order to prevent the electrolytic formation of free hydrogen inside the sealed cylinder, the shaft of which is ordinarily the cathode, an oxidizing substance such as manganese peroxide is added to the electrolyte. In the foregoing remarks, the authors have not dealt with the influence of the polarity of the semi-conductor on the contacting conductor. If both the internal resistance and the surface resistance of the semi-conductor are independent of the polarity of current and potential, it is to be expected that the attraction will be substantially independent of the polarity, and this is verified by experiment. These conditions can be approximately realized by means of a dry lithographic stone, as has been shown, especially if the stone is heated a little above the air temperature. Upon reversal of the polarity, the current and the attraction will be found to have remained approximately constant. If, however, the semi-conductor contains a considerable amount of moisture, or if it has been impregnated with an electrolytic salt solution and especially if it is hollow and filled with an electrolytic fluid, as the agate cylinder above described, the effect of reversal of polarity is very

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JOHNSEN AND RAHBEK : A PHYSICAL PHENOMENON AND

of the apparatus can be said to be the exact reverse of that of the electrostatic apparatus here described, as the two classes of apparatus operate with decrease and increase respectively of the natural friction. The fact that the same polarity which diminishes the natural friction in the Electromotograph will also diminish the contact resistance in the electro-adhesion apparatus * (as the apparatus will here be termed), has induced the authors to make a short investigation of the nature of the Electromotograph effect. As the latter has no direct relation to the subject dealt with in this lecture, the results only will be briefly stated. The diminution of the friction in the electro-adhesion apparatus is due to a diminution ,of the attraction and not to a diminution of the coefficient of friction, while the latter is the case with the Electromotograph, where the passage of current produces a lubrication effect and where no electro-adhesion is in existence. A diminution of the natural friction by means of an electric current can be effected in two ways, namely by the formation of moisture or of gas at the point of contact. If a current is passed through a porous or colloidal body which is soaked with water or an electrolyte, and the surface of which is moist, but not actually wet, liquid will generally appear under one or other of the electrodes, thus to some extent lubricating the area of contact. The conveyance of fluids in porous or colloidal substances by means of an electric current has been widely described in literature dealing with electrocapillarity, electro-osmosis, etc. The effusion of the liquid is, however, slow at ordinary current densities, and the experiments carried out by the authors seem to indicate that no efficient quick-working relay is likely to be evolved on this principle alone; it should at least be combined with the true Electromotograph effect described below. In the Electromotograph, in which the surface of the chalk cylinder is kept constantly wet, the lubricating effect is, on the other hand-, generally ascribed to the electrolytic generation of hydrogen at the point of contact. This theory is the oldest, but in the course of time some doubt has. been felt as to whether it could satisfactorily explain the rapid variations of friction occurring with sound-reproduction, in spite of the inevitable lag which occurs in the generation of the gas. The investigations of the authors have, however, only confirmed the original theory. The process actually taking place at the point of contact can briefly be stated as follows. On the passage of current, hydrogen is generated in the shape of minute bubbles in each of the microscopic pores of the chalk where the metal touches it. The gas is able to exert an enormous pressure, as its volume is many times larger than that of the corresponding amount of electrolyte. The gas and the liquid together form an extremely fine, expanding foam, which counteracts the pressure of the metal spring and thus diminishes the mechanical pressure of the metal on the chalk. Moreover, the foam, which in consequence of its extreme fineness is relatively durable,
* The term " electro-adhesion. " for the effect has been proposed by various individuals and appears to be very suitable. In Germany the term " Elektrokollesc," derived from " Elektrische Klebkraft," has been widely adopted.

marked. If the semi-conductor is made negative relative to the contacting conductor; the current will, after the application of a constant potential difference, gradually decrease, but only to a certain extent in the case of the filled agate cylinder, as already mentioned. On the other hand, the attraction will remain substantially constant from the first moment, a small increase being, however, observed in the course of the first few minutes if certain electrolytes are used. In the actual apparatus the semi-conductor is made negative, and is so chosen as to give a sufficiently constant attraction for practical purposes. The constant potential necessary for constant attraction is generally easily attained in spite of the inevitable variation of current, as the total current consumption is so small that it constitutes only a negligible load, even on high-resistance circuits. If the semi-conductor is made positive relative to the contacting conductor, the current will gradually increase after the application of the potential, and the attraction will generally be found after a few minutes to have decreased considerably. In this case the interior resistance of the semi-conductor remains substantially constant, but the contact resistance gradually diminishes until finally only a very small drop of potential exists at the surface. In some cases the attraction will practically decrease to zero in a few minutes, while the current increases to more than 20 times its original value. If the potential is reversed, the original small current and corresponding large attraction do not reappear immediately, but generally in less than one minute. The cause of the reduction of contact resistance just described has not yet been exactly stated by the authors. It is certainly due to the flow of current; and it appears that moisture is carried with the current to the surface of the semi-conductor, the effect being probably intimately related to electro-capillarity. It may be mentioned that the effect has been observed both with acid and alkaline impregnation of the semi-conductor. In connection with this question, a reference to the Edison Electromotograph may be appropriate. This apparatus, which aroused considerable interest in the 'seventies of the last century, has some constructive resemblance to the arrangement described in connection with Fig. 4. Used as a telephone it consists materially of a rotating, porous chalk cylinder, which is entirely soaked with an electrolyte and the surface of which is kept constantly wet,' the latter being the exact reverse of the conditions necessary for electrostatic attraction as described by the authors. The end of a flat, elastic metal strip carrying a contact point of platinum-iridium slides with a definite pressure on the chalk cylinder, so that a certain natural friction is set up between the cylinder and the contact point. The metal strip carrying the latter is connected to a diaphragm. If now a direct current flows between the cylinder and the metal point, the cylinder being connected to the positive pole of the source of supply, the natural friction is diminished as long as the current is in existence. It is therefore obvious that sound may be reproduced from the diaphragm if an alternating telephone current is superimposed on the direct current. In this case the action

ITS APPLICATIONS TO TELEGRAPHY, TELEPHONY, ETC.

has'far better lubricating qualities than the pure liquid, as the foam is not so easily squeezed out from between the sliding surfaces. In fact, at a certain current density the metal will float on the foam withd*ut making any contact with the chalk, and even then the friction will diminish with increasing current, as the thickness of the foam layer will increase. The reason that no appreciable lag is experienced in the action of the apparatus is in part due to the very small amount of hydrogen which is necessary to convert the very thin layer of liquid between the sliding surfaces into foam, and also to the fact that the relatively quick motion between the cylinder and the small contact point substantially prevents any integration effect, so that the amount of lubrication will at every instant be nearly proportional to the rate of generation of the foam, i.e. proportional to the current. If the speed of rotation is very low, or if the contact point is replaced by a band encircling an appreciable part of the cylinder periphery, considerable. distortion must be experienced, as in this case a momentary strong current will have much the same lubricating effect as a prolonged weak current, of course within obvious limits. Returning to the electro-adhesion effect, and before describing in more detail the motor-driven relays with revolving semi-conductor, the authors propose to describe a class of instruments in which the surface attraction itself produces mechanical motion. Under special conditions they found, in fact, that the surface

719

will come into immediate proximity to the semi-conductor and will also be subjected to a large attractive force. The result is that the entire length of the strip will fold itself round the curved surface, as indicated by the dotted line, and its free end will thus be moved an appreciable distance. If a contact C is mounted as shown, it will be obvious that the arrangement forms an electrostatic relay,

Fio. 7. attraction can cause a motion and thus allow a certain small amount of mechanical work to be done. Fig. 6 shows a semi-conductor, H, with the metal coating, II. The semi-conductor has a cylindrically curved, smooth surface, in opposition to which a thin, elastic, smooth metal strip, I, is situated. If a certain potential difference is applied between I and II, a considerable attraction will be set up at the different points of the line along which the strip is touching the curved surface tangentially, and also at the points immediately above this line, where the air-gap is infinitesimal. This attraction will cause the strip to assume the curvature of the semi-conductor along this line, and in this way additional new points of the strip which the authors have developed for various purposes. On the other hand, the movement itself can be utilized for the detection of a potential difference between I and II, i.e. the arrangement can be used as an electroscope. As the attractive force is very strong in comparison with that obtained in a gold-leaf electroscope, the metal strip can be made sufficiently rigid to permit the apparatus to be used in all positions. The authors have accordingly constructed a pocket electroscope suitable for the indication of potentials from about 70 to 700 volts (d.c. or a.c). ,. In Fig. 7 this instrument is shown in section. It consists of a hard rubber holder carrying on its top the semi-conductor, H, and the strip, I, the thickness of

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JOHNSEN AND RAHBEK: A PHYSICAL PHENOMENON AND

between the surfaces, and, moreover, the friction will, according to the laws for friction in liquids, be nearly independent of the electric attraction. The only expedient in this case is to arrange a brush which during the working of the apparatus continually and promptly removes any dust that may be deposited on the cylinder, the result being that both cylinder and band remain clean and smooth and the wear on both is reduced to a minimum. If now a potential difference is applied between the rotating cylinder and the band, new sources of contamination become evident. . As the metal band must be positive relative to the agate, as described, most bands will be attacked by electrolysis, which alone or in combination with atmospheric moisture will produce oxides or salts, such salts becoming smeared over the cylinder and difficult to remove by means of a brush. In recent apparatus the formation of oxides is avoided altogether by the use of a metal which is not attacked by electrolysis in connection with the electrolyte contained in the agate. Another effect remains, however, which, if special precautions are not taken, will in the course of a short time (about one hour under normal working conditions) increase the coefficient of friction to such an extent that satisfactory operation is impossible. This effect is due to the passage of current between the contact surfaces, the passage having in reality, as far as could be stated by the authors, the character of a discharge,* which causes a slow disintegration of the contact surfaces. This can be made specially apparent if in the experiment with the lithographic stone (Fig. 1) the metal disc is replaced by a disc of hard, polished carbon (a.{ piece of carbon brush or a microphone carbon diaphragm will do). If a pressure of about 200 volts is applied for a period of about 15 minutes, and the disc is then taken away, black carbon powder can be observed on the white stone at all places where real contact has taken place. The lithographic stone is also disintegrated, but to a much smaller extent. Metals are only very slightly disintegrated, so that in the case of the agate cylinder with the metal band the agate only is perceptibly altered. In this case no loose dust is observed, but the surface of the agate loses its brightness to a certain extent and becomes covered with an extremely thin, transparent layer, which gives rise to an enormous increase' of the coefficient of friction. Indeed, if a piece of smooth paper is moved on the surface by means of ]the finger, the frictional resistance will be felt positively as ,a sticking. This thin layer cannot be removed t by means of a brush or cloth, and -will even resist a metal.brush. On the other hand, a small amount of an abrasivet powder (for instance, flour emery) applied with a cloth will remove it instantaneously,, when the polished, smooth surface will be restored at once. Careful investigation by the authors have made it highly probable that this layer consists of colloidal silica,, the agate being nearly pure silica. Like many other substances the silica will, when in a colloidal, state, adhere firmly to a polished surface,
At higher potentials (about 350^-700 volts), a dim light can be observed at the contact surfaces in a well-darkened ioom.

which is about 1/3 000 in. The metal coating, II, of the semi-conductor is connected with the metal point at the base of the instrument through a safetyresistance, R, of a few megohms, arranged in the interior of the holder. The strip is connected with a metal cap, C, which protects the upper parts of the instrument and which has a small observation window, W, at the .top. The end of the strip is bent at right angles and will only be visible behind the glass when the strip is attracted to the semi-conductor. The instrument, which in size and appearance greatly resembles a fountain pen, is especially useful for testing whether an electrical wire or any part of an electrical installation is alive. "Vtfh'en in use the instrument is held in the hand and its metal point is brought into contact with the object to be tested, the body of the user generally forming a sufficient earth connection, as the total resistance of the instrument exceeds 100 megohms. As a high resistance is desirable in this instrument; and its use is only occasional, no impregnation of the semi-conductor is necessary. Referring again to Fig. 4, three main types of apparatus with rotating semi-conduc.tor have been constructed for practical purposes by the authors. These types are : (1) A time-limit relay, (2) a telegraph recorder and relay, and (3) a loud-speaking telephone. Modifications of such apparatus may, of course, be used for special purposes, and the principle of electro-adhesion may obviously be utilized for many purposes for which electromagnetism is suitable. As previously mentioned, the electrostatic attraction will be sufficiently constant in the general arrangement illustrated in Fig. 4, if H is an agate cylinder filled with a suitable electrolyte. Experience shows that special precautions are also necessary to keep the coefficient of friction constant while the apparatus is in operation. This is due to several circumstances. If both I and H are brightly polished, and the apparatus is started without the application of a potential difference, the natural friction between cylinder and band will* gradually increase, due to the deposit of dust on the surfaces. The hard particles of the dust will act as ari abrasive and will thus wear more dust from the cylinder arid band. Even if the frictional system is protected from atmospheric dust, a certain natural wear takes place which is at the commencement very small,- but which increases rapidly when the least dust has been formed. Any dust or .powder originating .from the atmosphere or from wear will in the course of time; be ground to a very fine consistency and will, then1 adhere quite firmly to the agate, in the same way as fine chalk which is rubbed well into a. glass surface, causing at the. same time a considerable increase in the coefficient ;pf "friction. In this state the frictional system will produce a grinding or v squeaking sound and regular working will be impossible. The process ,is analogous to what takes place when a shaft .runs in a bearing which is hot lubricated. Lubrication used in connection with the electro-adhesion apparatus does not provide a remedy, as any lubricant, even if insulating, will almost entirely; spoil the electroadhesion, effect,, as it prevents .the;^intimate contact

ITS APPLICATIONS TO TELEGRAPHY, TELEPHONY, ETC.

especially to a glass-like surface such as that of the agate, and will in this state produce an enormous frictional resistance ; this appears to happen particularly if the substance in its non-colloidal, state is very hard, and the phenomenon is also experienced with numerous other materials. The enormous adhesion of certain colloidal substances to glass-like surfaces, arid their large frictional resistance, can easily be demonstrated in the following manner. If fine, precipitated, dry fuller's earth (a white powder consisting of colloidal clay) is rubbed well into a clean glass (mirror) surface by means of a piece of rough paper, a white patch will appear which can only with extreme difficulty be entirely removed by means of a brush, cloth or the like. If a piece of smooth paper is moved over the glass surface by a finger, a large resistance to motion will be" felt when the patch comes under the finger. The last, nearly invisible, traces of the patch are most difficult to remove, but are easily detected by the friction test. On the other hand, the patch and every trace of abnormal friction is instantaneously removed by rubbing with a hard abrasive powder (knife-powder, tripoli, etc.) by means of a cloth. As a result of these investigations, the authors in their earlier apparatus made use of a sort of rubbereraser, containing an abrasive which, in connection with a brushing device, kept the agate constantly smooth and polished, and very good results, were obtained in this way. Another method of applying the abrasive has recently been carried out with success, the abrasive being moulded to a cylinder of soft stone, from which minute quantities are continuously supplied to the agate by means of a . rotating rubber helix. Experiments, which are not, yet concluded, seem to indicate that the use of abrasive can be avoided; altogether by employing friction bands of certain very hard metals, thereby introducing a material simplification. The bands used in the apparatus,, which, will now be described more in detail, are little more than 1/1 000 inch (0-025 mm) thick and to l inch broad ; they cover from one-quarter to one-half of the circumference of the cylinder. The diameter of the agate cylinder is about 1 inch. The frictional resistance set up by a potential of 220 volts is about 1 to 15 1b. in this apparatus, according to the size of the band. Ordinarily, however, an E.M.F. of less than 100 volts is used for the operation.
THE TIME-LIMIT RELAY.

721

cylinder is preferably driven by clockwork or by a very small low-tension motor with a worm gear as used in electric meters, and the speed chosen for certain purposes is about one revolution in 1 or 2 minutes. If the current is interrupted, the point, a, moves quickly back to its initial position. The potential necessary for actuating the relay is normally about 50 volts, although higher sensitivity can be obtained. The mechanical force available is ample for the operation of any ordinary contacts. If very heavy currents are to be dealt with, the contact device operated by the point, a, is replaced by a trigger device which is released by the point, a, and which in turn releases a heavy contact device or switch. The relay is more specially intended for the operation of bell alarms in radiotelegraphy and telephony, as well as in carrier-current telephony, and also in some special cases of remote control, If in any of these cases the incoming highfrequency energy is sufficient to actuate a sensitive high-frequency indicator (e.g. a sensitive hot-wire instrument), the latter can be fitted with a delicate contact arrangement and the time-limit relay be used as a secondary relay, which again can actuate a bell alarm or any special electric arrangement. The very small current actuating the time-limit relay (about 10 ~ 6 ampere) will not cause even very delicate contacts to stick, the relatively high potential (about 50 volts) ensuring reliable electrical contact even with very light contact pressure. In such cases the use of valves for alarms or any remote control may be dispensed with. If, in other cases, the relay is to be actuated directly by a valve current, the diagram of connections is the same as will be described under the heading " Telegraph Recorder aiid Relay." . It will be seen that a. continuous signal of. at least the length oi the time lag is necessary to operate the. relay,, as. any premature interruption of the signal will cause the relay to return quickly to its initial position without closing the contacts. A time-limit relay has also been constructed on the principle of two plane circular discs sliding on each other, one being stationary and connected with the relay contacts, and the other being rotated by clockwork. One disc may be semi-conductive and the other of metal, or both discs may, if desired, be of semiconductive material. The case of electro-adhesion between two semi-conductors has not been dealt with previously in the lecture; it presents no material difference from the case of electro-adhesion between a semi-conductor and a metallic body. The continual cleaning of the discs, however, presents such practical difficulties that the cylinder-and-band principle is preferable.
THE . TELEGRAPH. RECORDER AND RELAY.

If, again referring to Fig. 4, the point, a, is connected with relay contacts in such a way that contact is not made until the point, a, has moved a definite distance from its original position, a time lag is very simply introduced into the action of the relay, if the cylinder, H, revolves at a suitable (moderate), speed; If a. sufficiently high d.c. potential.is applied between 1 and 2, the band .will cling tightly to the; cylinder, and. the relative sliding .will cease instantaneously,, after which the point, a, will move steadily at the low peripheral speed of the cylinder until contact is made. The time lag can obviously be altered by adjusting either tide free path of the point,, a, or the speed of rotation. In the actual apparatus the

. A fairly wide field for the use of electro-adhesion is found in telegraphy. Apparatus for receiving (recording), relaying or transmitting purposes can be constructed, and the electro-adhesion principle can be combined with known systems of printing telegraphs, transmission of photographs, etc. Such apparatus can, however, be regarded as modifications or' applications

722

JOHNSEN AND RAHBEK : A PHYSICAL PHENOMENON AND

receiver? In each of these cases the record of the apparatus proper may be used as a control record. As the moving parts of the recording system (band, lever and siphon) can be made very light (3 grammes or less), and the operating mechanical force very strong (several pounds if desired), a very large acceleration of the writing mechanism can be obtained, so that a high recording speed is attainable, provided that the peripheral speed of the rotating cylinder is sufficiently high (about 300 r.p.m. of a 1 inch cylinder will suffice for 'the highest commercial speeds). For the attainment of high recording speeds, consideration must, however, also be given to the electrical properties of the electro-adhesion system as well as of the circuit in which the apparatus is inserted. The contacting surfaces of the band and the semiconductor together form a condenser which, in spite of its small linear, dimensions, possesses an average capacity of about 2 000 cm in a normal recording

of the general arrangement of the telegraph recorder and relay shown diagrammatically in Fig. 8. Here H, I and II [Fig. 8 (a)] represent the friction system. The band I is fastened to a bell-crank lever, V, pivoted at the point, a. The light spring, f, holds the band taut. The horizontal arm of the lever is normally

Bl

V//////////////////'/'/'"""

FIG.

FIG.

9.

pressed against a fixed stop, s1( by means of the strong, apparatus. The reason for this relatively high capacity adjustable spring, F. The vertical arm carries the is, of course, the very small effective distance between siphon or other recording device. In Fig. 8 (b) the record- the two condenser charges. During the recording of ing arrangement, with siphon and paper drive is shown in the signals this condenser is continually charged and side elevation, together with a sample of the record. discharged, and the corresponding current must pass The operating potential difference is applied between the through the interior of- the semi-conductor. Conseleads 1 and 2 [Fig. 8 (a)] and causes the frictional quently, a very high internal resistance of the semipull in the band to overcome the pull of the spring, F,

+ 1OO

FIG.

8 (6).

FIG.

10.

so that the horizontal arm of the lever will ascend until it strikes an adjustable stop, s2, the position of which determines the amplitude of the recorded signs. Upon the cessation of the operating current, the strong spring, F, will quickly draw the lever back to the stop, s^ On the vertical arm of the lever is further shown a contact 3, which can touch in turn the contacts 4 and 5 and thus supply double current impulses from a local battery either to a local receiver working with double current, or to a cable or line, operating a distant

conductor will produce a certain lag in the charge and discharge of the electro-adhesion system and therefore also in the action of the apparatus, thus limiting the maximum recording speed attainable. The low internal resistance necessary for high-speed recording is, however, obtained by the chemical impregnation of the agate, and it was in fact only the introduction by the authors (in 1919) of the hollow agate cylinder containing electrolyte which made high-speed recording by electro-adhesion possible over any extended period.

ITS APPLICATIONS TO TELEGRAPHY, TELEPHONY, ETC.

Experience shows that the total resistance (including the contact resistance) of the friction system must be reduced to about 650 000 ohms for the satisfactory recording of about 400 words per minute, the apparatus consuming under these circumstances a current of about 10- 4 ampere at about 65 volts, and the contact area being about 1 square inch. For use on. ordinary telegraph lines the connections are usually as shown in Fig. 9. The transmitting key, N, can either supply E.M.F. to the line, L, from the battery, B, or connect the line with earth. At the receiving

723

the charge on the friction system in this case must pass through the large contact resistance of the system, whereas the charge has only to pass through the much smaller internal resistance of the semi-conductor if the discharge can take place through an external circuit. The latter is always the case if the apparatus is constantly shunted with a suitable external resistance, and thus the apparatus can, without any difficulties of the kind just mentioned, be operated in connection with a valve with an anode resistance, as illustrated in Fig. 10.

20

35
50

U
ft

II

M
CO

65
100

.a
d < D

is

II II

150
200

250 300 600

FIG.

11. In this figure R is the anode resistance of the valve the high-tension supply to which can be regulated by means of the potentiometer, Sd. Tig is the telegraph recorder. The telegraph impulses are applied to the terminals X and Y, which are connected with the grid and the filament respectively of the valve. The small battery, b, ensures that the grid is normally kept at a suitable negative potential relative to the filament terminal Y, X and Y being supposed connected. Normally, therefore, the anode current and consequently the drop of potential across R is very small, thus pro-

station one terminal of trie apparatus is connected to the line and the other to earth. The earthing of the line at the transmitting station is very essential. If the line were simply disconnected from the battery during the pauses between the signals, the charge accumulated on the line would have to be discharged through the very high resistance of the apparatus, and this would require a considerable time. Even if the line has a negligible length and capacity, a considerable lag in the discharge of the friction system proper will be experienced if the line is completely interrupted, as

724

JOHNSEN AND RAHBEK: A PHYSICAL PHENOMENON AND

means of a lever. The electric circuit consists of a battery B of about 70 volts in series with the secondary, S, of a telephone transformer, the primary, P, of which is connected with a microphone and a battery. The transformer has a high step-up ratio, so that the necessary high alternating E.M.F. is superimposed on the ^constant battery E.M.F. The latter forms the polarization E.M.F. necessary in all electrostatic telephones (and transmitters), which here, as is well known,

ducing a negligible electro-adhesion in the telegraph receiver. If telegraph impulses of sufficient strength are applied between X and Y in such a way that the grid is made more positive during the signals, the drop of potential across R will increase sufficiently to operate the apparatus. This will also be the case if a sufficiently strong alternating E.M.F. is applied between X and Y, the valve acting as a rectifier. Fig. 10 therefore represents the general diagram of connections for" valve reception. If the valve is acting as a rectifier, the condenser, C, may be added in order to smooth out the fluctuations of the potential across R due to the alternating current, though the capacity of the electro-adhesion system proper is in many cases sufficient for this purpose. A very perfect rectification is by no means necessary for satisfactory reception, and a large capacity, C, will, on the other hand, reduce the maximum speed of reception, as will be readily understood: The electro-adhesion telegraph is used with advantage for telegraphic reception at high speeds, and, on account of its small current consumption, in connection with high-resistance circuits (valve circuits included). . In Fig. 11 are shown samples of records obtained in a laboratory test direct from a transmitter, giving the standard word " Paris " at various speeds. The speed of the movement of the paper was varied somewhat for each sample, and therefore the "space occupied by each symbol does not correspond to the speed (indicated on the scale in words per minute). The test was made with one of our early models having & comparatively heavy recording system (9 grammes), so 'that much betterrecords can actually be obtained at the higher speeds. Even at the very high speed of 300 "words per minute, however, the record is, as will be seen, quite satisfactory. The record at the extremely high speed of 600 words per minute was taken with the' same apparatus;' land can, in fact, be easily reads At present, however; such a high speed is of no value in practical telegraphy, though the extremely quick action of the apparatus may be found to be useful for some systems of telegraphic transmission of photographs. . . . - .. If the electro-adhesion telegraph is connected "with a small valve as generally used for radio reception, in the manner shown in Fig; 10> a recording speed of 300 words per minute is easily obtained without using a number of valves in parallel (or a very large valve) for the operation.* If radio signals are to be recorded, a sufficient amplification is necessary and in this case any ordinary amplifier may be inserted between the radio receiver and the terminals X and Y.
Demonstration.The early telegraph model was shown in operation after the lecture, recording radio signals received on a temporary radio installation erected at the Institution building with the kind assistance of the Marconi Company.
T H E LOUD-SPEAKING TELEPHONE.

B
|I|I|I|II

FIG.

12.

plays the same role as the permanent magnetism in electromagnetic telephones. The use of a suitable polarization' E.M.F.; moreover, causes the apparatus to work on the steep part of the characteristic curve of the electro-adhesion system (cf. Fig. 5), where small variations of E.M.F. correspond to large variations of force, and where the curve can, within the limits of the force variation taking place

H+h-

FIG.

13.

In Fig. 12, H, I and II is the electro-adhesion system, and f the spring holding the band, I, taut. The band is mechanically connected with the diaphragm of a soundbox L, either directly, as shown in the figure, or by
* The ordinary anode resistance of about 100 000 ohms is amply sufficient for the discharge of the electro-adhesion system at this speed.

during speech reproduction, be replaced approximately by a straight line, so that only negligible speech distortion occurs due to this cause.* It is obvious' that the highest alternating E.M.F.'s occurring must be considerably smaller than the polarization E.M.F. If the loud speaker is to be operated in connection with a thermionic tube, as for instance for the reproduction of radio-telephony, the circuit shown in Fig. 13 can be used with advantage.
* The actual forces in the normal loud speaker with about 70 volts polarization E.M.F. are smaller than. Fig. 5 seems to indicate, as a smaller band, encircling less than half of the cylinder circumference, is used for the loud speaker.

ITS APPLICATIONS TO TELEGRAPHY, TELEPHONY, ETC.

The battery, B, supplies both anode current to the tube and; by means of the potentiometer, a, b, c, polarization E.M.F. to the telephone. If the tube and the electro-adhesion system can be operated at the same E.M.F. (about 70 volts), the potentiometer can obviously be omitted. The transformer, Tr, fed from the microphone, M, .is replaced by an inter-valve transformer if radio-telephony is being received. A large inductance, L (the primary of an inter-valve transformer is generally suitable), is inserted in the anode circuit, and the telephone, Tlf, may be regarded as being connected across this inductance in series with the part, ab, of the potentiometer. Thus the combination of the alternating E.M.F. across L and the polarization E.M.F. on ab is impressed on the telephone. K is a condenser shunting the alternating E.M.F.'s across " ab " and is only necessary if " ab " has a very high resistance. If no potentiometer is used, the telephone is simply connected between the filament and the anode of the tube, and K is omitted. The anode choke, L, is used with advantage instead of a transformer if the tube is of the ordinary small size. In this case it is not possible to increase the telephone potential by means of a step-up transformer, owing to the capacity of the electro-adhesion system. As the capacity of the electro-adhesion system is connected in parallel with the inductance, L, resonance phenomena might be expected to occur at a certain frequency. If, however, L is a properly chosen ironcore inductance, no such effect will be observed in practice, and, moreover, both the internal resistance and the surface conductivity of the semi-conductor will assist in preventing any pronounced resonance effects. Instead of a sound-box with horn, any other soundreproducing device may be connected with the band of the friction system. The large mechanical forces developed by the electro-adhesion telephone permit of the application of large but comparatively rigid and

725

heavy diaphragms, which will give very good reproduction without the use of a horn, which always produces some resonance effects.
Demonstration.At the lecture a demonstration was given of a " speaking violin." An electro-adhesion telephone, in which the band was attached to the resonant body of a violin, the strings of which had been removed, reproduced violin music and speech transmitted from a microphone in a distant part of the building. As is well known, the violin body will resonate fairly equally over a very extended range of notes, including very high notes, and therefore music and speech are very well reproduced, the speech in particular being very clear and well articulated. As, however, the violin body adds harmonics to every simple oscillation imparted to it, the reproduction in each case exhibits some special " violin character." The timbre of the speech is therefore not reproduced quite faithfully, the reproduction of violin music being, on the other hand, of exceptional beauty, as the " violin character" is imparted once more to the music performed before the microphone.

The electro-adhesion telephone is capable of producing sound of great intensity without requiring the use of special power microphones or power valves ; at the same time, the faithfulness of the reproduction is not surpassed by any loud-speaking apparatus hitherto existing. The authors have constructed a specially powerful model, in which the friction system actuates simultaneously a number of diaphragms ; this model gives very good reproduction even at very high sound intensities at which electromagnetic telephones would be heavily overloaded and therefore exhibit considerable distortion. The authors wish to express their indebtedness to the Technical College (Polyteknisk Laereanstalt), Copenhagen, and especially to the Principal of the Electrotechnical Laboratory, Professor Absalon Larsen, for the great kindness shown them during their many years' experimental work in the Laboratories of the College.