PROPOSAL ETP GROUP 24

ENGINEERING TEAM PROJECT GROUP 24 Project: Polymer Solution Preparation Kit Team leader: LUVENRAJ A/L C SATHASIVAM (EE) 13108

Members: AMIR HAZWAN BIN ABD GAFAR (ME) ABDUL AFIF BIN AHMAD (CE) FAZIANA ZARITH BINTI ZAMBERI (CE) ZULHAZMI BIN MOHD ZULKIFLI (CV) SITI HAJAR AISYAH BINTI MAT SOH (PE) KABILAN A/L MUTHUSAMY (ME) 13029 12997 13068 15191 13379 13093

Supervisor: MR. MOHD ZAMRI ABDULLAH

PROPOSAL ETP GROUP 24

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 ABSTRACT

The basis of this research is to design a device to facilitate the movement of solutions in the pipeline in order to maintain a proper flow rate of polymer and tap water solution. We have done a review on previous studies carried out and have chosen the study done by AlWahaibi et al. (2007) and Ngan et al. (2007) as our reference. Our project does however have some variation in terms of design and function. A brief description of our design includes the use of an aluminium filter funnel as the feed tank of the polymer, a centrifugal pump to draw water molecules into the feed tank, PVC pipes to channel water into the feed tank and also an orifice tube to create a pressure variation in the tank. Special effort should be expended to ensure complete, homogeneous dissolution. Once formed, various tests will also be carried out to determine the quality of homogenous solution obtained. Our overall approach is to form a suitable concentration of polymer solution which is homogenous through our design. Looking at a larger scale, our findings may be useful for the Oil & Gas Industry as it may provide a platform for them to facilitate movement of fluids in Oil Rigs.

PROPOSAL ETP GROUP 24 1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT We must first understand the problem in order to come up with an effective solution. Previously, there were several ideas came up in order to prepare the polymer solution and there were also problems occurred during the experiment. The problems that we want to overcome are: The problem that occurs is that huge amount of polymer gel is observed at the centre of the tank when the polymer powder is sprinkled onto the surface of water during the stirring. At the certain parts of the solution the polymer may agglomerates and produces gel or lumps. The gel sticks at the impeller shaft produced a heterogeneous solution. This is also might be due to the small vortex that is only produced further at the centre during stirring and unable to mix the long chain polymer consistently throughout the solution.

The strange outcomes of the drag reduction study are observed since the solution 'concentration' is not consistent. This is due to the polymer composed of long carbon chains; therefore the behaviour of the solution prepared would not be the same as the solution made up by small molecules. This might pose a problem since the polymer solution is hardly being a homogeneous, and even clearly visualized through the naked eye.

The polymer solution should be rested in order to reduce shear degradation due to mixing. After being left, the viscosity reduction phenomena of diluted polyacrylamide occurred in water. Besides, they found out the solution became cloudy and sometimes a small amount of precipitates could be observed after storing in a long time.

Most of the process are using human effort to sprinkles the polymer powder into the solvent or reactor. This will lead us to random error such as the measurement of polymer powder; the time of sprinkles and the area of sprinkle itself. This error will reduce the quality of polymer solution and the basic problem in producing the drag-reducing additives.

PROPOSAL ETP GROUP 24 1.3 OBJECTIVES As we all know, the addition of the drag-reducing additives influence the reduction of wall friction especially during the liquid flow and the drag-reducing additives use in this project is the polymer solution. Our team starts evaluating the idea and did some research in investigating the concept of the idea. The main purpose for this project is to design a device that will be used to prepare a homogeneous polymer solution. There are several objectives need to fulfil in order to ensure that the idea of the device can be achieves: To avoid agglomerates or lumps during the process of addition of the dragreducing additives especially at the stirrer of the reactor. The basic idea is we will prepare and use the homogeneous polymer solution instead of the polymer powder as the drag-reducing additives.

To produce high quality of the polymer solution especially in terms of concentration of the solution in the solvent. In order to get a consistent concentration, we will need to analyse whether the solution produce is homogeneous in term of polymer powder and water by using the suitable water pressure and flow rate. We also will be ensuring that there are no large particles of polymer powder pass through the end of our device which can lead to the long chain of carbon in our solvent.

To avoid precipitation and reduction of viscosity phenomenon during the process of reduce shear degradation. When we are using the device, the solution does not need to be rested in order for it to be a homogeneous. Thus, the process of precipitation and reduction of viscosity will not occur.

To decrease human effort on producing the drag-reducing additives. The method of sprinkling the polymer powder is not practical. Thus, we are using the suitable flow rate and the pressure of water inlet to produce the polymer solution and directly stream the solution into the solvent.

PROPOSAL ETP GROUP 24 1.4 BACKGROUND ANALYSIS Research in the area of fluid dynamic drag reduction has received increased emphasis in recent years. In 1949, Toms has discovered the phenomenon of turbulent drag reduction by polymer additives. The addition of an amount of long-chain polymer molecules in water or in organic solvents, the frictional drag of turbulent flow through pipes and channels can be reduced dramatically. In pipe flows, for example, the drag can be reduced by up to 80 % by adding just a few parts per million (ppm) of polymer. Toms discovered it by chance in the summer of 1946, when he was actually investigating the mechanical degradation of polymer molecules using a simple pipe flow apparatus. He observed it is really an outstanding thing that a polymer solution clearly offered less resistance to flow, under constant pressure, than the solvent itself. The drag reduction effect is extremely interesting from a practical point of view. Liquids are mostly transported through pipes, and a drag reduction by adding a small amount of polymers can offer large economic advantages and a larger effectiveness of this transportation. The most spectacular success in polymer applications for drag reduction has been the use of oil-soluble polymers in the trans-Alaska pipeline system, where as a result the flow rate has been increased by 32,000 m3/d. However, one of the complexities encountered during polymer induced drag reduction is degradation of polymer chains which hamper their effectiveness as a drag reducing agent. Another minus point is the difficulty to remove the solvent from its final form, causing degradation of bulk properties. Besides that, polymer induced drag reduction is also not environmental friendly as it causes environmental pollution due to solvent release. Our goal leads to the rise of a new question, How can we design an effective device to prepare a homogeneous polymer solution? Our project focusses on ways how a homogeneous solution with suitable concentration can be produced via appropriate conceptual design with reference to the study done by Al-Wahaibi et al. (2007) and Ngan et al. (2007). ln their most recent study, the polymer solution is prepared by mixing the polymer in powder form with deionized water in a stirred tank. The additive used is a copolymer of acrylamide and sodium acrylate (HPAM, Magnafloc 1011, Cibi Specialty Chemicals). The polymer solution was hardly being a homogeneous, and could clearly be visualized through the naked eye. As a result, the anomalous outcomes of the drag reduction study are observed since the

solution'concentration'is not consistent.

PROPOSAL ETP GROUP 24 Chapter 2: Design Approach and Methodology

Main objective states that the purpose of this project is to design a device that will be used to prepare a homogeneous polymer solution. Basically, the device is used to facilitate the movement of solution in the pipeline in order to maintain a proper flow rate of polymer and tap water solution.

2.1 PROCEDURE

Polymer powder Pump solution Tap water

Preparation Device

Homogeneous

1. At the inlet, the tap water is pumped through the device so to increase the velocity of the water. 2. Then, polymer powder is poured into the hopper inlet which is installed on top of the device. 3. Later, through contact between water and polymer powder that will ensure homogeneous solution to occur.

PROPOSAL ETP GROUP 24

2.2 PLAN AND SCHEMATIC FLOW PROCESS OF THE PROJECT

Start Check the solubility of polymer Design the casing of the device

Test the flow rate of water through orifice /venturi Check the homogeneity of the solution outlet Experiment NO

Practicality YES Prototype design Prototype fabrication Testing

Successfully functioning YES Presentation and Exhibition Final report END

NO

PROPOSAL ETP GROUP 24 2.3 HARDWARE /TOOLS AND SOFTWARE These are the hardware/tools and software needed in order to make the prototype model. No. Name 1 2 3 4 5 6 PVC Pipe Perspex Centrifugal Pump Orifice tube Pipe Hose Aluminium Filter Funnel 7 Electronic Components Used for circuit completion. Description To channel the tap water throughout the device process Used as the basic building structure To create pressure and allow smooth movement of water To determine the flow rate of the device To connect the tap water into the device Used as the feed tank of the polymer into the device

Table 1: List of hardware used

No. Name 1 2 3 Electric Drill Hot Glue Gun Hand Tools

Description To create hole or passage for pipeline To join some of the parts of the device Used to build prototype model.

Table 2: List of tools used

No. Name 1 2 AutoCAD Microsoft Office

Description Used for drawing of model in 2D and 3D mode Used for documentation; proposal, progress report and final report

Table 3: List of software used

PROPOSAL ETP GROUP 24 Chapter 3: Project Planning 3.1 GANTT CHART

Week Number

1
Activities Seminar I (ETP Briefing) Group Organization & Brainstorming Consult Supervisor Data Collection for Proposal Project proposal due Cost Analysis for The System Design Purchase Required Tools & Material

10

11

12

13

14

Implement The Process of The Project Construction of The Prototype Progress Report due Prototype Testing Submission of FORM 03 Evaluation on Fabrication Poster & Demonstrations Consult Supervisor Final Check On The Prototype Preparing & Presenting Slides Oral Presentations EDX Return of FORM 03 Submission Peer Evaluation Submission of Claim Form Submission of Final Report

Mid Semester Break 8 11 March 2012

Designing The Process & Prototype

TBA

PROPOSAL ETP GROUP 24 3.2 TASK ALLOCATION & ACTIVITIES

PROJECT DIRECTOR LUVENRAJ A/L CSATHASIVAM (EE) Plans for weekly meetings. Chairs all meetings. Coordinates project progress. Involves in the studies of mechanical part of the project.

ASSISTANT PROJECT DIRECTOR FAZIANA ZARITH BINTI ZAMBERI (CHE) Assists the project director and other members in task. Involves in the studies of mechanical part of the project.

SECRETARY SITI HAJAR AISYAH BINTI MAT SOH (PE) Writes the minutes of meeting. Keeps record of all group activities. Helps in the obtaining strength of the materials used. Prepares the poster for presentation.

TREASURER ZUL HAZMI BIN MOHD ZULKIFLI (CVE)

Manages the project account flow. Estimates the project budgets. Research the strength of materials used.

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT ABDUL AFIF BIN AHMAD (CE) Leads the research activities. Ensures research is in accordance with project flow. Dealing with electrical and electronic components of the project.

DESIGN & ANALYSIS AMIR HAZWAN BIN ABD GAFAR & KABILAN A/L MUTHUSAMY (ME) Designs the layout and process of the system. Research and select prototype materials. Dealing with composition of chemical in materials used.

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PROPOSAL ETP GROUP 24 3.3 PROJECT FLOW

RESEARCH

CIVIL ENGINEERING

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING Do research on the circuit of the device.

CHEMICAL & PETROLEUM ENGINEERING Do research on homogenous of polymer.

Do research on pipe flow for the polymer mixture

Do research on existing device mechanism.

CONCEPTUAL DESIGN Brainstorming on design alternatives. Combining features and concept from all engineering field. Select the best design solution. Sketch and draw design schematically. FUNDAMENTAL ENGINEERING CALCULATION CIVIL ENGINEERING Determine the fluid mechanic of the pipe flow and accurate viscosity for the polymer mixture. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING -Design the structure of the system. -Dealing with the pulley system and flipping system. CHEMICAL & PETROLEUM ENGINEERING -Determine the composition of chemical in materials used and end product of the polymer solution. ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING Determine the efficient electrical properties for the device.

CREATE PROTOTYPE TEST PROTOTYPE

FINISH

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PROPOSAL ETP GROUP 24 3.4 CONCLUSION Since its discovery more than 60 years ago, the drag reduction phenomenon has achieved many notable energy saving effects. These achievements have encouraged researchers to study drag reduction further and further so that it can be utilized better. Sooner, the phenomenon of turbulent drag reduction by polymer additives which the drag can be reduced by up to 80 % then discovered by Toms in 1949. But due to the complex characteristics of some flow, for an instance a turbulent flow, recent theories cannot explain all the phenomena of this polymer as drag reduction addictive. To give an overview, our group has summarizes the main advancement of polymer drag reduction by designing a device to prepare a homogeneous polymer solution. Since drag reduction has a close relation to energy conservation. It has received more and more attention as more and more potential applications become practical. The application of drag reducing additives is greatly reducing pipe diameter, or increasing flow rate. The first famous application of drag reduction addictive was in transport of crude oil in the transAlaska (TAPS or Alyeska) Pipeline in 1979. The pipeline is 800 miles long with 48-inch diameter. After injecting a concentrated solution of a high molecular weight polymer downstream of pumping stations at homogeneous concentrations as low as 1ppm, crude throughput was increased by up to 30%. Polymer drag reduction addictives were also successfully applied in other crude oil pipelines such as Iraq-Turkey, Bass Strait in Australia, Mumbai Offshore and North Sea Offshore, and in finished hydrocarbon product lines. In each case, the polymer composition had to be designed for the particular hydrocarbon to be transported. Polymer drag reduction addictives have also been proposed for the following applications: oil field operations, slurry or hydraulic capsule pipeline transportation, suppression of atherosclerosis, prevention of lethality from hemorrhagic shock, increased water flow and water jet focusing in fire fighting equipment, prevention of overflows of water in sewage systems after heavy rains, increase of volumetric flow rate of water in hydropower and irrigation systems, and as anti-misting agents in jet fuel.

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PROPOSAL ETP GROUP 24 Chapter 4: Data gathering and analysis 4.1 PRELIMINARY INFORMATION Methods in Preparing Polymer Solutions. The reduction of wall friction during the liquid flow depends on the addition of the dragreducing additives, and in this project is the polymer solution. The additives could be injected via slots or small tube into the channel (heterogeneous drag reduction) or dissolved at certain concentration in the pool of solvent (homogeneous drag reduction). The concentration in either case is usually given in term of the weight of the polymer, e.g-weight parts per million of polymer (wppm, or just ppm) or weight percentage (wt%). Since the concentration depends on the nature of the solvent, preparation of polymer solution plays a crucial role in ensuring the drag reduction result is reproducible. Polymer composed of long carbon chains; therefore the behaviour of the solution prepared would not be the same as the solution made up by small molecules such as salts. This might pose a problem since the polymer may agglomerates and produces gel or lumps at certain parts of the solution. The method of preparation is therefore vital so that polymer solution achieved is as homogeneous as possible, or at least the gel formation is minimized to a large extent. Over the years, the ways of how the polymer solutions were prepared in the drag reduction studies are vast, but brief. In addition the quality of the solution produced in term of rheology wise, is not widely reported. In a recent study by Al-Wahaibi et al. (2007) and Ngan et al. (2007), in which this research is based on, the polymer solution is prepared by mixing the polymer in powder form with deionized water ih a stirred tank. The additive used is a copolymer of acrylamide and sodium acrylate (HPAM, Magnafloc 1011, Cibi Specialty Chemicals). The polymer solution is hardly being a homogeneous, and even clearly visualized through the naked eye. As a result, the anomalous outcomes of the drag reduction study are observed since the solution' concentration is not consistent. Regardless of whether the drag reduction studies are done in homogenous or heterogeneous, the preparation of polymer solutions follows some main principle that include dispersion of polymer in the solvent and followed by agitation. The approach, however, differs from one researcher to another. Since the polymer must dissolves in the solvent, the property of the solvent used will affect on the quality of the solution produced. For water-soluble polymers such as PEO, PAM and HPAM, either tap or deionized water may be used. Depending on the condition of water at site, tap water might contain dissolved metal ions such as lead from the
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PROPOSAL ETP GROUP 24 piping that would react with the solution. Den Toonder et al. (1995), for instance, used both tap and demineralised water to prepare their PEO and PAMs solutions. They found out that by using tap water, PEO refused to dissolve and gave less reduction. As a result, the authors change the procedure by using demineralised water for their PAMs instead, and showed higher drag reduction. Sun et al. (2005), also applied tap water, but it is filtered and desecrated at 34-38'C. The choice of heating the solvent might be necessary since they are using PAM and HPAM in granular form. Theoretically, by increasing the temperature, solubility will increase. In addition, they study on the effect of adding small amounts of salt to the water used to simulate unfiltered tap water, and also found out that drag reduction decreased appreciably. Polymer need to be in contact with the solvent as much as possible if a homogeneous solution is to be achieved. Homogenous in this context means the clarity of the solution is observed, gel or lumps formation is not visible and consistency in terms of the solution rheology is achieved as possible. These can be attained on the way polymer is added to the solvent. In current practice by Al-Wahaibi et al. (2007) and Ngan et al. (2007), the polymer in powder form is sprinkled onto the surface of water during the stirring. Similar manner are also seen from the study by McConaghy and Hanratty (L977) and McComb and Rabie (1982). The problem that occurs is that huge amount of polymer gel is observed at the centre of the tank. The gel sticks at the impeller shaft resulting a heterogeneous solution is therefore produced. This might be due to the small vortex that is only produced further at the centre during stirring and unable to mix the long chain polymer consistently throughout the solution. Bello et al. (1982) addressed the problem of the vortex formation in their polymer solution preparation technique. While impeller might produce higher vortex at high speed, the polymer might degrade due to high shear. The authors therefore used a simple magnetic stirrer in a tank to produce deep vortex while dispersing the polymer on the surface of water. The practice may sound practical since the stirrer is located at the bottom of the tank as compared to the impeller. A better approach to induce contact between the polymer and the solvent is outlined by Warholic et al. (1999), which is also pursued by Al-sarkhi and Hanratty (2001) and Liberatore et al. (2004). Polymer powder was mixed with deionized water by injecting it into the tank through a commercial mixing device (much like a carburettor) that covers wetting of individual particles. The mixer has the shape of a tee. Water flows through one leg and is directed out of the device through a constricted passage. This provides a vacuum that sucks
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PROPOSAL ETP GROUP 24 particles through the third leg into the flowing water. Agitation is employed to further increase the bonding between the polymer and solvent. Al-Wahaibi et al. (2007) and Ngan et al. (2007) stirred the solution at 40 RPM using a three-bladed propeller (marine propeller). The choice to using the impel (ter \Nas atso mentioned by Warhotic etc (. (1999\, At-Sarkhi and Hanratty (ZAAli and Lihe(ata(e et al. (200a). Their solution is agitated at 30 RPM with a four-finned impeller that had a diameter of 0.6 m. On the other hand, magnetic stirrer was also chosen as an alternative mechanism to mix the solution. IBello et al. (1996); Kiho et al. (2000); Kim et al. (2001)]. A combination of magnetic stirrer and a roller was utilized by Sun et al. (2005) in preparing their polymer solutions. There are variations of agitation time reported in the literatures, from two-hour periods to up to one week. Al- Wahaibi et al. (2007) and Ngan et al. (2007) stirred the solution for only two hours, which is also practiced by Den Toonder et al. (1995). McConaghy and Hanratty (1977) did 4 hours, while Ptasinki et al. (2001) mixed the solution for 10 hours. Brostow et al. (2007) performed in a period of 6 to 24 hours, whereas Bello et al. (1996) done between 72 to 24 hours. The choice of 24 hours agitation was also reported by Kiho et al. (2000). Kim et al. (2001), on the contrary, stirred their solution for one week. The time taken to agitate the solution would depend on the speed employed for mixing, as well as the type of mixing technique used. lf the solution is agitated for a long period using an impeller, there might be chances that the polymer would degrade due to shearing effect. However, a shorter mixing time would discourage a homogeneous solution to be achieved due to less bonding between the polymers-solvent molecules. ln order to reduce shear degradation due to mixing but promote molecules contact, the polymer solution should be rested. ln literatures, the term that is used is hydration time. Hydration is to cause to take up or combine with water or elements of water. On top of twohours stirring, Al-Wahaibi et ol. (2007) and Ngan et al. 12007l. Further hydrated the solution overnight to make the total time the solution prepared of 24 hours. Den Toonder et al. (1995) chosen the hydration time to be 12 hours. Jun et al. (2004) did not stirred at all, but hydrated the solution for a period of 4 to 5 days. McComb and Rabie (1-982) did not mention on the stirring time employed, but reported that their polymer solutions were used in 2 to 3 days period. A definite selection of hydration time varies based on studies. Sun et al. (2005) however, reported that the time the solution is allowed to mix and hydrate has proven to be a critical factor. This argument might be biased since the technique that they performed is by using a roller, instead of an impeller. Nevertheless, the idea that they stated is that stirring
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PROPOSAL ETP GROUP 24 time of at least twelve hours was needed to yield adequate mixing and stable characteristics in time. This is reflected in their drag reduction results of using PAM and HPAM. They further added that visual inspection of the solution throughout the first eight hours of the stirring period indicated that the solution was not fully mixed. lt is possible that the polymer aggregates early on in the preparation process and the rolling time is not sufficient to affect the mixing. A long period of hydration time is also called 'aging' in some literatures. The expression "aging" collects a number of ill-understood phenomena as aggregation, degradation, crosslinking and, last but not least, slow dissolution of the polymer gel particles (Chmelir et al., 1979). Chemlir et ol. (1,979) observed viscosity reduction phenomena of diluted polyacrylamide in water after being left in a prolonged period of time (30 days). They found out the solution became cloudy and sometimes a small amount of precipitates could be observed after storing in a long time. The authors attributed the reduced in viscosity is due to the presence of the microorganisms in the form of yeast and their breeding form in the aqueous solution of polyacrylamide. Upon addition of small amount of sodium azide the decrease in solution viscosity is lessened. Reduction in viscosity also observed by Narkis and Rebhun (1966). They mentioned that for the prepared concentration of 0.284 g/100 mL solution of polyacrylamide, the Ired decreases from 12.85 for 3-days storage time to 8.68 for 32-days storage time. However, they further concluded that the reduced viscosity effect due to storage time only pronounced in low-molecular weight polymer and not seen in highmolecular weight one. Furthermore they claimed that the effect of solution age on measured values of viscosity and intrinsic viscosity, [r1] is to be explained not by degradation but probably by disentanglement of the polymer molecules, which is an integral part of the formation of a true polymer solution. Kulicke et al. (1982) further clarified that aqueous solution of PAAm indeed shows a time dependent viscosity. They use the term solution instability and discovereO itrat the viscosity decrease of PAAm solution not only occurred in the industrially produced PAAm, but also the laboratory-synthesized, high purity one too when the molecular weight exceed 1.5 x 106. The authors deduced this observation to the possibility of hydrogen bonding existed in the aqueous solution of PAAm and further clarified the hydrodynamic volume becomes smaller with time as confirmed by the gel permeation chromatography (GPC) test. The molecular weight of the polymer, however, is unchanged as proven by the light scattering method done by the researchers. Even if the polymer solutions were hydrated, a period of too long would
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PROPOSAL ETP GROUP 24 eventually degrade the solution, either chemically or biologically. ln order to avoid any chemical or biological degradation, additives shall be added. Alcohol such as ethanol has been chosen as an effective anti-bacterial agent (Den Toonder et o1.., 1995), whereas Chemlir et al.. (1979) and Belo et ol.. (19961used a small amount of sodium azide dissolved in the polymer. Alcohol such as isopropanol could also prevent chemical degradation of the polymer solution (Junetal..,2004). Kihoef o/.. (2OO2|, on the other hand used some kind of antioxidant, in which type is not mentioned in their study, to avoid the peroxidation of their PIB solution. Lumley (1969) outlined some of the qualitative properties of the polymer solution that could be examined through general observation such as the solution clarity, soapiness and filament formation' clarity is determined by light scattering method. Dilute solutions of polymers cater very little light and appear to the eye as clear. Apparent milkiness or cloudiness is usually the result of incomplete solution in the case of synthetic polymers, or of impurities producing relatively insoluble gel-like lumps in the case of natural polymers' in term of soapiness, the author mentioned that polymer solutions are commonly observed to have a slightly soapy feel. However, to what physical property this subjective response corresponds is not clear; from the remarks above on simple-shear viscosity, it appears unlikely to be either the somewhat higher viscosity or the shear thinning character. It seems more likely to be some sort of lubrication phenomenon, taking place when the distance between the fingers is of the order of the effective molecular diameter. Filament formation is the most striking departure of these very water-like solutions from Newtonian behaviour under superficial observation. lt is universally observed that when a finger is dipped In the liquid and withdrawn, a very long, coherent, tenuous thread trails from the finger to the liquid. ln the light of the remarks above under viscosity, it seems likely that this phenomenon is due to the remarkable increase of intrinsic viscosity in a pure axisymmetric strain. In this study the polyacrylamide based polymer is used. Polyacrylamide is obtained through the free radical polymerisation reaction of acrylamide (Kulicke et ol., 19821. Further, an alkaline hydrolysis can be used to introduce acrylate groups into the polyacrylamide. A saponification reaction with aqueous sodium hydroxide, NaOH at room temperature (23'C) leads to the sodium salts i.e. poly(acrylamide-co-sodium acrylate) which has the same degree

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PROPOSAL ETP GROUP 24 of polymerisation at the basic polyacrylamide.

Figure 1.8: Synthesis of HPAM from PAAm Partially hydrolysed polyacrylamide (HPAM, or sometimes given acronym of PHPAAm) is a copolymer of acrylamide and sodium acrylate. The degree of hydrolysis is defined as the number of carboxyl residues (COO-), Y, replacing the amide groups (CONH2), X, over the total number of the macromolecular residues, as given by the equation:

Partially hydrolysed polyacrylamide molecules contain randomly distributed polar carboxyl groups and behave as a polyelectrolyte in aqueous solution. The carboxyl groups carry negative charges and polymer solution becomes an anionic polyelectrolyte. Polyelectrolyte properties originate from the combination of macromolecular and electrolyte behaviour. Because of the repulsion forces between ionised carboxyl groups, polymer chain extends and uncoils in the solution. Therefore the effective size or volume of the polymer molecules increases which leads to larger hydrodynamic interactions between polymer chains and water molecules. This influences the transport properties of polyelectrolyte and increases its intrinsic viscosity (Zeynali et al., 2004) Acrylamide based homo- and copolymers have been used as flocculants, dispersants, retention aids, steric stabilizers, mineral flotation and paper making (Lewandowska, 2006). Partially hydrolysed polyacrylamide, specifically is widely used as associate thickeners in areas as diverse as municipal and industrial waste water treatment, in drilling mud as a viscofier and shale stabilizer and in enhanced oil recovery\(EOR). ln EOR a dilute aqueous solution of HPAM is used as a pushing fluid in the injection wells to sweep oil in the reservoir into the production well. Thus the mobility of HPAM solution plays an important role in such applications (Zeynali et al., 2004).
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PROPOSAL ETP GROUP 24 4.2 REFERENCES

1. Chemical Engineering. 160/260 Polymer Science and Engineering. Retrieved February 7, 2012 from http://www.stanford.edu/class/cheme160/lectures/lecture13.pdf

2. Jacob Mainus den, T. (1995). Drag Reduction by Polymer Additives in a Turbulent Pipe Flow: Laboratory and Numerical Experiments. Retrieved February 8, 2012 from http://www.mate.tue.nl/~hulsen/papers_open/1733

3. Vanapalli. (2006, May 8). News from Peace Heaven, the professional DRA (DragReducing Agents) supplier. Retrieved February 8, 2012 from http://www.vf18.org/news.aspx

4. Wilhjelm, A. (1993). Polymer Powder. Retrieved February 8,2012 from http://www.niro.com/polymer-powder.html

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