11.

1 The Function of Respiration

The respiratory system is a group of organs that provide living things with oxygen from outside of the body and disposes of waste products such as carbon dioxide -main function is so ensure that oxygen is brought into the body and made available to each cell that needs it and carbon dioxide can leave each cell and be removed -respiration is the general term for all of the processes involved in the respiratory system Respiration and Gas Exchange -several stages in human respiration -first stage, breathing, includes two basic processes: inspirationmoves air from outside of body into the lungs (inhaling) expirationmoves air from the lungs back to the outside of the body (exhaling) -second stage, external respiration, is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the inspired air inside the lungs and blood -gas exchange, the transfer of oxygen from inhaled air into the blood, and the carbon dioxide from the blood into the lungs, is also performed in this -third stage, internal respiration, the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and the bodys tissue cells -final stage, cellular respiration, is the series of energy-releasing chemical reactions that take place within the cells -provides energy for all cellular activities Respiratory Surfaces -two main requirements for respiration; 1. The area of the animals body where the gases are exchanged, called the respiratory surface, must be large enough for gas exchange to occur quickly enough to meet the bodys needs 2. Respiration must take place in a moist environment, so the oxygen and carbon dioxide are dissolved in water -some animals exchange gases through their outer body surface, gills or trachea rather than their lungs -the gases involved with respiration are transported to and from the cells of an animals body by the circulatory system along with nutrients -to increase the efficiency of respiration, all organisms use ventilationthe process of moving an oxygencontaining medium (water or air) over the respiratory surface (gills, trachea or lungs) Respiratory Surfaces Example Outer Skin Earthworm -entire outer skin as respiratory surface -oxygen diffuses into a network of thin-walled capillaries, below the skin, and carbon dioxide diffuses out -usually has a high ratio of respiratory surface to body volumethey must live in damp places to keep their skin moist Gills Fish -extensions or folds in the body surface that increase the surface area in which gases are exchanged -oxygen from water diffuses across the gills into capillaries and carbon dioxide diffuses out Tracheal System Insects -an internal system of branching respiratory tubes called tracheae -tracheae directly connected to outside environment by smaller tubes called spiracles -circulatory system is not involved with transporting oxygen unlike other animals

Lungs Humans -internal respiratory system consisting of a trachea (windpipe) that branches into lungs -lungs are sacs lined with moist epithelium and folds in the lining of the lungs increase surface area for diffusion -oxygen diffuses across the epithelium into the capillaries, and carbon dioxide diffuses out the opposite direction Gas Exchange in Aquatic Environments -aquatic environments contain oxygen in the form of a dissolved gas -most aquatic organisms take in oxygen through the gills -a fish exchanges gases by taking in water through the mouth and ventilating it over the gills -as the water passes the gills, the oxygen is diffused into the blood circulating through the surrounding capillaries -carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood, into the water across the gill tissue and is carried out of the fishs body when water passes out of the gills -the diffusion gradient describes the relationship in which a dissolved substance moves from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration -since blood and water flow in opposite directions, the diffusion gradient of oxygen is kept high Gas Exchange on Land -air breathing vertebrates rely on their lungs for gas exchange -air does not just flow into and out of the lungs on its own -the brain acts as a respiratory control centre to co-ordinate breaking movements and regulate the breathing rate -also monitors the volume of air in the lungs and the gas levels in the blood -the muscular diaphragm and the rib muscles control the air pressure in the lungs which causes air to move into and out of the lungs -the diaphragm is a sheet of muscle that separates the thoracic cavity (lungs) from the abdominal cavity (stomach and liver) -the rib muscles (intercostals muscles) are found between the rubs and along the inside surface of the rib cage Air Pressure in the Lungs -the air pressure within the lungs is under the control of the diaphragm and the rib muscles

-inhalation begins when the rib muscles and diaphragm contract and the diaphragm moves down -the expands the rib cage and increases the volume of the chest cavity -the same amount of air is contained in a larger space when the volume is increased -the air pressure in the lungs decrease, causes the air to rush into the lungs from the external environment since air moves from regions of higher pressure to regions of lower pressure

-exhalation begins when the diaphragm and rib muscles relax -this reduces the volume of the chest cavity, increasing the air pressure inside the lungs -the air moves from the higher pressure area (the lungs) into the lower pressure environment outside of the body Respiratory Volume -regular breathing does not use the full capacity of your lungs -when your body needs more oxygen (after physical activities), the volume of air that in drawn into your lungs can increase The Spirograph -a spirograph represents the volume and speed (rate of flow) of air that is inhaled and exhaled, measured by a spirometer -the tidal volume is the volume of air that is inhaled and exhaled in a normal breathing movement when the body is relaxed -inspiratory reserve volume is the additional volume of air that can be taken into the lungs beyond a tidal inhalation (deep breath) -expiratory reserve volume is the additional volume of air that can be forced out of the lungs beyond a tidal exhalation -vital capacity is the total volume of gas that can be moved in or out of the lungs (total lung volume capacity) -residual volume is the amount of gas that remains in the lungs and passageways of the respiratory system after a full exhalation -always has to have some residual volume presentwithout it, the lungs and respiratory passageways would collapse

11.2 The Human Respiratory System: A Closer Look

The Passage of Air through the Upper Respiratory Tract -the respiratory tract consists of several structures and extends from the nose to the lungs -air enters the respiratory system through the nostrils -can also enter through the mouth -then inside the nasal passages, the air is warmed, moistened and cleansed of dust and other small particles -very thin turbinate bones project into the nasal passages and increase the surface area of these chambers -these bones secrete mucus, which moistens the air and traps particles of dust -a dense network of capillaries in the lining of the turbinate bones supply warm blood to the nasal passage -this warms the air to body temperature and protects the fragile structure of the respiratory tract from damage by cold air -then the warm, moist and clean air goes through the pharynx (throat) -the pharynx is the passageway behind the mouth that connects the mouth and nasal cavity to the larynx and esophagus -at the base of the pharynx (behind the tongue) is the entrance to the trachea (windpipe) -the trachea carries air from the nasal passages or mouth to the bronchi, then to the lungs -at the entrance of the trachea, is the glottisthe opening of the trachea through which air enters the larynx -opens to allow air to enter through -closed by the epiglottis, which covers the glottis to prevent food from entering the trachea The Larynx -situated between the glottis and trachea -the larynx is the structure that contains the vocal cords -is made up of tough, firm connective tissue and is used for sound production in mammals -the vocal chords consist of two folds of membrane stretched across the larynx -during breathing, muscular tissue holds the vocal cords apart, allowing air to pass freely through the larynx -to make sounds, the vocal cords are moved closer together so the pressure of the air being expelled from the lungs causes the cords to vibrate -the pitch of the sound varies with the length of the cords; longer cords produce lower sounds and shorter cords produce higher pitched sounds -from the larynx, the air moves down the trachea which is strengthened and held open by semicircular loops of cartilage -the trachea is about 10 to 12cm and runs from the throat to the middle of the chest -then, it splits into two branches, known as the bronchi

The Lower Respiratory Tract -the bronchus (pl. bronchi) is the passageway that braches from the trachea to the lungs -the lungs are divides into regions called lobes; right lung has three lobes and the left has two -the left lung only has two to leave space for the heart -each lung is surrounded by a thin, flexible, double-layered sac called the pleural membrane -the outer layer of the membrane is attached to the inside of the chest wall and the inner layer covers the lungs -inside the lungs, each bronchus subdivides many times to form a network of microscopic tubules called bronchioles -each bronchiole ends in a grape-like cluster of tiny sacs called alveoli (sing. alveolus)a tiny sac where respiratory gases are exchanged -surrounding each alveolus is a network of fine capillaries; the walls of the alveoli and capillaries are one cell thick -across these very thin membranes is where the respiratory and circulatory system interact; oxygen from the air diffuses into the blood and carbon dioxide from the blood diffuses into the lungs A Detailed Look at Gas Exchange in Humans -during external respiration, the walls of the alveoli and the capillaries allow gases to diffuse through their cell membranes easily -the air that enters the alveoli has a higher concentration of oxygen than the blood in the capillaries next to the lungs (oxygen in the blood of the capillaries has diffused out into the tissue cells) -this makes the oxygen diffuse out of the alveoli and into the blood since oxygen moves from regions of high concentration to a region of low concentration -the blood in the capillaries has a higher concentration of carbon dioxide than the air in the alveoli since the blood that diffuses into the capillaries is returning from the body tissues, where the oxygen has been used -the carbon dioxide then diffuses into the alveoli (because of diffusion gradient) from the capillaries and is exhaled into the air -once the gases have exchanged between the capillaries and the alveoli, the blood in the capillaries (now containing oxygen) travels back to the heart, then to the tissue cells -from there, oxygen diffuses from the blood into the tissue cells to be used up and exchanged for carbon dioxide once again How Blood Transports Respiratory Gases -during respiration, oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported by the bloodstream -about 99% of the oxygen that reaches the cells is carried by hemoglobinan iron containing protein found in red blood cells, which binds to and transports oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body -the remaining 1% is dissolved in the blood plasma -when carbon dioxide leaves the tissue cells and diffuses into the capillaries, it enters the red blood cells -23% of the carbon dioxide is carried by the hemoglobin while the rest is carried in the blood fluids -when carbon dioxide reaches the lungs, it diffuses into the air in the alveoli and is exhaled

11.3 Respiratory System Disorders

-the average adult breathes once every 5 seconds (12 times/min) -changes in the external environment, as well as personal lifestyle choices, can have a significant effect on how well the respiratory system functions and how well the whole body functions Disorders of the Upper Respiratory Tract -the most common throat illnesses are caused by viruses and bacteria carried in the air -tonsillitis is a bacterial/viral infection of the tonsils -the tonsils help prevent bacteria and other harmful substances from entering the respiratory system -symptoms include red and swollen tonsils, sore throat, fever and swollen glands in the neck

-severe tonsillitis is treated by surgically removing tonsils, which may increase the risk of throat infections later in life -laryngitis is an inflammation of the larynx that can cause the voice to become very raspy or hoarse -is caused by an infection or allergy, or by overstraining the voice -when the larynx is inflamed, the vocal cords cannot vibrate as they usually do -not a serious condition, usually clears in a couple of days Disorders of the Lower Respiratory Tract -four common disorders; pneumonia, bronchitis, asthma, and emphysema Pneumonia -an inflammation of one or both lungs and the alveoli become filled with thick fluid -this makes gas exchange between the blood and the alveoli difficult, makes the body starved of oxygen -two types: lobular and bronchiole -lobular pneumonia affects a single lobe of the lung, caused by bacterial infection -bronchial pneumonia affects patches of both lungs in the areas around the bronchi or bronchioles -main cause of pneumonia is bacterial/viral infection -bacterial infections can spread out of the lungs and into the bloodstream, affecting other tissues -viral pneumonias are less severe and can be treated with anti-bacterial medications -can lead to secondary bacterial infection that must be treated separately Bronchitis -an inflammation of the lining of the bronchial tubes -the passageways to the alveoli become swollen and clogged with mucus -two forms: acute and chronic -acute bronchitis can be treated with antibiotics and is usually caused by bacterial infections -chronic bronchitis is a long-term disorder caused by regular exposure to concentrations of dust or chemical compounds (workplace) or cigarette smoke -referred to as a chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) -the cilia lining of the bronchi are gradually destroyed due to the long-term, regular exposure -with damaged cilia, they wouldnt cleanse the air as thoroughly and the bronchi would grow increasingly inflamed and vulnerable to infection -mucus accumulates in the bronchi causing the person to develop a persistent cough to try to clear it -chronic bronchitis cannot be cured, but it can be treated Asthma -a severe allergic reaction in which contraction of the bronchioles makes breathing difficult -the inflammation narrows the air passage of the bronchi and bronchioles, reducing airflow -during an asthma attack, muscles around the airway contract and cells in the airways may increase mucus production, further blocking the airflow -prescribed puffers that contain drugs that act as bronchodilatorsthey cause the narrowed bronchi and bronchioles to increase in diameter/dilate which makes breathing easier -relaxes the bronchiole muscles, reducing inflammation and opens airways Emphysema -a chronic respiratory disease in which the walls of the alveoli lose their elasticity -the walls of the alveoli breakdown, reducing the respiratory surface for gas exchange and cause an oxygen shortage in the tissues -exhaling becomes difficult due to the collapsed airways, trapping air in the lungs and blocking airflow -most common cause is smoking -is classified as a COPD -is incurable but symptoms can be relieved Cystic Fibrosis -a genetic disease that causes a thick build-up of mucus in the lungs, resulting in infection, inflammation and damage to the lung tissues

-mucus build-up clogs the lungs which leads to the difficulty in breathing and also traps disease-causing agents, making it difficult to clear bacteria that may cause lung infections -no cure, but symptoms can be relieved by medication that thins the mucus and antibiotics that reduce bacterial infection Lung Cancer -a disease in which uncontrolled cell growth and division occurs in the lungs -the lung cells continue to grow and divide uncontrollably, creating a mass of cells that form a carcinoma (tumor) -can grow up to 8cm, significantly reducing the respiratory surface of the lungs -cancerous cells can break away from the tumor and travel, spreading the cancer to other parts of the lungs and to other organs and tissues -metastasis is the spread of cancerous cells from their original site to other parts of the body, the cells that spread are called metastatic cells -lung cancer is difficult to detect in its early stages and difficult to treat since lung tissues are located deep in the thoracic cavity -symptoms include persistent cough, difficulty breathing, chest pain, and loss of appetite -x rays do not show tumors unless they are large and beginning to spread -80% of people die within five years of diagnosis, making it the leading cause of cancer deaths in Canada -main cause is smoking tobacco, since tobacco smoke is a carcinogen (cancer-causing agent) Diagnosing Respiratory System Disorders -main tool used is a specialized X ray technique called a computed axial tomography (CT scan) -used for imaging organs and other tissues in the body -during a CT scan, the person lies on a special bed while a rotating X ray takes multiple images of the body through 360 degrees -images produce a complete cross-sectional picture of the bodys interior, including the soft tissue, bone and blood vessels -a spiral CT scan can produce clear, detailed views of blood vessels and internal tissues -enables doctors to detect lung cancers earlier Two-photon Microscopy -an imaging technology that uses special microscopes that emit photos (particles of light) to penetrate samples of biological tissue -TPM produces a 3D image of cells in the body without having to physically extract a sample -gives information about cell structure and reveals how biochemical processes take place in living cells -used to observe how different drugs applied to the skin are absorbed and used by the tissues -bronchoscopy (bronchiole endoscope) is a technology for viewing, diagnosing and treating the tissues and organs of the respiratory system -examines the trachea and lungs to diagnose lung disorders -attachments to the endoscope allow doctors to take samples of mucus and tissue for further examination -often used to diagnose asthma Technologies for Treating Lung Cancer -three main technologies: radiation, chemotherapy and surgery -all treatments involve killing or removing the cancerous cells -radiation therapy uses X rays or other types of radiation to destroy cancer cells -a high dose of radiation is delivered by a machine to the area affected -can be delivered both externally and internally, using an endoscope with a plastic tube containing radioactive material to the site of the cancer -can be used in combination with chemotherapy and after surgery -chemotherapy is a treatment in which drugs that destroy cancer cells are taken -used in more advance stages of cancer -the drugs stop or slow the growth of the rapidly dividing cells

-they can also harm other healthy cells that divide quickly, such as the cells in skin, mouth and the digestive tract -side effects include loss of hair, nausea and mouth sores -lung surgery involves removing the area of the lung that contains tumors -may involve a small part of the lung, a lobe or even a entire lung -if all the cancerous cells are removed, the person will be free of cancer -if some metastatic cells remain, the cancer may begin to spread again after surgery -laser surgery involves using lasers to destroy lung tumors -helps reduce damage to lungs, minimizes scarring and speeds up the healing process -the laser emits a high-energy beam of light that is precisely focused on a tumor with minimal impact on surrounding tissues -the energy heats the target cells until they burst -the heat also seals blood vessels and reduces blood loss and swelling