Volunteer Training &

Learning Department

Organisational
Development
Participants’ Handbook – December 2006

Name:

………………………………………………………

© VSO 2006. Any part of this document, including illustrations and diagrams, may be copied, reproduced or
adapted without permission from VSO, provided that the elements used are distributed free or are priced solely
to cover production cost, and provided that VSO is acknowledged as the copyright holder. For any usage with
commercial ends, permission must first be obtained from VSO.
 Handout 00-1

TIMETABLE

Day 1 (evening)
19:00 Session 1 Introduction

Session 2 Organic Organisation

Session 3 OD Definition

21:00 Session 4 OD Cycle

Day 2
09:00 Session 5 Understanding Organisations: The External and Internal
Environment

Session 6 Analysis + Diagnosis

Lunch

Session 7 Organisation Capacity

Session 8 OD in a Development Context

Session 9 Devising an OD Proposal + Activity

Dinner

20:30 Session 9 Devising an OD Proposal + Activity (continued)

Day 3
09:00 Session 10 Presentations

Close 12:00 Session 11 Course Review + Evaluation

END OF COURSE

Lunch

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 Handout 00-2

HANDOUT PACK
SESSION REF. TITLE PAGE(S)
Introduction 00-1 Course Timetable 1
00-2 Handout pack 2
Session 2 02-1 Phases of an Organisation Development 3
Session 3 03-1 Journey of OD 4
Session 3 03-2 Organisational Development Books and Websites 5
Session 3 03-3 Definition of Organisational Development (OD) 6-7
Session 4 04-1 Illustration of the OD Cycle + Key Elements 8-9
Session 4 04-2 Glossary of Terms 10-12
Session 4 04-3 Organisational Development Course Aim 13
+Link Case Study 14-15
Ministry of Education Case Study 16-17
Romeas Hek Health Centre Case Study 18-19
Session 5 05-1 Contextual Scan 20
Session 5 05-2 Public, Private and Not-for-Profit Sectors 21
Session 5 05-2 Comparison of Formally-Organised Sectors 22
Session 5 05-3 Onion Framework 23-24
Session 5 05-4 Resistance to Change and Strategies 25
Session 5 05-5 Three Circles Framework 26
Session 5 05-6 Key Learning Points/Learning Log 27
Session 6 06-1 OD Values 28
Session 6 06-2 Multiple Roles of an OD Facilitator + OD Spectrum –
Supporting Information 29-30
Session 6 06-3 Stepping Stones of OD 31
Session 6 06-4 Stepping Stones – Supporting Information 32
Session 6 06-5 Situational Matrix – Instructions for Participants 33
Session 6 06-6 Metaphor Matrix 34
Session 6 06-7 Key Learning Points 35
Session 7 07-1 Visualisation Sheet 36
Session 7 07-2 Organisation Capacity Building – Background Material 37
Organisational Capacity Assessment Checklists 38
Organisational Capacity Assessment Strategies 39
Session 7 07-3 Key Learning Points 40
Session 8 08-1 Levels of Culture 41
Session 8 08-2 Characteristics of Organisational Culture 42-43
Session 8 08-3 Why Organisational Culture is Difficult to Manage 44
Session 8 08-4 How do we understand our culture 45-47
Session 8 08-5 Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions 48
Session 8 08-6 Key Learning Points/Learning Log 49
Session 9 09-1 Devising OD Proposal + Activity 50
Appendix 00-1 Case Studies 51-65
00-2 Metaphors – Proverbs – Quotes – Poems 66-69
00-3 Personal Learning Log 70

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Phases of an Organisation’s Development

Organisations are similar to organic systems in their uniqueness, individuality and complexity.
They need to understand and adapt to the surrounding environment and context in order to
survive. An organisation’s development is often described in human development or growth
terms. As an organisation is created (birth) it goes through different stages or phases of growth,
such as adolescence, adulthood, parenthood, the prime of life and in some cases a natural
progression towards death with the organisation ceasing to exist, either because of external
factors or it has fulfilled it’s purpose. Organisational development interventions need to consider
the phase of growth and its implications for an organisation.

BIRTH

PHASE 1 CHILDHOOD Dependence

Great learning and skills acquisition others provide environment
and resources for growth

PHASE 2 ADOLESCENT Independence

Fundamental change in relationship a period of testing and
personalising capacities and competencies, using them to act
and impact on the environment

PHASE 3 ADULTHOOD Inter-dependence

Understands the organisation’s own potential through effective
collaboration with others.

(PARENTHOOD) Supportive
Some organisations give birth to new ones and provide the resources
necessary for the new growth to find their feet.

DEATH
It is critical that all these phases are recognised as developmental and one is not judged as being
superior to any other. The experience of each phase provides learning and capabilities, which are
vital to engage with the next phase. They are continually reoccurring and overlapping in the
course of an individual life, organisation and community. Skilled and sensitive interventions can
remove hindrances and blockages but there is a limit as to how much this natural process can be
speed up. The process is non linear.

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Journey of OD
Demystifying Organisation Development Rick James page 9

Organisations should be Organisations seen as organic

controlled like machines – systems with properties
scientific + mechanistic associated with
approach living organisms
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 Handout 03-3

Organisational Development Books & Websites

Books
Highly recommended
Fowler, Alan, 1997, Striking a balance, Earthscan, London
(practical, down to earth book, with tools and examples, NGO development focus)

James, Rick, 1998, Demystifying Organisation Development, practical capacity building experiences of
African NGOs, INTRAC (good background to OD, principles and approaches, with some helpful case
studies of OD interventions in African NGOs. Explores role and implications of Northern NGOs and
donors)

Recommended
Handy, Charles, 1987, Understanding Voluntary Organisations, Penguin
(accessible style, good ideas on OD and management, in general)
Pretty, Jules et al, 1998, Participatory Learning and Action, IIED
(very good general participatory tool book, ideas that are transferable to OD)
Eade, Deborah, 2000, Capacity Building: an approach to people centred development, Oxfam
Publishing (broader aspect of capacity building at different levels, including organisational development)
Holman and Devane, 1999, The Change Handbook: Group Methods for Shaping the Future,
Berrett-Koehler Publishers ( useful overview of open systems for change theory with a handy comparative
matrix giving a quick overview of eighteen different approaches)

Johnson and Scholes 1997, Exploring Corporate Strategy, Prentice Hall publishers
(exploration of strategic management in terms of both analysis, planning, strategy, development and change
within a cultural and political context)

You can find the following in the Learning Centre in Harborne Hall

Striking a Balance by Alan Fowler … … … … 361.7 3 copies @ HH

Participatory Learning and Action … … … … 371.3 3 copies @ HH
Capacity Building: An Approach to People-Centred Development … 361.7 2 copies @ HH
Demystifying Organisational Development by Rich James … … 361.7 1 copy @ HH
Just About Managing … … … … … … 361.3 1 copy @ HH
Breakthrough thinking for non-profit-organisations … … 361.3 1 copy @ HH
When in Rome or Rio or Riyadh … … … … … 658.049 1 copy @ HH

Websites
There are numerous websites on capacity building and OD. We recommend the following:
http://www.cdra.org.za/index.htm
Excellent website of the Community Development Resource Association, based in South Africa.
Well-written and thought provoking articles on OD, management, development, culture and learning.
Plus good links.
http://businessballs.com/
Businessballs is a free ethical learning and development resource for people and organisations, run by Alan
Chapman, in Leicester, England. The site is a rich resource of downloads materials for all aspects of
personal and organisational development.
http://www.trainingzone.co.uk/
A site for corporate training professionals with an online network of 35,000 members.
http://www.managementhelp.org/
“easy-to-access, clutter-free, comprehensive resources regarding the leadership and management of yourself,
other individuals, groups and organizations” NB this is a US site.
http://www.new-paradigm.co.uk/resources.htm provides a gateway to some resources and links

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Definition of Organisational Development (OD)

There are many definitions and interpretations of OD depending on the organisational sector and
country context. VSO uses the INTRAC definition:

INTRAC definition of ORGANISATIONAL DEVELOPMENT (OD)

A planned systematic and participatory process of change intended:

• To increase organisational effectiveness.
• To develop a continuing capacity for learning.

INTRAC – The International NGO Training and Resource Centre, supports non-governmental
organisations (NGOs) and civil society organisations around the world by exploring policy issues,
and strengthening management and organisational effectiveness.

The definition emphasises the importance of participatory approaches to support longer-term

capacity building. OD is about moving the organisation on by taking deliberate planned steps to
create an environment that will enable staff to understand and deliver the organisation’s
objectives. Responding to and working with key stakeholders forms an essential part of this
process.

There are some common elements in this approach to OD, which can guide the practitioner’s
understanding of the process. These are described as OD Values and the Core Ingredients of
OD below:

OD Values
Emphasised on SKWID and underpinning the principles of participation and process
development, OD is founded on similar values where the attitudes and behaviour of the
practitioner makes the process of OD and the techniques used effective, not the techniques
themselves. The following are some key values:
• Opportunities for people to develop towards their full potential.
• People are complex with differing needs, not just requiring physical resources.
• Emphasis on openness, trust and collaborative effort.
• To meet the needs of both individuals and the organisation.
• Emphasis on feelings and emotions as well as ideas and concepts.

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Ten Core Ingredients of OD

1. Its goal is organisational strengthening
OD emphasises developing the organisation’s capabilities to solve not just the immediate problems it
faces but its future challenges by ensuring ownership of the problem and solutions identified.

2. Improves ability to learn

A key product of OD is that an organisation improves its ability to become a ‘learning organisation’
with a continuous capacity to respond to a changing environment.

3. A systems approach
OD views organisations from a holistic, systems perspective, where issues, events and forces within
organisations are not isolated but inter-related. Interventions or change in one part will affect and be
affected by other parts of the organisation.

4. Focuses on organisational culture

In recent years the importance of organisational culture in determining how it functions has been
increasingly emphasised. OD stresses the centrality of culture to organisational change.

5. Is about conscious not accidental change

It is recognised that organisations develop and change as part of a natural occurring process of
development. OD emphasises the importance of conscious and planned change as a means of
improving organisational effectiveness and learning.

6. Assessment + diagnosis based on action research

One of the important steps in OD is an appropriate diagnosis based on continuous data analysis and
learning: ‘prescription without diagnosis is malpractice whether in medicine or management’ Albrecht

7. Focuses on people not on physical resources

Both central to a participatory and collaborative process and emphasising an underlying element of
change is people’s behaviour, OD emphasises human rather than physical resources.

8. Uses both macro-and micro- activities

OD uses a variety of planned activities designed to help an organisation become more effective.
These activities may be micro, i.e. specific inputs such as a focus on group dynamics, work design or
leadership or increasingly, with recognition of the importance of the changing external environment in
which development NGO’s are operating in, is the importance of macro activities such as strategy,
structure and external relationships.

9. Is a long term process

OD recognises that organisational change is a long-term process and not a one off intervention and
that present OD activities have implications for an organisations future.

10. Focuses on the organisation’s own view of effectiveness

OD is a process that is owned by the organisation itself, emphasising the organisations’ ‘world –view’
particularly on it’s effectiveness and improved performance.

(Adapted from Demystifying Organisation Development, James, Rick, 1998, INTRAC).

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Illustration of the OD Cycle

Implementing + managing

Contextual Information

Orientation
Theory

Review, reflection Analysis

evaluation
OD
Cycle Diagnosis

Implementation
of activities
Design of key OD
Design of proposal
activities

Acceptance + commitment

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OD Cycle – Key Elements

Theory – touched upon in this short course but backed up by the resource table - book references and
useful web sites. It is very important that volunteers take responsibility to build up their background
knowledge of OD generally and specific issues relating to the development context.
Diagnosis – essential not to make the diagnosis before the analysis. Also in a developing country context
the organisation must be involved in and have ownership of both the analysis and diagnosis.
Contextual Information - essential that volunteer do not come into an organisation from a different
country and culture and merely transfer their experience and model of OD onto the organisation. It is
essential to spend time understanding the country and organisational culture. This will be key in the
adaptation of OD approaches as it will be informed by how decisions are made and processes currently
used within the country, organisation.
OD endorced by leadership and other members of the organisation– absolutely key in organisational
development. Therefore the OD practitioner has to really work at building relationships and a mutual
understanding and respect in the orientation phase. Plus they must only go as far as the organisation
wants to with perhaps a nudge towards deeper issues. It is not appropriate for the OD practitioner to set
their own agenda this will inevitably have a negative effect ( look at the force field examples to resistance
to change in session 5.5).
Design of OD activities– must be compatable with the country context and tied into approaches and
activites understood and relevant to the country context. i.e proverbs.

‘Practical men in authority who believe themsleves to be quite exempt from any intellectual
influences, are usually the slaves of some defunct economist’ (Keynes) – laminated quote
in course box

‘‘Prescriptions without diagnosis is malpractice whether in medicine or

management’ Albrecht laminated quote in course box

“The question is not does OD travel well, but do the OD consultants themselves travel well?
Experience is showing that it is more a question of personal values, approaches, sensibilities
and behavious and how they practice OD, rather than anything inherent in OD itself” Rick
James Demystifying ODp147

“OD practitioners should proceed no faster or deeper than the legitimation obtained from the client system
and she stays at a level of consciously obtained felt needs” Srinivas 1995 Rick James Demystifying OD

“recipient organisations gain very limited experience with and benefits from donor imposed
assessments…there is a large gulf between donor prescriptions and performance change. this demands the
active engagement of those involves and effected…it is not simply a question of organisation participation in
their own diagnosis. It relates fundamentally to an organisation owning the process” Canadian IDRC
INTRAC rising to the challenge Praxis Paper John Hailey, Rick James + Rebecca Wrigley

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Glossary of Terms
Advocacy: Tackling the root causes of poverty by taking action to challenge policies and practices of
institutions and people in power. Uses a range of methods including public campaigning, lobbying, media
work, influencing and building alliances.

Appreciative enquiry: an approach which focuses on asking the ‘appropriate questions’ to enable an
appreciative or positive reflection on a situation, past, present or future.

Baseline data: part of data gathering and diagnosis stages of intervention. Gathering information, which
forms the ´starting point´ or baseline.

Capacity: ‘Ability to perform or produce; capability’; ‘Innate potential for growth, development, or accomplishment-
ability.’

Capacity Building: A generic term relating to interventions designed to develop the ability of
institutions, organisations, teams and individuals to plan and deploy resources in order to achieve their
changing objectives more effectively and efficiently.

Capacity Development: a term sometimes used instead of capacity building.

Capacity Growth: a term sometimes used instead of capacity building.

CDRA: Community Development Resource Association, South African NGO support agency.

Context: the environment in which an organisation is operating, including political, economic, social,
cultural, technological and environmental factors.

Country Strategic Plans (CSPs): Produced by each VSO country programme to define their work over
the next 3-5 year period.

Department for International Development (DfID): The UK government’s department in charge of

development issues and funding.

Efficiency: describes how efficient the organisation is in achieving its activities.

Effectiveness: describes how effective an organisation is in achieving its objectives.

Entry point: the level, opportunity, activity or leverage to enter into the organisational development
process

Facilitator: Makes a process happen through guiding, enabling and empowering participants through a
range of skills from observation and active listening to clarifying, probing and paraphrasing. The
facilitator is neutral and therefore does not take a position on the event or issue at hand or have a stake in
the outcome.

Framework: Used to describe Organiational Development approaches. Frameworks offer a ´way of

looking at OD´and are less prescriptive than a ´model´.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP): The measure of how much a country earns in a year.

Heavily Indebted Poor Country Initiative (HIPC initiative): An initiative designed by the IMF and
World Bank to reschedule the debt of the most indebted countries.

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Human Development Index (HDI): A ranking of all nations according to their achievements in
different aspects of human development, education, health and GDP, compiled each year by the UNDP.

Human resources – individual abilities, skills, staff competencies.

International Monetary Fund (IMF): A multilateral institution, which provides loans to members to
help them over short-term balance of payments problems.

INTRAC: International NGO Training and Research Centre www.intrac.org.

Mentor: Supports and advises a less experienced professional. This is often in an informal way and can
take place on-the-job. In helping the professional, the mentor builds his/her capacity and confidence to
do the job and enables growth in knowledge, skills and attitudes.

Mission: The purpose for an organisations’ existence, the goal.

Non-Governmental Organisation (NGO): Organisations that are not aligned to a government and are
often not political, sometimes referred to as charities.

Organisational capacity building: developing the organisational capacity or development to facilitate

growth or change.

Organisational culture: the culture within an organisation that is unique to that ´mini-society´.
Embodies the values and beliefs of an organisation.

Organisational Development: The term used to define capacity building of an organisation, usually
through a planned process of change in order to make the organisation more effective.

Organisational learning: the ability of an organisation to learn from experience in order to assist its
development and growth. Linked to how it manages knowledge and information and its monitoring and
evaluation systems.

OD Activities: Are those activities undertaken to support the capacity of people and systems within an
organisation to work effectively and support organisational learning.

OD Cycle: The stages in the organisational development process.

OD Phases: Describes the purpose and sequence of a particular group of activities i.e. analysis, diagnosis,
planning, action, buy-in, implementation. These phases are not limited by time and may overlap.

OD Proposal: Describes the intended OD activities which is presented to management team/board for
approval

OD Plan: Describes the OD activities and their purpose.

Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs): Documents prepared by a country before they are able to
qualify for debt rescheduling under the HIPC initiative (see above).

Participation: A process of collective analysis learning & action and VSO’s role in this process is to
facilitate and/or be involved alongside other stakeholders.

Participatory Approaches (PA): An umbrella term for any participatory system or method, e.g.
Participatory Rural Appraisal.

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Physical resources: buildings, vehicles, equipment, computers etc.

Planning for Change: VSO’s Country Planning Process Toolkit.

Practitioner: refers to the role of an Organisational Development Practitioner, who may take on different
roles along the OD Spectrum depending on the organisational diagnosis.

Programmatic Approach: Central to VSO’s work in the future and born out of VSO’s Strategic Plan
2002-5 Focus for Change. The approach requires that there are longer and more dynamic relationships
between VSO & its partners that are not only defined by the volunteer placement. Placements will be
more geographically and sectorally clustered to increase impact and networking between partners.

Programme Area Plans (PAP): The individual ‘strategic’ plans for the priority development goal areas
of VSO country programmes e.g. Health, Education and HIV & AIDS. Most countries have only 3
programme areas that form the components of the Country Strategic Plan (CSP).

Stakeholders Self - Assessment: an organisation carries out its own internal audit.

SPROUT: ‘Strengthening Programme Partnerships Project’, VSO’s Partnership Guidelines for

Programme Offices.

Structures and Systems – e.g. monitoring and evaluation systems, personnel systems, financial
management systems.

Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs): The conditions that are attached to IMF loans which are
based on neo-liberal economics and which open up a country’s trade.

Sustainable Development: The concept whereby improvements in quality of life through economic
development are not gained at the expense of the environment or of future generations.

Trainer: Promotes professional growth by building on the level knowledge, skills, attitudes and
experience that learners already have.

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP): An organisation that is part of the United
Nations that runs development programmes.

Values, identity and beliefs – organisational culture, motivation for being in existence, the organisation’s
theory of development and ‘world view’.

Vision: an organisation’s ‘raison d’etre’, its reason for existence and how it would like the world to be
different.

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Organisational Development Course Aim

Course Aims And Objectives

Aims:
• To increase participants understanding of the concept of ‘Organisational Development’ in a
development context
• To provide volunteers with a framework, approaches and tools to increase organisations’ capacity
Objectives:
• To enable participants appreciate the potential impact of ‘Organisational Development’ to deliver change
• To provide volunteers with a range of tools and techniques and the understanding of how to use them
appropriately within their organisation and the developing country context
• To develop volunteers’ confidence to facilitate organisational capacity building in developing countries
• To emphasise the importance of volunteer approaches, attitudes and behaviours in facilitating effective &
sustainable organisational change
• To raise awareness of the importance of ongoing learning and suggest possible strategies to achieve this.

This course builds on Skills for Working in Development and supports VSO’s commitment to learning,
empowerment and partnership. However, this course is designed for volunteers with a specific role in
supporting Organisational Development.
On most courses, there is a wide spectrum of participants from highly experienced business and
management volunteers to those new to OD. The course is about Adapting Skills to a development
context for those who already have experience in Organisational Development and Developing New
Skills, by exploring new approaches and tools. The course is complemented by self-directed learning,
research at the programme office of the country placement on arrival and research in placement.
Session 5 Understanding Organisations; external and internal environment Session 8 Analysis and
Diagnosis may be familiar to some participants and is an opportunity for revision whilst for others it will
be new information. For the next two days participants will have an opportunity to work in teams on case
studies related to Organisational Development. It is important to acknowledge the different levels of
experience in the group and to reach a common understanding of OD before you go into team work and
case studies tomorrow afternoon and evening.

In preparation for the course tomorrow please read the introduction to the
three case studies in Session 4 (Handout 04-3)
You will be working with one of the case studies but need to be familiar with
the content of all of them.

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Positive Link (+Link), India

Briefing Notes for Stage 1

The Organisation
+Link is a non-profit making umbrella organisation for community-based organisations (CBO) of people
living with HIV and AIDS in the Eastern states of India. It was
set up by a small group of HIV positive people from different communities and registered as a local NGO
in 1999. Initially its main goal was to enable a handful of organisations based around Bhubaneshwar to
share information, resources and best practice for raising awareness of HIV and AIDS and combating the
spread of the virus. It was very successful and within four years membership had increased dramatically
and reached neighbouring Eastern states. The focus has also widened to include improving the quality of
life for people living with HIV and AIDS (PLWHA) by providing opportunities for empowerment.
+Link believes that empowered PLWHA are better equipped to take control of issues affecting their lives,
such as protecting basic human rights, participating in policy/decision-making and accessing legal
assistance and healthcare.

+Link is currently funded by FHI (Family Health International) and UNDP (United Nations
Development Programme). +Link’s offices consist of three rooms in a rented building on the outskirts of
Bhubaneshwar with four non-networked computers and a telephone. The organisation is managed by a
director, one of the original founders, and there are seven other full-time staff members, as well as a
growing number of part-time employees. Most of its CBO members are located in urban areas of the
Eastern states but some are more remote with little access to telecommunications.

Contextual Scan
The infection rate of HIV and AIDS is on the rise in India and about to become a serious developmental
challenge. The main cause for concern is the lack of accurate knowledge about HIV and AIDS and the
public and official lack of will to tackle the issue. Most parts of India are extremely conservative; the
subject of sex is taboo and if brought up, is generally met with a wall of silence. Gender is also seen as a
major barrier to combating HIV and AIDS as women in India do not have equal status in making
decisions on sexual practices.

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Bhubaneshwar is the capital of Orissa, one of the poorest states in India. It is well served by train and air
both within the region and to other major cities. The economy is almost entirely based on agriculture,
which has led to widespread migration of the skilled and well educated to the IT belt and private industry
in the wealthier South. Moreover, the local economy is often destabilised by natural disasters with
temperatures reaching 45ºC in May and June and flooding not uncommon in the rainy season (September-
November).

Navigating Change
Despite its success, +Link is still a small organisation and it is finding it increasingly difficult to cope with
the demands of a wider more diverse membership and multi-focused mission. The staff, all PLWHA
themselves, are extremely enthusiastic but few are graduates and their level of education and skills is low.
They have good contact with other local bodies and members within the vicinity of Bhubaneshwar.
However, they are finding it increasingly difficult to keep in touch with members and organisations that
are further away, as well as abreast of developments that are happening in the sector. On top of this,
many of their members wish to see +Link take on a higher profile at national level.
+Link has recognised that it needs help – it is swamped with work and there is a lack of planning, co-
ordination, documentation and clear direction. However, it is not easy to find a person with the right
skills and commitment to assist them. Furthermore, many people do not want to cope with the stigma
attached to working for a HIV and AIDS organisation. +Link has heard of another HIV and AIDS
umbrella group in the south of the country that is employing a VSO volunteer from the Business
Partnership scheme, and has approached the programme office for similar support.

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Higher Education Strategy Institute (HESI)

Ministry of Education, Ethiopia
Briefing Notes for Stage 1

Contextual Scan
Ethiopia is one of the poorest countries in the world. In its most recent past, it has been ravaged by
severe drought and famine, as well as internal and external conflict. Since 1991, however, the country has
been reasonably stable and with the help of the international donor community, it is trying to rebuild its
infrastructure. New federal policies and plans have been drawn up but implementation has been slow,
partly due to a shortage of ‘on the ground’ qualified staff. For this reason there has also been a national
focus on capacity building at all levels.

Education Sectoral Scan

Ethiopia’s development challenges are no more apparent than in the education sector. Only 52% of
children attend primary school, less than 10% secondary school and there is a severe lack of Teachers at
both levels. Curricula are out-dated and irrelevant to the socio-economic needs of the country. This is
especially true in higher education institutions (the numbers of which are continually increasing in both
the government and private sectors) where the content of courses are at the discretion of individual
faculties.
Education Sector Development programmes (ESDP) has been aimed at addressing these needs. For
Higher Education they include the establishment of two new internal bodies: Higher Education Quality
Assurance and Relevance Agency (QRAA) and a Higher Education Strategy Institute (HESI).

The Organisation
The major source of funding for education comes from the government budget but there are many
donors who support this, including UNICEF and the World Bank. Some smaller funders along with a
selection of NGOs have offices in the Ministry, which is located in Addis Ababa and consists of two four-
storey buildings. There is a library, a documentation centre, a restaurant and a staff café in the central
courtyard.

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There is a severe shortage of qualified personnel at the Ministry especially at senior management level. On
top of this, there is a high turnover as skilled personnel are lured to the competitive salaries of the NGOs.
Managers have high status though and are not questioned, with tradition discouraging delegation, initiative
and motivation. Systems are extremely bureaucratic with an enormous amount of form filling needed
before anything can be achieved. Internal communication is particularly poor and a lack of co-ordinated
planning has led to a culture of crisis management. Ministry personnel at all levels generally fall into two
groups: those who are to be found at their desks everyday and those who spend most of their working
lives out of the office.

Navigating Change
HESI will be a new agency, aiming to formalise, regulate and monitor the educational direction of the
higher education institutions and the courses offered. The overall mission of the agency is to make
Ethiopian Higher Education contribute its share to the growth and development of the country by
improving the quality of education. Along with QRAA, it will be based at the Ministry although the exact
location or number and composition of staff have not yet been confirmed. This is a new area for the
Ministry to be working in, and with its lack of qualified and skilled personnel - particularly at management
level - it has approached VSO for support. The seven-year Ethiopian programme and the Ministry of
Education have a good partnership with over 30 VSO volunteers working in senior positions in Teacher
and Higher Education.

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Romeas Hek Health Centre

Cambodia Apple Project (CAP),
Cambodia
Briefing Notes for Stage 1

The Organisation
CAP’s main goal is to secure a healthy environment for the children of the Svay Rieng province in South
East Cambodia. It was established in 1997 when a group of visitors from a hospital in Scotland identified
this development need. CAP was registered as a charity in the UK with all 10 original visitors acting as the
trustees. A small management committee, comprising local dignitaries and the district Public Health
Advisor, was also established in Svay Rieng town. Most of the initial funds went towards setting up a
health room on the outskirts of Romeas Hek, a small urban area about an hour’s bus journey from Svay
Rieng town. The committee had entered into a partnership agreement with the Ministry of Health that
CAP would be wholly responsible for running the health room and meeting all costs (including local
salaries). Patients would also be charged a small amount but much less than in the government-run health
rooms. CAP also sent out a succession of short-term UK volunteer nurses to manage the room and train
up local staff.

Due partly to the keen interest and successful UK-based mobilisation of funds of one of the founders,
Mrs Hope, a recently retired practice nurse from Glasgow, the health room has now been upgraded to a
Health Centre. It has 20 beds and provides a minimum package of activities such as midwifery and minor
surgery. It employs 20 staff including a qualified doctor from Phnom Penh (who has just arrived), two
qualified nurses (both from outside the area), two unqualified nurses (‘trained’ for the health room), an
unqualified local ‘pharmacist’, housekeeper, administrative assistant, security and various grounds staff.
The centre has mains power, as well as a generator, a dug well and incineration facilities. Laboratory
services are available in Svay Rieng town. Up to now the staff and health centre have been managed
jointly by the volunteers and Mrs Hope, who makes quarterly visits and is chairperson of the management
committee. It is still wholly funded by CAP but continues to charge patients nominal fees.
Last year CAP was registered as an International NGO in Cambodia. Its vision is “that the communities
of Svay Rieng can be self-sufficient and free from disease with access to quality health care”. It has the
mission of “reducing the incidence of death and disease, to promote the health of the population by
working in partnership with local communities, government agencies and other voluntary organisations”.
Its philosophy is “people-centred”, and it believes in “respecting the rights, cultures and values of its
partners and in supporting their own efforts irrespective of their health status”.

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 Handout 04-3

page 6 of 6

Contextual Scan
Since 1953 when it gained its independence from French colonial rule, Cambodia has been ravaged by
continual internal conflict. The fragile administrative systems and structures that exist resemble the
hierarchical bureaucracy of the 1950 French civil service, overlaid with a strong patron and client culture.
In recent years the donor community has been very active in the country and ‘participatory approaches’
are becoming overused.

Romeas Hek is a small town in the rural province of Svay Rieng located about 7 hours’ drive from the
capital Phnom Penh. It is fairly cut off in terms of both communication and roads, particularly at the
peak (September-October) of the monsoon season (May-October) when severe flooding is common.
Most of its population are engaged in rice farming, usually at subsistence level.
The society is quite closed and traditional with respect for elders, local leaders and healers; there are few
women in key positions. Government facilities are poor and most of the welfare services are provided by
a number of different faith-based organisations. The HIV infection rate is lower than the average for
Cambodia but is thought to be on the rise in the region as a whole.

Navigating Change
Although the Health Centre has better facilities than other local service providers, it is not being well
attended. The arrival of the doctor has made some difference but there is still a long way to go. There is
also a problem with absenteeism amongst the staff. CAP feels that the center needs a local manager/
administrator but there is no one skilled enough to fulfil that role and CAP does not want the Doctor’s
time to be used in this way. Moreover, Mrs Hope wants to step down as chairperson of the Svay Rieng
management committee and does not feel she can continue to travel out to Cambodia so frequently: She
will, however, continue to fundraise in the UK. She feels that the health centre, which is the
organisation’s main focus of activity, is vulnerable and recommended to CAP and the rest of the local
management committee that they approach VSO. On her most recent visit Mrs Hope initiated meetings
with staff at the Programme Office.

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 Handout 05-1

Understanding Organisations: The External and Internal Environment

Contextual Scan
OD stresses the importance of being able to adapt to the changing environment. The NGO environment
is increasingly being described as ‘turbulent’ with major changes in funding and NGO roles forcing
NGOs to adapt quickly. Before embarking an OD strategy an analysis of the external environment and
drivers of change need to be analysed. It is important that the OD practitioner does not do this in
isolation but gain insight from the organisation staff and stakeholders.

Political
• Political upheaval / conflict
• Change in political regime
• Tax laws which effect the third sector (not for
profit)
• Laws effecting gender, disability, human rights

Economic
• Globalisation
• Pull out of key funder

Social
• Conflict
• Death of Director
• Health issues – Aids pandemic

Technical
• Unreliable phone lines and electricity
• Change in technology – access to www

Environmental
• Logistical issues due to geography and
climate
• Natural disasters – earthquake, flooding
• Reduction in electricity supply

Page 20
 Handout 05-2

Public, Private and Not-for Profit Sectors

Definitions
Organisational science uses the following for short hand:
First Sector - Public / Second Sector – Private / Third sector – Not-for-profit

Public Sector
Purpose To protect, secure and regulate the lives and actions of citizens. e.g. to
manage how society is defined as well as how it functions and progresses.

Characteristics / Assumptions
• Bureaucratic
• Layers of decision making
• Paper pushing
• Slow to react
• Driven by policy
• Individuals don’t take responsibility
• Distant from the problems on the ground

Private Sector
Purpose To make a livelihood and create accumulated wealth.

Characteristics / Assumptions
• Driven by money
• Uncaring
• Fast moving
• Focused
• Well managed
• Competitive

Not-for Profit Sector

Purpose To pursue individual interests or tackle personal or social concerns,
which are separate from gaining a livelihood. This sector divides into:
• Public service providers- Non Governmental Organisations and
Community Based Organisations who established to give service to others.
• Self help or mutual benefit organisations established to give benefits to its
own members e.g. music group, football team.

Characteristics / Assumptions
• Poorly managed
• Under funded
• Well meaning
• Limited effectiveness
• Under pressure from too many demands
• Front line – very aware of needs

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 Handout 05-2

Comparison of Formally Organised Sectors

From ‘Striking a Balance’ by Alan Fowler
The size and content of the three sectors varies from country to country and each is usually distinguished
and regulated by specific regulation. Relative size is primarily determined by the political ideology
dominating society or the regime in power and is expressed through policy preferences, legislation and
public versus private investment choices.

Business
Sector Government
Sector Not-for-
Profit sector

Typical North Sectors e.g USA: Activity limits the role of government while encourages private
enterprise and voluntary initiative.

Government
Business Sector
Sector Not-for-
Profit sector

Typical South Sectors e.g. Tanzania, Kazakstan, India: More typical of societies were the
government dominate and ideology has made public ownership and central planning the primary force for
economic and social development.

It should come as no surprise that the intentions and funding conditions of the international aid system
are designed to make the organisational pattern of the countries of the South and East to be more like the
north.

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 Handout 05-3

page 1 of 2

Onion Framework
This framework shows the interrelationship between the different elements of an organisations capacity.
What we observe when visiting an organisation can give some indication of how effective the organisation
is at the different levels of the onion framework. However when working within an organisation it is
possible to spend time trying to understand the effectiveness of the different levels, the interrelationships
between them and what opportunities there are for organisational learning.
Physical Resources and Financial Resources
• Quality of the buildings: reception areas, signage.
• Equipment: vehicles, computers, photocopiers.
• Organisational literature: marketing material, newsletters, annual report.
Can give an indication of the financial resources of the organisation.
Skills + Abilities
• How people deal with you over the phone.
• Welcome you.
• Manner of receptionist and staff.
Can reveal individual skills + abilities and perhaps give insight to (HR) human resources and staff
competencies.
Structures and Systems
• The receptionist (if there is one) knows the extension number of the person you want to meet.
• Information is available about the organisation.
• How easy it is to find out who is the key contact in the organisation.
• Key person is fully briefed and knows where to find further information and the people with
responsibility for specific areas of work.
First impressions can give some indication the structures and systems in place. Further research may
reveal: monitoring and evaluation systems, personnel systems, financial management systems
Vision, Purpose and Strategy
• Mission and Purpose (in some organisations written up in the reception of the organisation –
would need to question if staff are aware of, ‘buy-into’ or even ‘own’ this).
• Staffs appear confident and motivated about their role and how they contribute to the
organisation.
• The organisation appears to have a clear sense of what it is there for, where it is going and how it
is going to get there.
To get beyond the first impression it may be possible to find material written down regarding vision,
purpose and strategy but when were they written, who wrote them and for whom (a funder, previous
Director, themselves, the organisation); do all current staff and those involved with the organisation
understand, ‘buy-into’ or own them?
Values, Identity and Beliefs
• What the reception looks like? Is it clean, orderly, information on the walls, welcoming?
• What is the manner of staff/people you meet? Confident, happy, helpful, interested?
The ‘culture of the organisation’ is evident in the language, history, way of doing things and unwritten
rules that underpin or glue the organisation together (see Session 8).
Organisational Learning
• Supportive management style, discourages ‘blame culture’ and encourages staff to take on
responsibility for learning.
• Reviews and reflection encouraged at different stages of work and at different organisational
levels – support given to develop staff competencies: visits, exchanges, training, coaching etc.
Organisational learning can cut across all levels of the organisation and the onion framework.

Page 23
 Handout 05-3

page 2 of 2

Onion Framework

Financial
resources
Physical
resources

Skills +
Abilities

Organisational
Learning

Structures
+ Systems

Vision
Purpose +
strategy

Context Values,
identity +
beliefs

Page 24
 Handout 05-4

Resistance to Change and Strategies to Address Resistance

Barriers to Change Strategies to
Address Resistance
• Not everyone agrees that there is a problem or • Increase the forces for change

Force Field
weakness because it is an admission of inadequacy
and less than competent leadership
• The organisation may have problems being
committed to OD as they would rather keep things
as they are and not embark on the unknown
• Monitoring and performance systems allow poor
practice to go unchallenged: effort = achievement
“good works is enough” and criticism is seen as
unfair as everyone is doing their best
• Capacity weakness may be clear but the underlying
causes or apparent remedies may give rise to dispute
• Conflicting time and resource pressures
• Too many priorities
• The scale of the organisation and the range of
different services
• Geographic barriers- many services are based away
from the centre and have tended to work in isolation
• Inner-service rivalry
• Lack of, or poor internal communications
• Constant change
• Challenge seen as a threat rather than an opportunity
• Build coalitions for change with like minded individuals
• Change styles of management and leadership to
increase trust
• Allocate responsibility for change process with those
who inspire confidence.
• Linking changes in strategy to changes in outcome
• Getting a common understanding of the change
process
• Identifying gains from change
• Promote wide and systematic communication
• Provide personal counselling
• Solicit suggestions on ways to go about effecting change
• Find ways to disturb
• Guide/Facilitate
• Develop new organisational competencies
• Involve principle stakeholders in an advisory capacity
and as an educational opportunity

Page 25
 Handout 05-5

Three Circles Framework (adapted from the INTRAC framework)

Internal
Organisation
Culture
Leadership
Learning
Resources-
Partnerships Human Systems
Physical and
Financial Structures Outreach
Community Trade Effectiveness
Scale
Impact
Leaders Unions Geography Achievements

Donors/ Public
Funders Sector
External
Linkages Programme
Private
Performance
NGOs Sector
Empowerment

Context
Page 26
 Handout 05-6

Key Learning Points

• Foundation for analysis
OD facilitators need to make great efforts to understand the context and external forces of
change. This is particularly important for shorter-term placements where the volunteer will
have to understand the complexity of the situation quickly. It is essential to involve
colleagues and stakeholders to enable this understanding.

• Contextual Scan
Supporting the organisations awareness of external drivers ties directly into VSO
programmatic approach. This awareness will help the organisation avoid icebergs and benefit
from opportunities and collaborations.

• Organisational Sectors -Public, Private + Not for Profit

The role and significance of these sectors in a developing country may be quite different
from volunteer’s home country. It is important for the volunteer to understand the role and
relationships of the sectors especially if they are moving into a sector they are unfamiliar with.

• Holistic approach
The onion model is a useful framework or ‘visual checklist’ especially for individuals new to
OD. It is very important to be aware of the wider impact of any OD intervention and
therefore analysis needs to consider the organisation holistically. It can be helpful in
questioning assumptions based on previous experience in a different cultural context.
Holistic analysis of the organisation can help to clarify what changes are required to
support organisational development and shift the focus from ‘fire fighting’.

Understanding the external and internal context and drivers of change are key to the
analysis and enables the OD facilitator to move along the OD cycle.

The ability to identify the underlying resistances to change and have strategies to overcome
them is key to OD.

Learning Log:
What has been the key learning for you so far from the course. How might you use the
tools discussed so far in your placement?

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 Handout 06-1

OD Values

• Opportunities for people to develop

towards their full potential.

• People are complex with differing

needs, not just requiring physical
resources.

• Emphasis on openness, trust and

collaborative effort.

• To meet the needs of individuals and

the organisation.

• Emphasis on feelings and emotions

as well as ideas and concepts.

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 Handout 06-2

page 1 of 2

Multiple Roles of an OD Facilitator

Adapted from Demystifying Organisation Development Rick James p33 The Lippitt + Lippit consulting roles continuum

Non-Directive Directive

Reflector Process Fact Finder Alternative Joint Trainer Technical Advocate

Observer Specialist Identifier – Problem Educator specialist
solver

Probes, Observes, Gathers, Identifies and Offers and Designs, leads Proposes and Tries to
observes, diagnoses and synthesises and assesses the helps to select and evaluates guides the pursuade,
mirrors and facilitates the analyses data potential alternative learning changes in proposes
reports what is human relevant to the alternatives. actions needed experiences content and guidelines or
observed. dynamics and Organisational to create the within the process. directs the
interpersonal Develoment. desired change. Organisatinal problem
Retreats from relationships Development. The solving
active role in in the organisation exercise
organisations organisation. relies on the whether in
decision practitioners process or
making. expertise. content.

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 Handout 06-2

page 2 of 2

OD Spectrum – Supporting Information

An Organisational Development practitioner may adopt different roles depending upon the needs of the
situation and the organisation. The Spectrum above identifies some key roles ranging from a more
process, client centred approach to a more expert, directive approach.
These roles are not mutually exclusive and may overlap. Indeed the practitioner may take on a number of
roles at any one time. The key capacity of the practitioner, sometimes referred to as the Organisation
Development Consultant (ODC), is to be able to take on these roles, depending on what is most
appropriate and needed by the organisation.
The following identifies characteristics of the directive and non-directive or facilitative approach:

EXPERT - Prescriptive + problem solving consultancy BLUE

Task focused sometimes termed ‘mafia model’
• Tackle organisational or operational issue
• Unlikely to initiate organisation wide issues
• Specific skills
• Limited period - quick
• Tailored to individual needs
• Specialisation
• Mobility
• Has no formal authority over the organisation
• Direct accountability for quality

FACILITATOR – Client Centred GREEN

• Facilitate a process to develop the capacity of the organisation to
manage its own change process
• Developing organisations capabilities for problem solving after
OD practitioner has gone
• Increase organisations ability to learn ‘learning organisation’
• Explorative, process-orientated journey clear outcomes not known
• Participatory- attitudes + behaviour
• Change in the organisation is viewed holistically
• Influencing and changing the culture ‘How we do things round
here’
In defining what is most appropriate given the situation and the
organisation concerned is to remember some of the core values of
Organisational Development interventions:

Refer back to the OD Definition and Values

• Opportunities for people to develop towards their full potential
• People are complex with different needs not just requiring resources
• Openness, trust and collaborative effort
• To meet the needs of individuals and the organisation
• Emphasis on feelings and emotions as well as ideas and concepts
• The organisation maintains responsibility for choice and change

Page 30
 Handout 06-3

Stepping Stones of OD

1. Orientation 2. Acceptance + 3. Implementation

Commitment + Managing

1 3 6
Creating Diagnosis + 4 Setting key
A relationships planning objective B
Getting
acceptance +
2
Concern Getting
commitment 5 7
Future
bigger Creating Implementing
picture Direction key objectives Vision

Understanding
Emotion
Will

8 Evaluation

Page 31
 Handout 06-4

Stepping Stones – Supporting Information

(adapted from D.Scott, cited in Rick James, Demystifying Organisation Development)

1. Creating Relationships
Relationship is at the heart of development itself. The nature and quality of the relationship will have a
major effect on the quality of the OD work, and the extent to which it achieves developmental objectives.

• Social Phase of building relationships

• Building Trust
• To clarify expectations on both sides
• Stakeholder consultation
• The ability to listen consciously, deeply, actively and with empathy in order to appreciate the
purpose and intentions of others
• Spend time
• Mirroring cultural behaviour – getting to know you
• Field visits

2. Analysis – Getting the bigger picture

• Gathering and analysing information
• Clarify nature of the problem, get to the organisations real issue which may lie behind the obvious
problem (onion)
• Building a bigger picture – get a feel of the informal issues of power, values, identify and culture
• What is happening here and now
• Locally appropriate definition of a ‘healthy organisation’ what it looks like along with measures
and indicators
• Contextual analysis
• Data collection –Semi – structured interview, focus groups, observation, previous reports

3. Diagnosis + Planning
• ‘Ideal’ would be organisation doing self-diagnosis
• To get to the organisations real issue which may lie behind the obvious problem (onion)
• Analysing raw data, grouping data in a framework which will make sense to the organisation
• Use interview statements to provide the organisation with a mirror to look at itself and suggesting
ways to take this process forward (presentation of the information is one of the most difficult
aspects as the diagnosis as it needs to be perceived and experienced as true by the client and so
the client owns the process of change)

Page 32
 Handout 06-5

Situational Matrix – Instructions for Participants

The Situational and the following Metaphor Matrices were originally devised by Eddie Obeng 1994,1996 UK management
consultant and adapted by Bernard Ross and Clare Segal Breakthrough thinking for Non-profit Organisations publisher:
Jossey-Bass Nonprofit and Public Management.

The Situational Matrix involves asking two fundamental questions regarding

the organisation:

• Do we know where we want to go?

• Do we know how to get there?

Do you know how to get there?
Yes No
Quadrant 1 Quadrant 3

We know where we want We know where we want to

Yes

to go and how to get go but not how to get there.

Do you know where

there.
you want to go?

Quadrant 2 Quadrant 4

We know what we’re We don’t know where we

doing generally but lack a want to go or how to get
No

clear direction. there.

1. Which quadrant of the matrix does your organisation fit?

2. What evidence do you have for this?

1. Would other stakeholders agree?

Management, staff, funders, beneficiaries etc.

2. What would be your plan for finding out this information and
creating good relationships?

Page 33
 Handout 06-6

Metaphor Matrix
Do you know how to get there?

Yes No
Quadrant 1 Quadrant 3
We know where we want to go and We know where we want to go but not
how to get there. how to get there.
Do you know where you want to go?

Yes

By the Book Holy Grail

Quadrant 2 Quadrant 4
We know what we’re doing generally We don’t know where we want to go or
but lack a clear direction. how to get there.
No

Making a Movie Wandering in the fog

Quadrant 1:
BY THE BOOK - Know where you want to go and how to get there
This can be a powerful situation to be in. Your organisation has a real strategic focus and powerful
techniques to achieve results. However, placing yourself in this quadrant could be an indication of severe
self-delusion or unwarranted self-satisfaction.
Quadrant 2:
MAKE A MOVIE – Know how but don’t know where
An organisation in quadrant 2 can simply cruise along reasonably successfully. But this can also be a
demoralising position because your energies are not directed - you have no strong sense of why you are
doing what you are doing.
Quadrant 3:
HOLY GRAIL QUEST – Know where but don’t know how
This can be an energising position and one that encourages you to look for creative solutions. Or it can
cause frustration because the organisation isn’t bridging the gap between desire and action.
Quadrant 4:
WANDERING IN THE FOG - Don’t know how or where
You’re in the most challenging quadrant. The good thing is that everyone has agreed that things have to
change. But spirits are low, and it is difficult to get people energised. There is also a danger that any
energy there is could be wasted, taking you in the wrong direction.

Page 34
 Handout 06-7

Key Learning Points

• There is a wide spectrum of OD activities, the OD practitioner must assess where they are
placed on the spectrum according to the needs of the organisation.

• In a development context the OD facilitator needs to consider sustainability of OD and

therefore being sensitive to how they support OD. It is critical that you have an
understanding of how you frame your work and the impact upon the organisation. e.g. An
OD facilitator who is a computer system ‘expert’ must be fully aware of the interconnected
role of the inputs she/he offers and the impact it will have in the longer term.

• Relationships are key to OD and the OD facilitator must invest time and consider what
activities and tools may be appropriate.

• Analysis + Diagnosis are keys to ensuring that the organisation accepts and is committed to
OD.

• Using simple practical tools to facilitate the organisation with analysis helps to ensure that
the organisation has ownership of the analysis, diagnosis and OD plan:
o Opportunities for people to develop towards their full potential
o People are complex with different needs not just requiring resources
o Openness, trust and collaborative effort
o To meet the needs of individuals and the organisation
o Emphasis on feelings and emotions as well as ideas and concepts
o The organisation maintains responsibility for choice and change

• Remember,
o ‘Prescription without diagnosis is malpractice whether in medicine or
management’ Albrecht

Learning Log:
How might you use the tools discussed in your placement?

Page 35
 Handout 07-1

Visualisation Sheet

Page 36
page 1 of 3

Organisation Capacity Building

Background Material
Background
Capacity building is a term that receives a wide range of definitions and it is a term that is
increasingly used within international development parlance. Capacity Building is a broader term
than Organisational Development, encompassing individual, organisational, institutional and
societal capacity. You may also come across the terms ‘capacity growth’ or ‘capacity
development’. Fundamentally, capacity building is an approach to development and not
something separate from it, nor should it be regarded as an ‘input’ to a project. It is therefore
much broader than ‘training’, and should be viewed as a process by which sustainable
development in the broadest sense can be achieved.
Capacity building and organisation development are ongoing processes. Ideally an organisation
should develop a policy and formulate objectives and design relevant activities and budget for it.
Such plans and budgets are then also part of the overall funding motivation presented to funders.
Consequently annual reports should describe progress made etc. Content and quality of
organisation development and capacity building become part of the regular dialogue between the
organisation and a funding partner. By treating organisation development and capacity building
as normal/essential parts of the life of an organisation, funders are challenged to make part of
their support available for these purposes.
There is a range of methods for assessing capacity that have been developed.
The important questions to ask are:
• Who is making the assessment?
• Why are they making the assessment and for whom?
The answer to these questions will affect the process and the outcomes.

Funders use checklists or criteria to assess an organisation’s capacity and suitability for funding.
These will vary enormously. The following is an adaptation of a donor check list for NGDO
capacity from Alan Fowler’s, ‘Striking a Balance’, p201:

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 Handout 07-2

page 2 of 3

Organisational Capacity Assessment Checklists

WHERE IS THE ORGANISATION GOING?
Identity and historical trajectory
• Mission statement; does it make sense and is it realistic?
• Can the organisation explain the causes of the problems it is facing?
• How has the organisation evolved in terms of scope of operational activity?
• Are organizational adaptations a response to crisis or the result of strategic thinking?
Programmes, projects and policies
• Are the programmes, projects and activities coherent with each other and with the mission?
• Do necessary policies exist on gender, environment and sustainability?
• Is the organisation able to assess costs and benefits of its work?

WORKING PRACTICES
Governance, management and organisation
• If NGO is it truly non governmental?
• Does the governing body exert proper oversight and does it really carry responsibility?
• If NGO is the leadership still the founder or has there been a transition?
• Is the management style appropriate to the mission, activities and context?
• Is the organizational set up and culture appropriate for the tasks and their scope?
Relationships
• Does the organisation network and have partnerships with other organisations, institutions, and
communities?
• Is it respected by other organisations?

RESOURCES
Implementation
• Does the organisation have the technical skills required?
• Does the organisation have an effective approach in working with its target audience?
• Are the physical resources looked after and well maintained?
• Is a monitoring system in place, does it disaggregate information by gender
Administration
• Are financial records produced on time and properly?
• Are audit reports satisfactory?
Financial Resources
• Has there been a continuity of donor support/
• Is there a strategy for funding and potential income?

PROGRAMMES
• Is the organisation offering services appropriate to the community needs?
• Does it apply participatory approaches and demonstrate community involvement in decision-
making?

ORGANISATION LEARNING
Performance track record
• Can the organisation show sustainable outcomes or impact at any level?
• Are evaluations carried out regularly?
• Is there evidence of learning from evaluation findings?

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 Handout 07-2

page 3 of 3

Organisational Capacity Assessment Strategies

Two different approaches:

1. USING EXTERNAL FUNDERS CAPACITY CHECK LIST

Mission and strategic goals are reference points. Steps will vary according to the complexity of the
organisation. A range of questions steer the process:
• What is the organisations purpose?
• Who does it represent?
• What do people we represent values or find important in terms of change?
• What results are we achieving?
• What is the strategy /plan for the future?

Strategy for OD practitioner

• The answers are checked with written reports / evidence
• Staff compare their own answers with those from other sources
• Analyse the difference
• Identify causes
• Plan changes

Limitations:
• Willingness of the organisation to be self critical
• Difficult to get frank responses from primary stakeholders especially when dependent on the
relationship with the organisation
• An independent practitioner and validation is needed

2. USING A CAPACITY CHECK LIST DEVISED BY THE

ORGANISATION
Locally appropriate definition of the ideal / healthy organisation. The specific factors relating to the
cultural context inform the process. The environmental context and the age of the organisation will
support or impair the OD intervention.
People within the organisation would decide:
• What it looks like
• Measures and indicators

Strategy for OD practitioner

• Pre entry – win support
• Create one or a few key stakeholder groups
• Define indicators
• Gather information
• Analyse
• Decide how to tackle
• Mobilise

‘Striking a Balance’, Alan Fowler, p197

Page 39
 Key Learning Points

• If the OD process is funder/donor driven and the capacity shortfall identified by them the
OD facilitator needs to ensure that the organisation appreciate the benefits for them and be
committed to the changes. A key consideration is the role of the funder/donor in the
process.

• If the organisational capacity and OD are driven internally the ownership and
commitment will help ensure success of the OD process or intervention. It is important
that the volunteer does not assume the capacity needs of the organisation independently of
the organisation or funders.

• The term capacity is often used in the development field whether it is referring to institutional
or organisational capacity. In the OD definition we emphasise an organisation’s capacity for
learning.

• Before identifying the range of approaches, which can be used in OD, it is important to get
an understanding of the organisation’s capacity.

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 Handout 08-1

Levels of Culture Society

Adapted from (Schein) INTRAC
Society Culture: Cultural Values from society expressed in the Organisation.
Culture
Organisation Culture: the Culture of the Organisation.
Interaction: Between Cultures that may cause friction.

Interaction Interaction

Organisation
Culture

Society
Culture
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 Handout 08-2

page 1 of 2

Characteristics of Organisational Culture

The Advantages and Disadvantages of
Different Organisation Culture Types
Advantages
Power Culture
• Flexibility with the ability to
react quickly to changing
circumstances without having
to satisfy procedure.
• Few rules and procedures.
• Can be stimulating and
exciting places to work.
Disadvantages
• If individuals get it wrong, the
whole organisation suffers.
• Organisation can disintegrate
if the current leader leaves
with no succession plan.
• Control is difficult if the
organisation grows beyond a
certain size.

Role culture
• Predictable and stable (an • In-built inertia.
advantage only if the • Rule and procedure-bound.
environment is also stable). • Stifle creativity and
• Can become very efficient innovation.
over time.
• Suitable for organisations
with long programmes of
work.

Task culture
• Flexible and able to change to • Very difficult to produce
suit changes in the economies of scale.
environment. • Can be very complex and
• Consistent with difficult to manage.
decentralisation, teamwork • Can be confusing to staff.
and participatory approaches
to management.

Person culture
• Suitable for small teams of
professionals such as lawyers
or architects.
• Inconsistent with NGO
values since it puts the needs
of the staff before the needs
of the beneficiaries.

One of the key questions for the manager is: “How manageable is organisational culture?”
Organisational culture is an immensely powerful aspect of how organisation’s work. It can work
positively to support the purpose of the organisation or negatively as a subversive force. Obviously, it
is in the interests of managers that organisation culture is aligned with the purpose and strategy of the
organisation. But what if this is not the case? How possible is it to change organisational culture?
Pettigrew is cautious about the manageability of organisational culture. He has identified seven major
factors that make organisational culture difficult to manage. These are listed in Handout 08-3.

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 Handout 08-1 / OHT 08-2

page 2 of 2

Characteristics of Organisational Culture

1. It is learned. It is an internalised result of a socialisation process, which starts when an

individual expresses an interest in joining the organisation and continues throughout their
involvement with the organisation.

2. It is determined by the organisation’s history. It is shaped by decisions that people

have taken in the past, particularly those taken by significant individuals such as the founder.

3. It is partly subconscious. Not all aspects of an organisation’s culture operate at a

conscious level. Much of it becomes internalised after a while and is expressed through unstated
assumptions, implicit judgements and shared beliefs.

4. It is heterogeneous. Different parts of an organisation may have different cultures. A

common difference is that between the head office and field offices or community-based projects.

5. It is dynamic. Culture can change over time either by adaptation or as a result of a deliberate
process of culture change.

6. It is related to macro-culture. National culture and professional cultures will influence

organisational culture to varying degrees. Attempts to create an organisational culture that is totally
inconsistent with national culture are likely to fail or lead to subversion or conflict.

7. It is a control mechanism. By making explicit what are the prevailing values and norms,
managers can exercise control over others by demarcating what is acceptable behaviour in the
organisation.

Adapted from: Hudson, Mike (1995). Managing Without Profit, Harmondsworth, England: Penguin, Appendix Three.

A number of writers have developed ways of classifying organisational cultures. One of the most
commonly used classifications was developed by Charles Handy and based on the work of Roger
Harrison.
Charles Handy describes four main types of organisational cultures:
• Power culture.
• Role culture.
• Task culture.
• Person culture.
According to Handy, each organisational culture has its advantages and disadvantages.
These are summarised in the table on the previous page.

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 Handout 08-6

Why Organisational Culture is

Difficult to Manage
1. The levels issue. Organisational culture exists at different levels ranging from external
manifestations such as organograms, buildings and publicity material down to beliefs
and assumptions. Whilst it is possible to change the outward and visible signs of
culture, it is much more difficult to alter beliefs.

2. The pervasiveness issue. Culture does not just refer to people’s more deeply held
beliefs but also to their views about such things as their work tasks, organisational
structures, systems, strategy and approaches to recruitment, induction and reward.

3. The implicitness issue. Much of organisational culture is taken for granted and it is
remarkably difficult to change things, which are implicitly part of people’s thinking and
behaviour.

4. The historical issue. Because culture has deep historic roots, this can make it very
difficult to change.

5. The political issue. Organisational culture is closely connected to the distribution of

power in the organisation. Certain power groups will have a vested interest in the
beliefs and assumptions underpinning the current culture. They are unlikely to be
willing to discard these beliefs in favour of others without persistent challenge.

6. The plurality issue. Most larger organisations do not have a single organisational
culture but may have a series of subcultures. Tensions may exist between these
subcultures. Culture change needs to take into account what may be very complex
inter-relationships between the subcultures.

7. The interdependency issue. Culture is interconnected with organisational politics,

structure, systems and strategy. These interconnections make organisational culture
difficult to manage.

Adapted from: Pettigrew, Andrew M. (1990). ‘Is Corporate Culture Manageable?’ in Wilson and
Rosenfeld (eds.) (1990). Managing Organisations: Text, Readings and Cases, London: McGraw-Hill.

Organisation culture is a very significant element of organisational identity and one that can be extremely
difficult (indeed, some would say almost impossible) to change. Nonetheless, in NGOs, it is important
for everyone to be conscious of the culture of the organisation and the impact that this can have on
almost every aspect of how the organisation operates.

Based on: Wye College External Programme (1998) NGO Management, Unit 2 ‘NGO Identity’, University of London,
designed by INTRAC.

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 Handout 08-5

Organisational Culture – How do we understand our Culture?

“ The basic assumptions and beliefs that are shared by members of an organisation, that operate
unconsciously and define, in a basic taken-for-granted fashion an organisation’s view of itself and
its environment.” Shein.

What is it?
• Expectations and strategy are rooted in the collective experience of the group
• Organisations can be ‘captured’ by their culture e.g. free newspapers: news or advertising?
• Whole organisation and subcultures: different functions, management/staff, UK/overseas,
length of service
• Influenced by sector e.g. voluntary sector organisations must maximise (rather than
optimise?) spend on beneficiaries
• Looking outside sector for new ideas e.g. voluntary sector increasingly looking at commercial
models
• Four layers:
o Values – often expressed as vision, mission statements etc
o Beliefs – expressed as rules
o Behaviours – day-to-day ways in which the organisation operates e.g. work routines,
structure, control mechanisms, symbolic behaviours
o Taken-for-granted assumptions – core aspects difficult to identify and explain i.e. ‘what
really matters around here’
Why define it?
• How can we decide what to keep and what to change? How can we establish the culture that
will best meet our goals?
How can we define it?
• Not easy to define!
• Some parts are written down but others are in the way people behave and the assumptions
they make.
• How can we identify the taken-for-granted assumptions and therefore decide what to keep
and what to change?

Ref: Exploring Corporate Strategy; Gerry Johnson, Kevan Scholes, Richard Whittington

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 Handout 08-5

Routines
& Rituals

Symbols
Organisation
al Structures

Culture

Stories
and Myths
Control
Systems

Power
Structures

Ref: Exploring Corporate Strategy; Gerry Johnson, Kevan Scholes, Richard Whittington

Page 46

Rituals and routines
Routine behaviours, the way we do things
around here, day-to-day.
• Which rituals/routines are
emphasised?
• Which would look odd if
changed?
• What behaviours do routines
encourage?
• What core beliefs do they reflect?
Power structures
Powerful individuals and groups influence the key
assumptions.
• How is power distributed in the
organisation?
• What are the core beliefs of the
leadership?
• How strongly held are these beliefs
(idealists or pragmatists)?
• Where are the main blockages to
change?
Organisational structures
Reflects power and shows important roles and
relationships.
• How formal/informal are the structures?
• Do structures encourage competition or
collaboration?
• What types of power structure do they
support?
Ref: Exploring Corporate Strategy; Gerry Johnson, Kevan Scholes, Richard Whittington
Page 47
Handout 08-5
Stories and myths
Told by organisation members, the history,
important events/personalities.
• What core beliefs to stories
reflect?
• How pervasive are these beliefs
(through levels)?
• Do stories relate to strengths or
weaknesses, successes or failures,
conformity or mavericks?
• Why do people get a ‘maverick’
label?
Symbols
Logos, offices, titles, language and terminology,
shorthand.
• Are there particular symbols which
denote the organisation?
• What status symbols are there?
• What language and jargon are used?
• What aspects of strategy are highlighted
in publicity?
Control systems
Measurements and reward systems.
• What is most closely
monitored/controlled?
• Is emphasis on reward or punishment?
• Are controls related to history or current
strategies?
• Are there many/few controls?
 Handout 08-5

Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions

Dr Geert Hofstede conducted a study of values in the workplace, which are influenced by culture. From 1067 -1973
while working for IBM as a psychologist, he collected and analysed data from over 100,000 individuals from 50
countries. As with any generalised study the results may or may not be applicable to specific individuals or
organisations, often there is more than one cultural group within that country. His dimensions are intended to assist
business people or travellers in better understanding the intercultural differences within regions and between
countries.

Collectivist
- Identity is based on membership of a social
network or group.
- Strong family and social ties.
- Relationship prevails over task.
- Collective interests prevail over individual
interests.
- Employer-employee relationship is like a
family link.
Individualist
- Identity is based on individual.
- People focus mainly on their own interests.
- Task prevails over relationship.
- Individual interests prevail.
- Employer-employee relationship is based on
contract to mutual advantage.

Small Power Distance Large Power Distance

- Inequalities should be minimised.
- Managers and staff are considered to be of
equal importance in an organisation.
- Authority can be questioned.
- The ideal boss is a resourceful democrat.
- Decentralisation is popular.
- Subordinates expect to be consulted.
- Power is based on formal position, expertise
and ability to give rewards.
- Inequalities are expected and desired.
- Managers have considerable power over staff.
- Whoever holds the power is right.
- The ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat or
good father.
- Centralisation is popular.
- Subordinates expect to be told what to do.
- Power is based on family or friends,
charisma and ability to use force.

Feminine
- Prominent values in society are caring for
others and preservation.
- People are warm and relationships are
important.
- Everybody is supposed to be modest.
- Stress on equality, solidarity and quality of
work life.
- Resolution on conflicts by compromise and
negotiation.
- Women’s liberation means that men and
women should take equal shares both at
home and at work.
Masculine
- Dominant values in society are material
success and progress.
- Money and things are important.
- Men are supposed to be assertive, ambitious
and tough.
- Stress on equity, competition among
colleagues and performance.
- Resolution of conflicts by fighting them out.
- Women’s liberation means that women will
be admitted to positions hitherto only
occupied by men.

Weak Uncertainty Avoidance Strong Uncertainty Avoidance

- Comfortable with ambiguous situations and
with unfamiliar risks.
- Students comfortable with open-ended
learning situations.
- Few and general laws and rules.
- Belief in generalists and common sense.
- There should be no more rules than are
strictly necessary.
- Acceptance of familiar risks; fear of
ambiguous situations and concerned with
the right answers.
- Students comfortable in structured learning
situations and concerned with the right
answers.
- Many and precise rules and laws.
- Belief in experts and specialisation.
- Emotional need for rules, even if these will
never work.

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 Handout 08-6

Key Learning Points

• The key to OD is that the approach and the role of the volunteer match the needs of
the organisation.

• The volunteer may need to do more research in the field of OD both books and materials
available in country to identify interventions, which are culturally appropriate.

• The Culture of an organisation has its own language, history, way of doing things,
unwritten rules that underpin or ‘glue’ the organisation together, like a mini society.

• Understanding the culture of an organisation, it’s values and attitudes, is key to reading
an organisation and making a diagnosis.

• The OD proposal should be developed with the organisation however the way in which
this is conducted and the approaches of the volunteer will depend on the needs of the
organisation and the skills and confidence of the volunteer. Ownership of the OD
process and outcomes must belong to the organisation.

Learning Log:
What has been the key learning for you?
How might you use the tools discussed in your placement?

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 Handout 09-1 / OHT 09-2

Devising OD Proposal + Activity

You (as a group) are the VSO OD volunteer in this organisation.

You have gained agreement and commitment from the management for your OD work in
principle.

You are now presenting the OD proposal and activity to the management to
encourage ownership and ‘buy-in’.
You have 25 minutes to present the following, in whichever way you feel is appropriate.

1. Devise an Organisational Development Proposal for your organisation

• Aims + outcomes
Outline the aims of the OD and expected outcomes
• Proposal Plan
Describe the OD activities: who, what, where, when, how?
• Time frame (of the OD activities during your placement) it is very important to
specify time frame for the activities included on the proposal
• Roles Outline your OD roles

2. Demonstrate one activity

This will be an activity, which you will be using in your proposal, and you are
TEAMseeking
Work the agreement from the management that it will be appropriate for
their organisation.

Team work
• Identifying expertise – speed reading, graphics skills, presentation
skills, motivational skills
• Deciding on roles within the team –leader, researcher/reader,
timekeeper
• Identifying tasks and allocating to team members
• Managing time during preparation + in your presentation

Case Study
Decide if you need to read all the material.
If you are going to read it how will you divide up the task, different
team members can read different things.

You will have to trust your team and give up some control. This will be the situation in your
placment were you will need to trust your colleagues and others to gather information.

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 Handout 08-6

Appendix:
Organisational Development Case Studies
The following case studies are practical capacity building experiences from African NGOs with
an organisational development focus. 1 The organisational development interventions in each
case involve an external ‘consultant’ or OD practitioner. The periods of engagement range from
20 days over six months to 60 days over 2 years. The cases highlight the OD cycle, the phases of
OD, the role of the consultant and the factors hindering and helping the process. The cases
identify issues around:
• Visioning
• Mission Building
• Leadership
• Identity, values and culture
• Strategic Direction
• Structural Changes
• Systems Development
• Conflict Resolution
• Team Building

The following questions may be useful to guide you as you read through the case studies:

1. Why were the OD interventions requested?

2. What were the main triggers?

3. What were the key ‘entry points’ for the Organisational Development Consultant?

4. What OD process was used (OD cycle)?

5. What methods of intervention were used (phases and activities)?

6. How long did the process last?

The case studies are from the following organisations and countries:

Community Resource Centres, South Africa

Triple Trust Organisation, South Africa
TUBA (AIDS Umbrella body), Malawi
EWDFA (Eritrean War Disabled Fighters’ Association), Eritrea

1James, R, ‘Demystifying Organisation Development: Practical Capacity Building Experiences of African NGOs,
1998, INTRAC, UK

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 Handout 08-6

INDEPENDENCE DAY?
The Independence of ‘Community Resource Centres’ from the Fellowship of Churches in
South Africa
Carol-Ann Foulis (Olive)

Introduction
Olive (OD & Training) first began working with the client in February 1995, when it was contracted to
write job descriptions and develop a payment framework for Community Resource Centres (CRCs). The
CRC Programme comprises 14 centres which are all situated within the greater Durban area and provide
the following services: paralegal advice, community development, lobbying and networking. There are 28
staff employed by the programme who are paid by the ‘parent’ organisation. Managerial and
administrative support also comes from the parent organisation which is the same Durban-based
Fellowship of Churches mentioned in the previous case study. In fact dealing with some of the human
resource systems issues and structural issues was one of the recommendations of the previous OD
intervention by CDRA.
The Aim of the Intervention
The initial request to look at job descriptions and a payment framework for the centres was based largely
on the CDRA work. Furthermore, the importance of the CRCs becoming (more) independent of the
organisations within which they are located, as well as the need to increase their sustainability were also
strongly emphasized. These recommendations have subsequently been translated into what has become
known as the ‘independence process’ – a long-term process of change which has had to be planned and
embarked upon in an integrated, holistic way. While Olive initially contracted with the client around the
delivery of a specific product – job descriptions and a payment framework, the Director also wanted the
work to ‘test’ staff’s understanding of and readiness to move towards independence. This HR request also
set the ball rolling for the OD intervention.
Shifting from HR to OD
Having delivered the product of job descriptions and a payment framework as per the initial brief, in
August 1995, Olive then entered into a new contract with the client which had as its longer-term goal the
increased independence of the CRCs from the parent organisation.
The Intervention Process
The intervention process can be divided into three phases: each with its own objectives.
Phase 1: Creating a vision of independence
The first phase was marked by the appointment of four Zonal Co-ordinators to assist the centres in their
move to independence. The objectives were as follows:
1. Consultations with the client to explore ideas and share views to develop an understanding of the
client’s vision of independence.
2. Workshops with staff to assist people in understanding what would be involved in the change
process; providing opportunities for people to share their views, feelings, concerns and challenges
about independence.
3. Training and support of Zonal Co-ordinators in the transition from staff member to Zonal Co-
ordinator and equipping them with the skills required for their new position, such as planning,
supervision, delegation and time management.
Phase 2: Review period and adapted contract
A review was conducted in June 1996 to assess the extent to which intended outcomes had been achieved
in each of the three areas. Based on this review, the consultant entered into an adapted contract with the
client which had as its key objective the training and development of the Zonal Co-ordinators (in
recognition of their key role in the change process). Another feature of this phase was the establishment
of clearer boundaries regarding the consultant’s role in the change process. At this stage, it was decided
that Olive would no longer play a role in the general training of programme staff. It was felt that staff
were sufficiently oriented to the idea of independence and that the organisation itself needed to drive the
next stage in this process. It was also agreed that the consultant would not be involved in the training and
development of local committees. While this was clearly an important component of the next phase, it

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was acknowledged that this was outside of the consultant’s organisational mission and area of ‘expertise’.
Other organisations were referred to who could assist in this area.
Phase 3: The way ahead
From December 1996, the relationship between the client and consultant enters into yet another phase.
This is in part because certain objectives have been achieved, and also because new circumstances are
calling for new kinds of support and approaches to the change process. At this point in time, the content
of this phase is undefined.
Factors Constraining the Process
A number of factors have hindered or slowed down the process:
• The style of the Programme Manager has reinforced a particular way of relating to people that the
independence process is seeking to change. Given that the Programme Manager is the pioneer and
possibly stands to lose too much from the change, it has been important for the consultant not to
skirt around these issues but to find ways of dealing with them directly and constructively.
• To a large extent, there is no external imperative for change. The parent organisation has initiated the
independence of the CRCs and the deadlines by which change needs to take place are variable and
extend considerably far into the future. This has its advantages, but the lack of urgency and need to
change has sometimes resulted in a level of complacency, which has curtailed the action that needs to
be taken.
• The level of management and administrative experience of staff of the CRC Programme is limited in
certain respects. Many staff members have worked only for this particular programme and do not
have other organizational experience to draw on. This is significant given that management and
administrative skills are needed for an independent CRC. The change process is therefore slow as
time needs to be spent building the capacity of staff in these areas.
Factors Promoting the Process
Many factors have helped or been important in taking the process forward:
• The appointment and training of the Zonal Co-ordinators, with an increasing emphasis on their role
as key change agents, has given a sense of urgency, importance and focus to the independence
process. They have been a tangible sign, particularly to staff, that this process is ‘for real’. The
appointment of a temporary ‘Programme Co-ordinator’ with a very participative style of management,
while the Programme Manager has been on sabbatical, has significantly facilitated the move towards
independence. The consultant has noticed increased energy, enthusiasm and interest amongst staff
which seems to be related to this person coming into the organisation.
• Having dedicated capacity for managing the change process has been particularly important. It has
been the responsibility of the ‘Programme Coordinator’ to focus on the independence process.
• The recent introduction of the client to different models of ‘independence’ has provided the client
with an opportunity to learn from others’ experiences.
• Olive has used a team for this intervention, rather than one consultant. This has been particularly
useful in ensuring that our approach remains open, innovative, critically reflective and professional.
Furthermore, keeping the same people part of this team has had a number of advantages, particularly
for understanding the complexity and dynamics of the intervention.
• From the start and throughout the intervention, the method of diagnosing the system and making
recommendations was a highly interactive process. The consultant did not offer a neatly mapped out
path for independence of the centres. As ‘staff were involved throughout the process ... involved in developing and
negotiating the ToR.’ this meant that staff very much owned the change process.
• The quality of the reporting was also seen by CRC staff as being important.
• ‘The detailed report with key questions to address in the workshop was very helpful. Their reports were thorough and
accessible, prompt and with clear recommendations and conclusions’.
• It was important for Olive to regularly define and review its role in the OD process and to set specific
objectives in relation to this role as it became difficult to maintain the different roles and
responsibilities of the client versus those of the consultant at certain times. Given the importance of
ensuring that ownership of the process remained with the client, the consultants made considerable
efforts to continually clarify their role – ‘we were beginning to drive the process. Because they were too busy we

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would be bringing more of the ideas and setting the agendas ... so we said ... we will leave it to you to contact us. They
brought proposals and we formalized them into briefs’.
Preliminary Assessment of the Impact
It is difficult at this stage to measure the impact of the intervention because Olive’s relationship with the
client continues. However, the process has been monitored along the way and a number of goals (both
planned and unplanned) have been achieved. The impressions of both client and consultant have also
been regularly gathered and reflected upon. The consultant has encouraged the client to establish its own
criteria for measuring the impact and using its own means for collecting this information.
Some of the impressions of the key achievements to date are:
• People are clearer on what is needed for an independent organisation and are in the process of
formulating plans, which will indicate how they will go about achieving this. There is a vision for what will
be achieved.
• Staff (and some of the local committee members) have had opportunities to raise their fears, concerns
and questions about the independence process and the parent organisation has responded to these. To
some extent, this has built a critical mass of people who understand, support and drive this move to
independence. Furthermore, the parent organisation has realised the importance of letting go.
• The attitudes and behaviour of certain staff members have changed in the time that the consultant has
been working with them. Staff are behaving in a more ‘responsible’ manner.
• The growth and development of the Zonal Co-ordinators is also significant.
They have received training in a number of areas and are also behaving in a more responsible,
independent manner. The management has noted ‘a lot more confidence amongst the zonal coordinators’ with
them ‘taking more initiative, greater participation in management meetings and deeper issues raised, delegation of
responsibility coped with’.
• A number of structural changes have occurred as a result of this intervention. First, the appointment of
the Zonal Co-ordinators has played an important role in moving some of the control and power away
from the parent organisation to the CRCs. Secondly, it is likely that the post of Programme Co-ordinator
will remain as a dedicated internal resource for managing the change process.
The change that is required in this process is enormous – it is about moving the CRCs from a state of
financial, administrative and management dependence for the last 14 years to one of independence.
Furthermore, being independent brings with it a set of challenges for which some people are not and may
never be ready. However, the consultant acknowledges that change is a series of steps that need to be
managed and be made manageable. They also need to be heading in an agreed to direction. What the
consultants have done ‘is walk with the client for some distance along the path of change’. Getting the client on this
path and assisting the different components in becoming skilled, aligned and ready for change has been a
lengthy but productive process.

RESTORING TRUST IN TRIPLE TRUST

A CDRA Intervention written up by Rick James
Introduction
In 1988, four South Africans came together with the idea of training unemployed people – who had little
chance of getting a job – to start their own small businesses. Triple Trust Organisation (TTO) was formed
and was quickly successful. Their activities soon attracted the attention of international donors and
corporate sponsors and TTO was able to diversify and extend the range of services it could offer. In only
five years, TTO grew from a small group of four to a large decentralised organisation employing 60–70
staff in 20 training centres throughout the Cape Town area. This very success, however, nearly led to the
downfall of TTO. While it brought solutions to others, TTO was not paying attention to its own
organizational needs. The structure was no longer appropriate for the size of the organisation (with 17
departments all of which reported to two members of the senior management team); the founders (or
pioneers) of the organisation had had to become managers; ‘passion had given way to calls for form, policy and
structure’ and there was considerable internal unrest with, ‘staff disillusioned and even the threat of strike action’. As
well as being symptomatic of rapid organisational growth, some of these problems were influenced by the

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massive changes in the external environment in South Africa during 1993/4 where everything was
changing from white to black. The fight against apartheid had unified individuals and organisations, but
when that enemy disappeared after the 1994 elections, people and organisations had to redefine their
roles. NGOs were suddenly confronted by their own diversity. They had to deal with their own groups of
blacks, whites, coloured, working class, upper class, management and workers. The diversity had been
there all along, but because the common focus was lost, conflict arose in the new era. Some of the
pressures Triple Trust was facing were simply a microcosm of what was happening in the whole country.
Own Doctor
As a result TTO ‘spent the year of 1994 trying to be our own doctor’. There were many internal meetings and
transitional committees with staff representative bodies and board member associations. Task groups on
communication, terms of employment, structural change and cultural diversity were formed. Workshops
were held on issues such as ‘Unlearning Racism’. While all this internal activity did give staff forums in
which to express their views and showed that management was concerned and interested in their
opinions, ‘we weren’t able to fix the problems’. By treating symptoms rather than causes, and the rational not
the emotional, TTO experienced a year of grueling accusation and counter accusation. The organisation
was paralysed and limped along with programmes and concluded,
‘we weren’t getting anywhere on our own as it is very hard to diagnose issues of heart, values, culture yourself ’ especially
when loss of trust had become an issue and polarised staff and management. In an act of desperation
TTO sought help from CDRA (a very well respected South African organisation which provides OD
consultancy support to the NGO sector).
The Intervention Process
CDRA developed an OD process, which looked at four basic steps:
• examination and redefinition of the organisation’s mission;
• examination and redefinition of their values;
• examination and redefinition of the organisation’s structure;
• examination and rebuilding of perceptions, feelings and relationships.
They did this largely by means of an organisational survey, draft report and residential
workshop.
CDRA Organisational Survey
In November 1994, two CDRA consultants (one white, one black) interviewed most of TTO staff to elicit
their views, concerns and priorities. They found an organisation on the brink of collapse. Leadership and
management, as roles and as concepts, were confused and contested. The staff felt they wanted a share in
the ownership of the organisation and had been excluded so far. Trust had broken down and conflict and
tension pervaded the whole organisation.
Report
From the interviews, the CDRA consultants produced a draft report and presented it to the staff and
management at the end of December. Importantly, this report was a verbatim summary of what was said,
a mirror without any consultant interpretation at that stage. The views of staff reflected in the report were
seen by management as ‘very damning’: ‘when we got CDRA’s report we were confronted by tark reality. The report
basically said our organisation was very sick, that it was run by three people who didn’t listen to anyone else’. Another of
the leadership team said the report was ‘the stuff of suicides. So unbelievably awful. It was a big risk and we had to
have lots of counseling to talk us out of resigning’. The consultants in fact spent some time preparing the
leadership team to receive the report (even taking them out to lunch!) and convincing them of their need
to confront and deal with the issues rather than run away and resign.
Change Workshop
In order to deal with the issues raised in the report a five-day residential retreat for 40 staff members was
arranged for December 1995. This was much more than a mere feedback meeting, but a strategic
intervention for organizational change. Individual interviews, small group discussions and full group
‘therapy sessions’ were used to work through both rational and emotional issues. Issues raised in the
report were written up as ‘organisational norms’ to provide insight into TTO culture. This statement of
implicit norms, many of which were undesirable, provided the basis for a discussion of a set of values by
which the organisation should operate, concluding by committing to paper a vision and values statement.

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It proved to be a ‘very tough week’. The retreat was seen by all as pivotal: ‘we worked on the breaking down and
building up of relationships. People cried; it was heart wrenching for all of us. At one point we didn’t think we were going to
make it. But we did learn we had to improve relationships before we could restructure the organisation’. Resistance, anger,
denial, attempted bargaining gave way to listening and trying to understand each other, relinquishing
prejudice and preconceived perception. One of the founders concluded, ‘at some point during the workshop, I
had an ah-ha moment. I realised people were not saying that I was not doing a good job, but only that they wanted to share in
helping us fulfil that vision’. Principles to guide the restructuring were developed as followed:
• information should be more freely available;
• decisions should be taken at a range of different levels;
• fewer departments with fewer lines to a central person;
• leadership should be wider and more focused.
CDRA then worked jointly with TTO to develop a structure which fulfilled these conditions. This
workshop was followed up immediately by two days back in the office. One day was for staff who could
not be present at the workshop, and although the ground was covered, there was not the same group
dynamics. Those who had not participated in the workshop said that they ‘always felt a little robbed’. The
next day was spent discussing ‘where do we go from here?’ CDRA’s work with TTO took about seven
weeks spread over a nine-month period.
Preliminary Assessment of the Impact
The CDRA work clearly had a considerable impact on TTO, especially if it is compared with the ‘control
group’ of TTO trying to solve its own problems without consultancy support. The senior management in
particular attribute the CDRA work as ensuring the very survival of the organisation; ‘that intervention rescued
the organisation from complete disaster. It would have closed’. Others said, ‘the clarity of issues set us back on track’... ‘It
was a real turning point’. At the very heart of OD consultancy is facilitating the NGO to take charge of its
own development. The intervention indicated that this had been achieved to a certain extent as a ‘structure
was put in place where we can solve our own problems, before there were no systems or structures to catch these’. The chair
of the board has taken on the OD role – a monthly ‘tapping of the wheel’. When a new issue arose for
example, senior management at TTO felt that ‘if this current issue had happened before it would have been really
serious, but now we can address it ourselves’. Certainly there are a number of organisational indicators to
demonstrate that change has taken place to some degree:
Values: A values statement was developed which explained the kind of culture within which staff wanted
to work.
Mission: The mission statement became more fully owned and understood by all staff.
Leadership: A broader and more mixed and representative leadership team was developed which resulted
in ‘the practice of leadership and management being no longer scorned but respected and is being practised in a coherent and
organised fashion’.
Strategy: Strategic planning processes were introduced.
Systems: HRD, strategic planning, monitoring and evaluation, teamwork and
interdepartmental cooperation systems have all been initiated to some degree.
Relationships: Staff and management relationships improved considerably
with ‘a lot of barriers broken down’.
Motivation: In order for staff to be motivated they need to have an understanding
of the logic of the organisation. TTO was suffering from staff not having a sense of ownership of the
organisation but ‘that happened in that week’... ‘field workers now feel part of the organisation’.
Impact on Beneficiaries: If an organisation is suffering from severe organizational problems then this
will certainly be a significant constraint on their effectiveness as ‘organisational problems affect the client very
negatively’. The TTO case showed that addressing these organisational ills will have a very real impact on
beneficiaries: ‘we were paralysed for one year before the intervention and our programmes were suffering’ ... ‘Triple Trust
field workers now have a place to be heard and are more empowered to do their own jobs’. Genuine transformation at a
deep level is not easy, however, and there is the tendency to slip back into old patterns of behaviour.

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Some middle management staff in Triple Trust were more restrained in their assessment of the impact of
the CDRA work feeling that the early momentum for change has been lost – ‘the assumption was that we could
continue on our own, but structures were not put in place, people were left untrained. When they left things fell back. The self-
momentum carried things on for a while, but it soon waned’. They further point out that OD is not an event, but a
process, which needs to be continued within the organisation. ‘CDRA was one event in the process and we see
the workshop as a key part of our history’. They believe that although TTO had the potential capacity to take on
the change process itself it was not given enough priority and people were not ‘empowered to take it on
themselves’. In fact some of the very changes, such as bringing more blacks into the leadership (who had not
been part of the OD process), undermined its continuance.
Factors Constraining the Process
This case and the different perceptions about its effectiveness clearly highlight issues around follow-
through. The consultant himself said, ‘continuity in some form is key. One of the main problems with OD consultancy
is the lack of follow- up; organisations feel they have moved beyond it’. The consultant felt that insufficient follow-up
had been given but that he had to wait to be asked back. TTO were more equivocal, on the one hand
saying, ‘we have heard nothing since they left. The consultant felt we had the structure in place to support changes. But the
new leadership was not part of that process and perhaps they could give us more follow-up’ and on the other noting that
‘the temptation is to go back to the consultant all the time. We need to take ownership ourselves, and consultants need to hold
back’. Even if the consultants themselves did not follow through, there was a feeling amongst some staff
that the OD interventions were strengthened by greater staff development in these areas.
Factors Promoting the Process
External Consultants: The advantages of using external consultants was highlighted by many
respondents stating that, ‘we could not have gone through such a deep and painful process on our own. We needed an
outsider’.
Ownership: The most commonly mentioned success factor was that the NGO itself owned the change
process and was prepared to invest in it, ‘even if our funder had refused to support it we would have paid for it
ourselves’. The ownership of the change process is closely related to how keenly the NGO perceives the
crisis. TTO were in the position of saying, ‘we were at the wall. We had no choice’.
Leadership: With the success of OD being closely related to the leadership’s ability to shift, those who
felt that Triple Trust had changed considerably attributed this partly to ‘the willingness to face head on tough
choices and be flexible’.
Consultant: TTO took considerable time to find the right consultants sympathetic to TTO’s beliefs,
objectives and values. CDRA provided a very experienced, mixed black/white team. The style and skills of
the consultants were crucial as they had to be able to lead TTO through very sensitive and at times
conflictive processes. The main consultant was described as ‘very skilled at trying to work through both the
rational and the emotional’. Maturity of NGO: The maturity of the NGO was also seen to be a contributory
factor in determining the success of OD. TTO said about their willingness to be open to change that ‘we
are capable people, and self-assured. We know we are doing good work we have nothing to hide we are not defensive’.
Role of Donor: TTO lauded its donor in supporting this OD process saying that,
‘we had a wonderful funder who two years before had asked us for a list of capacity-building projects and had funded 7 out of
our list of 11’. This donor, however, was not even a Northern NGO but a bilateral donor – the ODA (now
DFID)! Such enlightened behaviour on the part of bilateral donors represents a very real challenge for
Northern NGOs. The role of donor was strictly limited to the funding of the consultancy and was not
involved in the OD process itself. The CDRA was contracted and reported exclusively to TTO.

TUBA – SUFFERING FROM SUCCESS?

Rick James
Introduction
The Umbrella Body for Aids (TUBA) was established in 1993 by a number of different local and
international development agencies in Malawi. They were all increasingly concerned at the rising

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prevalence of Aids in Malawi and hoped to share experience and learning. TUBA was to facilitate the
coordination and cooperation of NGOs, donors and government involved in Aids-related projects.
TUBA quickly secured funding and established a good reputation through its coherent and articulate
leadership; its high calibre staff; and regular and useful national coordination meetings and newsletters.
Within a short period of time TUBA was credible and trusted with its major donor saying, ‘it’s one NGO we
are proud of ’. By 1996, TUBA had grown to 12 staff members and was diversifying its activities into a
number of related roles. As well as working on coordination, information and networking activities
amongst NGOs, international donors and government, TUBA was also training communities in Aids
awareness education; training NGOs and government extension staff in community care and counseling
methods and medical aspects to Aids prevention and care; undertaking research and advisory support in
gender-related aspects of development; starting an Aids resource centre; undertaking district-level
coordination of NGOs involved in Aids care; as well as channeling funds to NGOs as part of a World
Bank programme of Aids management. TUBA had already been involved in policy level discussions on
Malawi’s Aids prevention and care policy and was also contemplating taking a more active advocacy role
towards government as well as being asked by a number of international bodies to be a regional focal
point.
Potential Crisis?
This growth and diversification soon began to cause a number of internal pressures. TUBA leadership and
staff were feeling increasingly overworked and unable to complete all their tasks adequately. There was a
concern that performance and reputation would soon suffer. Staff morale was falling and programmes
were operating in an isolated fashion. It was clear to the leadership, as well as to the staff, that TUBA was
being dangerously overstretched and that they needed to better define their role in the future and develop
a more focused strategy. This desire coincided with the concerns of a prospective donor; and as part of
the first year’s funding (and the indication that funding would be for at least three to five years) a grant
was included for TUBA to undertake a strategic directions exercise.
The Intervention Process
A few months earlier TUBA had met and quickly built up a level of understanding and trust with a British
OD consultant doing a short-term contract in Malawi. The donor had considerable contact with and was
favourably disposed to the NGO with whom this consultant worked and so TUBA approached the
consultant to undertake this work. Much of the planning had to be done by fax; during which time:
• it was arranged that TUBA would contract the consultant, not the donor, and that a Malawian consultant
would be contracted to work alongside the expatriate;
• the different roles and responsibilities of TUBA and the consultants were agreed;
• TUBA’s ownership of the need for the intervention was identified;
• the process was designed for undertaking the work;
• the outputs of the work were clearly defined – TUBA maintained responsibility for writing up any action
points into a revised strategic plan and a capacity-building plan;
• a questionnaire for staff and another for partner NGOs was designed and sent.
The initial process was agreed at two weeks with a follow-up visit from the consultants after six months.
While the limitations of such a discrete exercise were understood, it was decided that a limited initial
process would not preclude further involvement later should more ongoing support prove necessary. On
arrival, the consultants spent a day with the director of TUBA discovering the background to the
consultancy and what was expected from the intervention. The key stakeholders in TUBA had previously
been identified and individual meetings had been arranged with all TUBA staff, most of TUBA board
members, a sample of Malawian NGOs involved with TUBA, TUBA international donors and
contractors (such as the World Bank) and other stakeholders such as the national umbrella body for
NGOs and the government ministry of health. The two consultants spent seven days gathering data on
TUBA from:
• the semi-structured interviews;
• the questionnaire responses from TUBA staff and member NGOs;
• a review of past TUBA plans, reports and evaluations.
The data was analysed and structured by the consultants and discussed with 15 members of TUBA staff
and board during the four-day workshop, which followed the interviews.

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Strategic Directions Workshop

The aim of the workshop was to get the TUBA staff and board to diagnose for themselves where they
thought TUBA was at the moment. This included both an internal diagnosis and an analysis of the current
and future threats and opportunities in the external environment. Their analysis was complemented and
developed by the findings from the consultants’ previous data-gathering process. The workshop then
facilitated participants to determine which of TUBA’s clients were they really there to serve and what did
this client group want from TUBA. This prioritizing process enabled TUBA to decide what core role it
wanted to play. On the basis of this choice the mission statement was reworked and gender-related
objectives were included. The workshop then introduced a role-play visioning exercise for board and staff
to dream of where they wished TUBA to be in four years time and the common themes were highlighted.
The discrepancy between where TUBA was today and where it wanted to be was then analysed by
participants, and the strategic issues which needed to be dealt with in order to get there were identified. In
working groups, the external/programming strategic options were discussed and decided upon and the
internal issues (such as the lack of a ‘team working’ culture, limited gender awareness, delayed decision-
making, and inappropriate systems for internal controls and staff recruitment and development) were also
analysed and solutions proposed. The outputs of these working groups were synthesized during plenary
feedback. The consultants refused to write up this information. Rather they encouraged the formation of
two small voluntary teams to take responsibility for writing up the feedback into a strategic plan and an
organisational development plan by a certain date after the workshop. The closure of the workshop
involved some ‘reality testing’ by applying the strategic decisions that had been made to actual and
contentious programmes. This testing revealed a coherence amongst the staff and the board of the fairly
momentous implications of the decisions they had made – such as withdrawing from the funding role
which the World Bank was encouraging them to take on.
Factors Promoting the Process
The leadership was extremely committed to the process, both the chair of the board and chief executive
were leading the process. TUBA was a young and flexible organisation in an early stage of its
development, which meant it had not picked up too much bureaucratic baggage and vested interests’
leaving it open to change. The process was also helped by TUBA being small enough for the entire
organisation to be actively involved in the process. There was sufficient pain being experienced in terms
of feeling overstretched and declining morale to preclude the maintenance of the status quo. Unless key
people in the organisation feel the need for change (pain) none is likely to occur. There was general
agreement amongst all stakeholders (staff, board, partner NGOs, donors, contractors) on the issues,
which TUBA needed to address. There was a critical mass of support for change and no great conflict in
direction. The donor was flexible enough to let TUBA direct and contract the consultancy process.
Their long-term view of a funding relationship with TUBA enabled TUBA to lengthen its strategic
perspective and not just go for quick bucks. TUBA themselves invested a lot in the process. The chief
executive made it clear to staff that this was the priority for their time and TUBA themselves covered the
not inconsiderable workshop costs While the workshop ended on a high note, it was recognized that the
real problems would arise in implementing the decisions.
Disaster Strikes!
Within one month of the workshop, the director of TUBA was found to have been defrauding TUBA of
large amounts of money over the past six months. He was immediately sacked. Despite the fact that many
of the Malawian staff suspected this to have been the case, the local and international consultant both
missed diagnosing this area of weakness for a number of reasons:
• the accountant who had all the information was recovering from a motorbike accident during the whole
consultancy (and staff were looking to him to expose the fraud)!
• the other staff who knew of the fraud felt implicated because they had done nothing to date, fearing for
their jobs;
• Malawian cultural norms do not promote confrontation and exposure of others and have a great respect
for those in authority (one Chichewa proverb encapsulates this sentiment – wamkulu sawuzidwa – ‘he is
old, therefore he is right’);
• failure on the consultants’ behalf to probe the ‘mud’ of the organisation more thoroughly;
• by focusing on strategy, the intervention missed some of the underlying
values of honesty and integrity.

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This demonstrates the need for OD consultancies to look at some of the harder financial issues in some
detail; to be aware of the resistance of many people to publicly expose their leaders; and to probe further
when off-hand comments are dropped. Having said that, if the consultancy had managed to expose the
fraud issue this would have undoubtedly derailed the strategic planning process which would have left
TUBA without a direction and without a director (as opposed to just without a director!).
Preliminary Assessment of the Impact
While the strategic plan was written up by the staff after the workshop and approved by the board, TUBA
has continued to face difficulties. The decision to withdraw from channelling World Bank funds angered
the Bank and so, with the departure of the director, the Bank was soon able to say publicly that it was this
mismanagement of funds which had led the World Bank to pull out of TUBA, not vice versa. Within a
month of the loss of the director, the Chair of the Board and two foreign volunteers have also left the
country (as their contracts had ended) aggravating the leadership vacuum. This has severely inhibited the
implementation of the change process, both strategically and in terms of addressing the identified
capacity-building needs. Almost 12 months after the departure of the director, the leadership vacuum still
has not been filled – one director who was appointed by the board was clearly unsuited and his contract
was terminated after just one month. The foreign consultant (now resident in Malawi) has continued with
limited involvement with TUBA in an informal counseling role with some of the remaining staff. Donors
too were increasingly worried about the situation and were being presented with proposals for funding
which were patently unrealistic. Just as it looked as though they would withdraw support and TUBA
would collapse, a final opportunity was given to TUBA to revise their proposal. The remaining staff led
this process themselves and with donor support asked the consultant to help facilitate a one-day
programme-planning day to help them develop some of their strategic priorities into a fundable proposal.
The proposal which the staff developed was greeted extremely enthusiastically by donors – ‘it has improved
200%’. This process, for all its limitations of implementation, did result in a small NGO gaining sufficient
self-identity to be able to say no to the World Bank and perhaps more importantly did succeed in
broadening the ‘ownership’ of the organisation amongst the staff. Prior to the workshop much of the
understanding of the rationale and direction of TUBA lay entirely in the director’s head. If this
understanding had not been transferred to the rest of the staff, it is unlikely that TUBA would have been
able to survive the succeeding 11 months of leadership chaos. It also reinforces the extent to which
responsibility for actually bringing about organisational change lies not with the consultants, but with the
NGO itself.

The Eritrean War Disabled Fighters’ Association (EWDFA)

Organisational Self-Definition and Planning Process
Daudi Waithaka

Introduction
The Eritrean War Disabled Fighters’ Association (EWDFA) was founded as an ‘NGO’ with the
encouragement and support of the Government of Eritrea. Unlike many other newly independent
countries where existing elites take over, the ex-soldiers in Eritrea formed a major part of the new
government. This government realised it had an enormous debt to the disabled fighters and had a duty to
support their resettlement and rehabilitation. It also soon realised that it could not support them from the
national budget for ever and that an organisation owned, controlled and run by the disabled themselves
would have the best potential to address their long-term needs for medical care and economic resources.
In 1992 and 1993, the government gave EWDFA considerable grants as well as contracts for beer
distribution throughout the country to help the NGO get off the ground. A draft constitution was
approved by a founding Congress, members recruited, offices established, core staff hired and
programmes started. These programme initiatives, however, did not prove successful as the ex-fighters
had very little experience of civilian business and management. The programme stagnation soon resulted
in internal quarrels over direction and increasing tension between the civilian and military elements and
the disabled and non-disabled members. While the desire to contribute was there and the funding was also
there, these did not translate into effective programmes. The EWDFA approached Norwegian Church
Aid (NCA) (as Norwegian organisations had always been very close to the struggle in Eritrea) to see how

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their organisation could be made more effective. Through discussions NCA suggested that a Kenyan
consultancy firm, Matrix, be approached to help facilitate two parallel processes – a five-day workshop
with one group to look at vision and mission, as well as a three-day workshop with another group to look
at constitutional issues. On reviewing the literature on the organisation and its history, the Kenyan
consultant felt that the approach suggested was too superficial to deal with the significant problems of
identity in an organisation of 18,000 members and yet with little idea of who it was, what it wanted to be,
how to resolve inherent conflicts internally as well as how it should relate to others externally. It was
thought that a one-off vision workshop might create a vision statement, but would probably not create a
shared vision. A longer-term intervention was suggested which would also keep the entire group of 20
executive committee members and senior staff together. These suggestions were agreed to both by
EWDFA and by NCA.
The Intervention Process
A staggered series of workshops took place with the aims of:
• training the participants in the art of analytical planning;
• analysing the current situation in the country and of the members with a view to mapping out the
organisation’s place in the development of both; • highlighting issues and areas of weakness in the
organisation to collectively prescribe potential solutions and actions;
• concurrently and practically applying those skills gained to actually produce a 1997 Annual Plan and Five
Year Plan.
Workshop I: Vision and Mission (ten days) early 1996
A visioning process was used so that the participants defined:
• what the fighters ought to be like;
• how to get to that desired future;
• what the organisation should be like to facilitate that process.
In between the workshops participants were required to do a lot of ‘homework’ identifying what sorts of
activity each of the categories of the disabled could do and what they needed to be able to do these. Mini-
workshops throughout the country were held which helped members feel greater ownership of the
process. These wider consultations were written up with the help of NCA-supplied secretarial and
translation services.
Workshop II: Strategies and Main Activities (seven days)
In this workshop the main approaches and activities were outlined bringing together the findings of the
wider consultations. Back in the communities after the workshop, participants continued the process of
consultation by working out how these activities might be implemented. For example, activities such as
providing institutional care for the severely disabled had to deal with questions of implementation
including who will supply the medicines and how will it be paid for in the long term.
Workshop III: Detailed 1997 Annual Plan and Sketch of Five Year Plan(14 days) late 1996
The actual plans for 1997 and 1998 were detailed with the workshop participants brainstorming the
contents of the planning document and then authorizing one person to write it up. A very detailed
operational plan and budget was arrived at. These plans were then translated and taken to regional
workshops for discussion and further refinement. Towards the end of 1997 a review is planned to find out
what has gone right and what has gone wrong and what can be learnt. So far about ten weeks consultancy
time has been taken, spread out over the course of the year.
Preliminary Assessment of the Impact
There is evidence of positive impact in a number of areas:
• Vision and mission statements were produced – a ‘first’ for an Eritrean organisation.
• Overall strategies were produced, including a 5 year plan with an indicative budget.
• A detailed annual plan with budgets was produced.
• Participant skills were enhanced as evidenced by their evaluations.
• Cultural shift – despite the military culture, which pervaded at the start, decision-making has
become more consultative and decentralised with regular meetings formalised.
• Conflict resolution – civilians and combatant colleagues are now happier working together.
Factors Constraining the Process

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The main languages of the participants were Arabic and Tigrigna. The Kenyan consultant had to
communicate in English and so there was a need for good translation and interpretation. Communication
became much more difficult. The consultant was an outsider and a stranger to an organisation, which had
a very strong common history of struggle and yet was now disabled. There was much resistance to an
able-bodied outsider who had not fought in the war. This meant that the consultant had to be very open
about himself and his own history to gain acceptance, proving that he did understand their context and
developing sufficient rapport with the fighters to reach even a point of sharing jokes about their
disabilities.
Factors Promoting the Process
The climate in the country was very conducive to the organisation. The disabled fighters were revered
throughout society for their sacrifice in the struggle. The government was very supportive giving them
comfortable funding and removing a big burden of having to respond to donor demands. The
organisation was truly motivated and committed to change. They recognized they had reached a point of
stagnation and if they did not help themselves who would do it for them. The combatants had an
extremely strong team spirit. They were used to working together. They had been sharing their beliefs,
pains and dreams for many years. The top leadership gave their full commitment to the entire process as
all members of the Executive Committee and senior staff participated fully. The consultant spent
considerable time in learning the context and history of the organisation and its struggle as well as the
Eritrean culture. The consultant also prepared case histories of other struggles in Africa to apply back to
their situation. The donor funded the consultancy and provided all the necessary transport, translation
services, secretarial services as well as stationery resources. They recognised the need for an ongoing
process in the wider organisation, rather than just one-off workshops. They held back from full
participation in the early workshops, as they would have been tempted to try to move the process too
quickly. At subsequent workshops they were able to be a bit more involved as EWDFA was beginning to
establish a clearer self-identity. The donor also separated the OD process from a funding decision. The
first stage of OD is building confidence – this cannot be done within the context of a donor decision on
funding, as ‘NGOs have to find their feet first and feel they can argue with a donor on an equal basis and that
disagreement on certain issues is OK’.

INTEGRATING OD
Namibian Rural Development NGO (NRDN)2 Lynette Maart (CDRA)
Introduction

The NRDN had been established in 1987 as a channel for development aid money from the European
Economic Community (EEC) to Victims of Apartheid. It aimed to fund local NGOs and CBOs involved
in resistance work. In 1990 South Africa finally withdrew from their occupation of Namibia in the face of
increased international pressure and the looming possibility of military defeat. The South West African
People’s Organisation (SWAPO) won a landslide victory in the first democratic election in 1990. It soon
became clear, however, that it was unable to deliver on its election promises of alleviating poverty due to a
number of factors including very limited human and financial resources. After independence the NRDN
redefined itself as a national service organisation and changed its focus to facilitate the development of
NGOs and CBOs in the areas of education, health, agriculture, income generation, organisation
development, gender research, as well as lobbying, networking and advocacy. By 1993 the NRDN
employed 22 staff members, all of whom were Namibian locals. The organisation prides itself in that it has
no European or white person on its staff. The NRDN is based in Windhoek, with field offices in the
South and North of Namibia.
The Aim of the Intervention
In December 1992 the CDRA received a letter from a Dutch-based funding agency requesting the CDRA
to assist the NRDN with a routine three-year evaluation process that would cover:
• an assessment of the impact of the organisation’s work;
• internal organisational development, for example, leadership/management, structuring to support the
focus, staff development and policies and procedures. The donor was also concerned about funding,

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questioning whether they should continue to invest in Namibia. The CDRA responded to the funder’s
request that it preferred dealing directly with the client rather than through a third party. The CDRA
believes that development can only be nurtured where the freedom and integrity of the client, as well as
the relationship between the consultant and the client, is sacrosanct. Therefore, the CDRA asked the
NRDN to make a request for an evaluation process in its own name. It received such a request from the
NRDN in February 1993.
The Intervention Process
Initially the CDRA thought that an evaluation and strategic planning process (three months in 1993)
would be sufficient to boost the staff capacity. However, the intervention took three years and three
phases:
1. entry and developing a strategic framework for the way forward;
2. developing the capacity of leadership and management;
3. developing the capacity of the field-work and programme staff.
Each phase was negotiated and contracted for separately. At times the needs emerged out of
conversations with the organisation and at other times it was based on suggestions from the consultants as
to what could be a potential next step. The NRDN then negotiated with its existing funders or sought
new funders to support a particular part of the intervention.
Phase One: Entry, diagnosis and developing a strategic framework for the way forward.
Most of the negotiation for the first phase took place over the telephone and by letter. In the initial
contract with the NRDN the CDRA agreed to:
• conduct an organisational survey which would enable the CDRA to gain an in-depth understanding of
the functioning of the Namibian NGO. The survey would be focused on both the internal organisational
environment (vision and mission, management of resources and functioning of the organisation) and the
external context (i.e. communities that the NGO works with and the broader Namibian context
influencing the dynamic within these communities);
• conduct an organisational workshop that would allow the NRDN to explore its issues and develop skills
as well as adequate plans to resolve these issues and move into the future and complete the report of the
process;
• undertake future work as the need arises.
This part of the contract was carried out by two CDRA consultants over a three-month period in 1993.
Phases two and three are described in detail under the section titled: The Closure and Next Steps Taken.
The Implementation
The following methods were used:
1. Organisational survey
This process took three weeks. The time frame was influenced by distances. During this phase the CDRA
interviewed NRDN clients and board members and identified role-players in the Namibian NGO
community. The CDRA visited project sites and the respective offices to observe their functioning. It also
carried out a review of relevant organisational literature. This enabled the CDRA to develop overviews of
the history and work of the NRDN and the changing Namibian context; analysis of the work done with
clients; and an assessment of the internal organisational functions focusing on identity, strategies,
personnel, technical support and systems, structures and procedures and leadership and management. The
results of the organisational survey were written up in a draft report.
2. Organisational workshop
In a one-week residential workshop the CDRA assisted staff to work through the issues raised in the draft
diagnostic and evaluation report and devised a strategic response for addressing these including
overhauling the technical subsystem of the organisation.
3. Final report
The final report incorporated the changes and comments made by staff of the interim report during the
first part of the workshop. The final report also contained the outcomes of the organisational workshop
and future recommendations by the consultants.
The Closure and Next Steps Taken
This process ended (according to the first contract) after the organizational workshop. During the
workshop, however, we were confronted with the reality of the leadership and management capacity of an

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organisation staffed primarily by Namibians. It was extremely difficult just to walk away. Over the next
two and a half years, while not part of the initial plan, the following interventions became appropriate and
were conducted as the NRDN developed.
Phase Two: Developing the capacity of the management team (three-year project from 1994 to
1996).
The second phase comprised the following steps:
• a workshop in 1994 which targeted the newly appointed leadership of the NRDN to explore the tasks
and functions of organisational leadership and management and self-management;
• three members of the management team attended the CDRA – Facilitating
Organisation Development (FOD) Course in 1994 and another one in 1995;
• evaluation and strategic planning with the entire management team for one week in 1995 and another
week in 1996 to tackle internal functioning and management difficulties.
Phase Three: Developing the capacity of the field-work staff (one year 1996).
This included accompanying the entire field team (15 staff) through the Fieldworkers’ Formation Course
(FFC) in 1996, a training and development programme designed to equip participants to better facilitate
the building of capacity of clients.
Preliminary Assessment of the Impact
Clarity was gained in the identity, purpose and strategies of the NRDN and then refined even more in
1995 when the organisation defined itself as working in the area of poverty alleviation through attaining
household food security and more specifically agriculture and income generation and capacity-building of
local initiatives. The OD interventions resulted in very real changes in strategy with programmes actually
being closed down – ‘NRDN, a generalist organisation decided to concentrate on agriculture and income generation.
They dropped pre-school education, health, resource centres and libraries’. This did not remain a one-off event, as
ongoing strategic planning processes were introduced. There were very real changes in the style of
leadership and organizational culture, with ‘the pioneer culture, which knew about everything and was responsive to all
demands giving way to a more differentiated way of working where strategic choices were made’. A radical restructuring of
the organisation resulting in three decentralized offices and a national office with the role of providing
organisational and financial support while ‘regional managers were given a role in determining the organisational
direction’. The restructuring process took the organisation approximately one and a half years to complete.
It had to secure financial resources and to search from within its ranks and outside for potentially suitable
leadership candidates and then train them. Development of leadership and management capacity took
place. Without this, the initial intervention would not have been sustained. The CDRA firmly believes that
organisational development is intertwined with the capacity of leadership and management collectively and
as individuals. An indication of this is that the pioneer leader has indicated that she is willing to move on
to greener pastures, as some leadership and management capacity has been developed. She would not
have been able to risk this during 1993. There was also the development of staff skills at field level, which
led to an ‘increased level of analysis and depth of questions at field-worker level. They became able to critique and change
their own practice’. Most importantly, the organisation in the short term dealt with the immediate crisis but
also created the institutional framework upon which further capacity could be built. Even though the
process has been slow and at times painstaking it has enabled the staff of the NRDN to improve their
understanding of their roles within the organisation and of the organisational functioning overall, thus
putting the NRDN in a better position to make conscious and informed choices for the organisation’s
future development.
Key Learning
When confronted with the outcome of the initial diagnostic report the organizational leadership (the
director – a coloured female and the deputy director – black male) took the criticism as a personal attack
on their integrity. Their initial reaction was panic, withdrawal and paralysis. A lot of counseling work was
done on the side with the director and she concluded, ‘this was my moment of consciousness. I needed to be shocked
to make the shift’. In order to encourage this change the consultants had to use different consulting styles,
such as both the confrontational and the nurturing style. The consultants felt that ‘you need both roles,
especially in organisations of women where confrontation is very difficult for them to deal with’. It is clear from this case
that the context is important in affecting the nature of OD. By consciously choosing to employ only black
staff (with a limited educational background) it ‘means that the OD process will take longer and be more expensive.

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It is making up for years of poor education which means you cannot take the knowledge base for granted. Also Namibia has
a much smaller pool to draw on than South Africa which makes the pace slower’. While the CDRA intervention was
meant to scale down the activities of the NGO and provide capacity-building (allowing the donor to exit),
CDRA was clear at the outset to the donor ‘if you want to exit then say so, but do not use an evaluation to do so’.
The donor is still there to this day. During the intervention the staff of the NRDN needed time in
between interventions to digest what happened, to distil learning and to take forward in implementation
what was useful for them. This required considerable patience of the consultant and the ability to hold
back. This holding back at times, and not giving up, is vital to the success of an intervention of this nature,
particularly with local African initiatives which tend to have organisational capacity constraints.
Organisation development is not a one-night stand based only on the needs and requirement of funders.
It is a long-term relationship that is based on mutual understanding and respect.
Factors Promoting the Process
NRDN maintained ownership of the intervention. At the start CDRA insisted that the request for the
support come from NRDN and that the contracting be done directly by them rather than by the Dutch
donor. The feedback workshop process in Phase one continued this ownership of the issues. CDRA did
not just extract information to write a report, but they used this to design the workshop
for NRDN to work through the strategic issues and responses. The consultants also showed the
importance of holding back from becoming too directive and ensuring that control remained with the
NRDN. The intervention recognised the long-term nature of organisational change and did not expect
that a one-off workshop would solve all NRDN’s problems. Extensive follow-up was given. This follow-
up used a mixture of other capacity-building methodologies such as training, highlighting the benefit of a
multi-pronged approach to organizational change. The diagnostic process enabled the consultants to gain
an in-depth understanding of the key issues which NRDN needed to address and undoubtedly helped
them facilitate the workshop appropriately and manage the initial adverse reactions of the leadership. The
intervention shows the importance of ensuring that the leadership is fully involved in the process, not just
consenting to it. If the director had not been given such one-to-one counseling support, she may well
have derailed the entire process.

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Journey of Open Systems

Change Theory
The Change Handbook – Group Methods for Shaping the Future
Edited by Peggy Holman + Tom Devane
1999 Berrett-Koehler Publishers Inc

Open Systems Change Theory includes a range of change methods that are based on two foundation
assumptions:
• high involvement
• a systematic approach to improvement
These ‘high leverage’ change methods can help you initiate sustainable improvements in your
organisation or community. Note the emphasis on high leverage’. In any improvement effort we want
the highest possible value for the effort invested. Moving people in a systematic way is the key to high
leverage. As a OD facilitator you will need to determine which methods will be best suited to help
move the organisation forward

Open Systems can be applied to OD processes and OD has been influenced by such thinking.

The Change Handbook gives an overview of these approaches and a useful matrix which highlights:
Purpose/Outcomes, Process, Number of Participants, Typical Duration, Brief Example, When to use it,
When not to use it, Impact on Cultural Assumptions, Creator, Date Created, Historic Context.

Eighteen methods are described and these include:

Method Purpose/Outcome Process

Future To evolve a common ground Riding the Roller Coaster
future for an organisation and Review the past
Search to develop self managed plans Mind map the present
to move towards it Ideal futures
Common Futures
Action
Appreciative Using interviews that Discovery –“What gives life” (the best of what is)
encourage appreciative APPRECIATING
Inquiry participation. Tapping into the Dream “What might be” (What the world is
organisations positive core and calling for) ENVISIONING IMPACT
inspires collaborative action. Design “What should be – the ideal?”
CO-CONSTRUCTING
Destiny “How to empower, learn, and
adjust/improve?” SUSTAINING
Search To create a well-articulated Segments Tasks
desirable, achievable future Environment understanding Changes outside the system
Conference with action plans for and analysis Historic Events
implementation within a Systems understanding and Present System
defined timetable by a analysis Desirable future
community of people who Integration of the System + Constraints
want to and know how to do it Environment Action Plans
Active Adaptive Process Participative Design Workshop
Diffusion (post Search Growth
Conference)
Open Space To enable high levels of group Market Place
interaction and productivity, The The four principles
providing a basis for enhanced Law Who ever comes is the right person
organisational function over of What ever happens is the only thing that could have
time. Two Whenever it starts is the right time
Feet When it is over it is over.

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Metaphors – Proverbs – Quotes - Poems

Metaphors, proverbs, quotes and poems can be used in creative ways in Organisational Development to
illustrate, emphasise or clarify a particular activity or phase of activities. They can be short and beautifully
simple analogies for illustrating aspects of causes or dealing with change and
peoples responses to it. OD practices can benefit from weaving into the
‘Society Culture’ making links with the traditions, heritage and knowledge of
the specific country. Metaphors and proverbs can also transend country
boundaries and can unite and motivate the OD practitioner and
organisation in their common goal of organisational change. Research
needs to be done with national colleagues to seek out appropriate and to
check mutual understanding and interpretion.

To illustrate this approach a selection of metaphors, proverbs, quotes and poems are
listed and some sources for further ideas (in Participants Handbook). In addition
a range of materials are laminated and in the course box, to be used at the
trainers discretion. It may be useful in presenting a transition of
approaches by using quotes in the first part of the course and proverbs as
the course progresses.

Metaphors
An expression which describes a person or object in a literary way by referring to something that is
considered to possess similar characteristics to the person or object you are trying to describe.

Proverbs / Proverbial Stories

A story or saying known by many people stating something commonly experienced or giving advice
• Aesops Fables – Phrygian slave collected 300 fables in 6th centruy BC.
• Zen stories – Japanese philosophy: a form of buddhism which developed in Japan.
• Bible - Parables – proverbial stories.

Quotes
A fact or example referenced in order to add emphasis to what you are
saying.

Poems
The art of rhythmical composition, written or spoken, for exciting
pleasure by beautiful, imaginative, or elevated thoughts.

Riddles
A type of question which describes something in a difficult and confusing way, and which
has a clever or amusing answer, often asked as a game.

Sources:
Aesops Fables: (Alan Chapman 2001-4) www.businessballs.com
Poetry: www.cdra.za

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Metaphors
Setting up a support network
“palm trees drop coconuts and float to other islands where they grow forests” Vanuatu.
Strategic Planning
Boat and island imagery throughout Strategic Planning workshops - Phillipines.
Systematic Planning
Stepping Stones for phases of OD – VSO OD workshop.

Proverbs / Proverbial Stories

Aesop’s Fables (relating to organisatinal change)
Aesop's Fables date from the 6th century BC. Aesop was supposedly a Phrygian slave, and met his end when thrown over a
cliff at Delphi for being ugly and deformed. Whatever the story of Aesop, the fables that bear his name (Aesop collected the
fables, he didn't write them) contain timeless lessons. Aesop's Fables also gave rise to and reflect many of today's expressions
and cliches. Aesop's Fables total more than 300. Here are the best of Aesop's Fables.
The Crow and the Pitcher. (Necessity is the mother of invention.)
A thirsty crow found a pitcher containing some water, albeit too little and low to reach. As it seemed she
would die within sight of the remedy, the crow struck upon an idea to drop pebbles into the pitcher. The
water level rose and the crow was able to drink.
The North Wind and the Sun. (Persuasion is better than force.)
The north wind and the sun argued which was the stronger. On seeing a traveler they agreed a suitable
test would be to strip him of his cloak. First the wind blew with all his might, but the more he blew, the
more than man wrapped the cloak tightly around himself. When the sun's turn came, he gently beamed at
the man, who loosened the cloak. The sun shone brighter still, and the man threw off his cloak.
The Lion and the Ass. (Enforced change might is right.)
A lion and an ass went hunting and agreed that the ass would run down the prey and the lion would kill it,
which worked as planned. The lion divided the carcass into three and announced, "I will take the first
portion because I am king of the beasts; the second is my half of what remains, and the third you'll give to
me or you'll be sorry."
The Crab and his Mother. (Lead by example and evidence - or you'll not change people.)
A mother crab criticised her son for walking sideways, whereupon the son asked his mother to show him
how to walk straight. Of course the mother crab was unable to walk any straighter than her son, and soon
apologised for criticising what she herself was guilty of too.
The miller, his Son and the Ass. (No single change is likely to please everyone - everyone wants
something different.)
A miller and his son were taking their ass to sell at market, when they passed a group of girls, who laughed
at how foolish the miller was to have an ass and yet be walking. So the miller put his son on the ass.
Further down the road they passed some old people who scolded the miller for allowing his young son to
ride, when he should be riding himself. So the miller removed his son and mounted the ass himself.
Further along the road, they passed some travelers who said that if he wanted to sell the ass the two of
them should carry him or he'd be exhausted and worthless. So the miller and his son bound the ass's legs
to a pole and carried him. When they approached the town the people laughed at the sight of them, so
loud that the noise frightened the ass, who kicked out and fell off a bridge into the river and drowned.
The embarrassed miller and son went home with nothing, save the lesson that you will achieve nothing by
trying to please everyone.

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The Oak and the Reeds. (The need for tolerance - changer or 'changes'.)
A mighty oak tree was uprooted by a gale and fell across a stream into some reeds. "How have you reeds,
so frail, survived, when I, so strong, have been felled?" asked the oak tree. "You were stubborn and
wouldn't bend," replied the reeds, "whereas we yield and allow the gale to pass harmlessly by."
The Rich Man and the Tanner. (Time softens change - given time people get used to things.)
A rich man moved nearby a tanner and soon found the smell of the tannery so bad that he asked the
tanner to relocate his business. The rich man repeated his demands for a while, but the tanner delayed
and procrastinated so long that eventually the rich man became used to the smell and never mentioned it
again.
The Ass and the Mule. (Agree to reasonable change now or you can risk far worse enforced
change in the future.)
A man loaded his ass and his mule for a journey, but after traveling for a while the ass began to weaken,
so he asked the stronger mule to carry some of his load. The mule refused, and in due course the ass
collapsed and died. The mule was then forced to carry the ass's load, and also the skin of the poor ass.
The mule could only just manage the painful load, and realised his failure to help a little at first had caused
a much greater suffering to himself.

Africa
Strategic Planning
“You can’t eat an elephant in one bite.”
“Here delicious things, there delicious things, the monkey end up falling flat on his back.” Malawi.
“Bad things do not beat a drum to say they are coming so be prepared.” Malawi.
“Walk quietly but carry a big stick”.
Organisational Change
“If you want to change someone you must start at the heart.” Malawi.
Team work
“One finger does not squash a tick.” Malawi.
Learning
“How can we teach people to fish when we don’t know how to fish ourselves?”
Conflict
“If you have a disagreement with your father, you go and talk to your mother who will talk to your
father.”

Asian
Zen Stories
"The Nightingale does not resent the Cuckoo's simple song. But you, if I don't sing like you, tell me that I
am wrong."
"If you want to understand, you don't understand. If you attain don't-know, that is your true nature."
"If you are attached to words and speech, you won't understand a melon's taste; you will only understand
it’s outside form. If you want to understand a melon's taste, then cut a piece and put it in your mouth."

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Chinese
Culture hides more than it reveals and, strangely enough, what it hides, it hides most effectively
from its own participants.
“The fish is the last one to discover the sea."
The effect of supporting organisations to develop themselves – capacity building.
“Give a man a fish and you feed him for a day. Teach a man to fish and you feed him for a lifetime."
You have to be courageous if you're going to be an agent for change. You've just got to be
tenacious and stick with it and really believe in what you're doing, otherwise the road is going to
be even tougher.
"If we don't change our direction, we are likely to end up where we are headed."
“Falling down seven times, but standing up eight times.”
"Better go home and make a net, rather than dive for fish at random."

Indonesian
'Different fields, different grasshoppers' in Indonesian = 'Horses for courses' in English

Quotes
‘‘prescriptions without diagnosis is malpractice whether in medicine or management’ Albrecht

Poems - To an English Friend in Africa

Be grateful for freedom
To see other dreams.
Bless your loneliness as much as you drank
Of your former companionships.
All that you are experiencing now
Will become moods of future joys
So bless it all.
Do not think your ways superior
To another's
Do not venture to judge
But see things with fresh and open eyes
Do not condemn
But praise what you can
And when you can't be silent. Ben Ochri 1991

Riddles – Gender
One day, a father and son go for a drive. Their car is hit by a truck. The father is killed and the son is
taken to hospital. When the son is wheeled into the emergency room, one of the doctors gasps, shouting,
'Oh my God, that's my son!' How could that be?
‘Early OD emphasised destination, current practice seems to be more concerned with good
seamanship and keeping the craft buoyant and picking a course between many hazards’.
McLean.

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Learning Log

What aspect of the course did you find very useful?

From your placement document, what tools do you think might be useful in your
placement?

Which areas would you like more support in Pre-departure/In-country?

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