LECTURE 2_1

Soil properties

Main reference

R.F. Craig , Soil Mechanics 7th ed, 2004; Holtz, R.D. and Kovacs, W.D. (1981). An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering, Prentice Hall. Bowles, J.E., Physical and Geotechnical Properties of Soils, McGraw-Hill Kogagusha Ltd., 1979. Braja M.Das, Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Fifth edition, 2004, PWS Publishing Company, Boston Budu M., Soil Mechanics and Foundations, Second Edition, 2007, John Wiley& Sons, New York

Outline course 2
1. Soil texture 2. Grain size distribution
1. 2. Sieve analysis Hidrometer

3. Soil classification 4. Atterberg limit

1. 2. 3. Liquid lilmit Plastic limit Shrinkage limit

5. Compaction 6. California Bearing Ratio (CBR)

Soil texture
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The texture of a soil is its appearance or feel and it depends on the relative sizes and shapes of the particles as well as the range or distribution of those sizes.
Coarse-grained soils: Gravel Sand Fine-grained soils: Silt Clay

0.075 mm (USCS) 0.06 mm (BS)

Sieve analysis Hydrometer analysis

Characteristics
(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

Grain Size Distribution

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Sieve size

(Das, 1998)

(Head, 1992)

Grain Size Distribution (Cont.)

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Lab Experiment
Gravel Sand

Coarse-grained soils:

Fine-grained soils: Silt Clay

0.075 mm (USCS)

(Head, 1992)

Sieve analysis

Hydrometer analysis

Grain Size Distribution (Cont.)

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Effective size D10: 0.02 mm D30=0.6 mm D60= 9 mm

Log scale
(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

Grain Size Distribution (Cont.)

Grain Size Distribution (Cont.)

Describe the shape

Example: well graded

Criteria
Well graded soil 1 < C c < 3 and C u 4 (for gravels)

D10 = 0.02 mm (effective size) D 30 = 0.6 mm D 60 = 9 mm

Coefficient of uniformity D 9 C u = 60 = = 450 D10 0.02 Coefficient of curvature (D 30 ) 2 (0.6) 2 Cc = = =2 (D10 )(D 60 ) (0.02)(9)

1 < C c < 3 and C u 6 (for sands)

Question What is the Cu for a soil with only one grain size?
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Answer
11

Question What is the Cu for a soil with only one grain size?

Coefficient of uniformity D C u = 60 = 1 D10

Finer

D Grain size distribution

Grain Size Distribution (Cont.)

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Engineering applications
1.

It will help us feel the soil texture (what the soil is) and it will also be used for the soil classification (next topic). It can be used to define the grading specification of a drainage filter (clogging). It can be a criterion for selecting fill materials of embankments and earth dams, road sub-base materials, and concrete aggregates. It can be used to estimate the results of grouting and chemical injection, and dynamic compaction.

2.

3.

4.

Effective Size, D10, can be correlated with the hydraulic conductivity (describing the permeability of soils). (Hazens Equation).(Note: controlled by small particles) The grain size distribution is more important to coarse-grained soils.
5.

Soil classification

Standards to determine soil classification :

ASTM

: American Society for Testing and Material

(ASTM) AASHTO: American Association for State Highway Transportation Officials U.S.C.S : Unified Soil Classification System U.S Beareu of Reclamation, M.I.T : Massachusets Institute of Technology ( Taylor 48 ) B.S : British Standard

Soil classification

USCS

4.75 2.0

0.07 5 0.06 0.00 2

BS

USCS: Unified Soil Classification BS: British Standard

Unit: mm

(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

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Symbol

Particle size (mm) 300 75 - 300 74 4.75 75 -19 19 4.75

USCS

Boulders Cobbles Gravel Coarse Fine Sand Coarse Medium Fine Fine grains Silt Clay Organic Peat Gradation symbol Well graded Poorly graded Liquid limit symbol High LL Low LL

no no G

S 4.75 2 2.0 - 0.425 0.425 0.075 < 0.075 M C O P W P H L

Note:
Clay-size particles
For example: A small quartz particle may have the similar size of clay minerals.

Clay minerals
For example: Kaolinite, Illite, etc.

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Soil triangle

Sebagai contoh jika tanah memliki kandungan silt 50%, clay 25% dan sand 40% maka menurut soil triangle ini jenis tanah tersebut adalah medium loam

Atterberg limit

Volume

Keadaan padat

Keadaan semi padat

Keadaan plastis

Keadaan cair

Water content Batas Susut Shrinkage Limit Batas Plastis Plastic Limit Batas Cair Liquid Limit

Atterberg Limits
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The presence of water in fine-grained soils can significantly affect associated engineering behavior, so we need a reference index to clarify the effects. (The reason will be discussed later in the topic of clay minerals)

In percentage

(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

Liquid Limit-LL

Casagrande Method (ASTM D4318-95a)

Cone Penetrometer Method (BS 1377: Part 2: 1990:4.3)

Professor Casagrande standardized the test and developed the liquid limit device. Multipoint test One-point test

This method is developed by the Transport and Road Research Laboratory, UK. Multipoint test One-point test

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Liquid Limit-LL (Cont.)

Dynamic shear test

Shear strength is about 1.7 ~2.0 kPa. Pore water suction is about 6.0 kPa.

Particle sizes and water

Passing No.40 Sieve (0.425 mm). Using deionized water. The type and amount of cations can significantly affect the measured results.

(review by Head, 1992; Mitchell, 1993).

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Casagrande Method
Device

N=25 blows Closing distance = 12.7mm (0.5 in)

(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

The water content, in percentage, required to close a distance of 0.5 in (12.7mm) along the bottom of the groove after 25 blows is defined as the liquid limit

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Liquid limit test: (a) liquid limit device; (b) grooving tool; (c) soilpat before test; (d) soil pat after test

Casagrande Method (Cont.)

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Multipoint Method

Das, 1998

w1 w2 Flow index, I F = (choose a positive value) log(N 2 / N1 ) w = I F log N + cont.

Casagrande Method (Cont.)

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Assume a constant slope of the flow N LL = wn curve. 25 The slope is a statistical result of 767 liquid limit tests.
Limitations:

One-point Method

tan

N = number of blows wn = corresponding moisture content tan = 0.121

The is an empirical coefficient, so it is not always 0.121. Good results can be obtained only for the blow number around 20 to 30.

Cone Penetrometer Method

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Device

This method is developed by the Transport and Road Research Laboratory.

(Head, 1992)

Cone Penetrometer Method (Cont.)

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Multipoint Method

Penetration of cone (mm)

20 mm

LL Water content w%

Cone Penetrometer Method (Cont.)

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One-point Method (an empirical relation)

(Review by Head, 1992)

Example:

Penetration depth = 15 mm, w = 40%, Factor = 1.094, LL = 40 1.094 44

Comparison
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A good correlation between the two methods can be observed as the LL is less than 100.

Littleton and Farmilo, 1977 (from Head, 1992)

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QUESTION: WHICH METHOD WILL RENDER MORE CONSISTENT RESULTS?

Plastic Limit-PL
34

(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

The plastic limit PL is defined as the water content at which a soil thread with 3.2 mm diameter just crumbles. ASTM D4318-95a, BS1377: Part 2:1990:5.3

Shrinkage Limit-SL
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Definition of shrinkage limit: The water content at which the soil volume ceases to change is defined as the shrinkage limit.

SL

(Das, 1998)

4.4 Shrinkage Limit-SL (Cont.)

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Soil volume: Vi Soil mass: M1

Soil volume: Vf Soil mass: M2

(Das, 1998)

SL = w i (%) w (%) Vi Vf M1 M 2 (100) = M M 2 2 ( w )(100)

4.4 Shrinkage Limit-SL (Cont.)

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Although the shrinkage limit was a popular classification test during the 1920s, it is subject to considerable uncertainty and thus is no longer commonly conducted. One of the biggest problems with the shrinkage limit test is that the amount of shrinkage depends not only on the grain size but also on the initial fabric of the soil. The standard procedure is to start with the water content near the liquid limit. However, especially with sandy and silty clays, this often results in a shrinkage limit greater than the plastic limit, which is meaningless. Casagrande suggests that the initial water content be slightly greater than the PL, if possible, but admittedly it is difficult to avoid entrapping air bubbles. (from Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

4.5 Typical Values of Atterberg Limits

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(Mitchell, 1993)

Indices
Plasticity index PI For describing the range of water content over which a soil was plastic PI = LL PL

Liquid State PI Plastic State Semisolid State Solid State

C Liquid Limit, LL B Plastic Limit, PL A Shrinkage Limit, SL

Liquidity index LI For scaling the natural water content of a soil sample to the Limits. w PL w PL LI = = PI LL PL w is the water content

LI <0 (A), brittle fracture if sheared 0<LI<1 (B), plastic solid if sheared LI >1 (C), viscous liquid if sheared
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Indices (Cont.)
Sensitivity St (for clays)
Strength (undisturbed ) St = Strength (disturbed ) Unconfined shear strength
Clay particle w > LL Water

(Holtz and Kavocs, 1981)

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Indices (Cont.)
Activity A

(Skempton, 1953)

PI A= % clay fraction ( weight ) clay fraction : < 0.002 mm

Purpose

Normal clays: 0.75<A<1.25 Inactive clays: A<0.75 Active clays: A> 1.25 High activity: large volume change when wetted Large shrinkage when dried Very reactive (chemically)
Mitchell, 1993

Both the type and amount of clay in soils will affect the Atterberg limits. This index is aimed to separate them.

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Engineering Applications
42

The Atterberg limit enable clay soils to be classified.

The Atterberg limits are usually correlated with some engineering properties such as the permeability, compressibility, shear strength, and others.

In general, clays with high plasticity have lower permeability, and they are difficult to be compacted. The values of SL can be used as a criterion to assess and prevent the excessive cracking of clay liners in the reservoir embankment or canal.

Some Thoughts about the Sieve Analysis

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The representative particle size of residual soils

The particles of residual soils are susceptible to severe breakdown during sieve analysis, so the measured grain size distribution is sensitive to the test procedures (Irfan, 1996).

Wet analysis
For clean sands and gravels dry sieve analysis can be used. If soils contain silts and clays, the wet sieving is usually used to preserve the fine content.

Some Thoughts about the Hydrometer Analysis

44

Stokes law
( s w )D 2 v= 18

Assumption Sphere particle

Reality Platy particle (clay particle) as D 0.005mm Many particles in the suspension

Single particle
(No interference between particles)

Known specific gravity of particles

Average results of all the minerals in the particles, including the adsorbed water films. Note: the adsorbed water films also can increase the resistance during particle settling. Brownian motion as D 0.0002 mm

Terminal velocity
(Compiled from Lambe, 1991)