DECISION-MAKING

Guidelines to improve decision making

Improving practical thinking. Practical thinking captures the strengths of how we think for
everyday problems, calling on experience more than formal models. Practical thinking includes creative and critical elements. Creative thinking techniques help to generate new information. Critical thinking brings out differences that would normally not be obvious Both types of thinking help to fill in gaps in knowledge and resolve uncertainty. Signs of a practical thinker include a willingness to try alternate approaches to thinking, being open to others' positions, being prepared to think about issues instead of ignoring or dismissing them, and asking insightful questions.

Applying guidelines. There is no perfect set of guidelines for success; to improve requires
self-reflection and hard work to adopt new habits. Making one's thinking habits more deliberate will prompt self-reflection and through practice eventually should make the improved thinking less effortful. Improved thinking strategies will create greater selfconfidence, making it more likely that challenges will be addressed than ignoring them.

Moving thinking upstream. Thinking ahead and predicting potential ways that a situation
assessment may be wrong or that a course of action could depart from what's anticipated will make one better prepared to handle the unknown. Having identified and thought about various contingencies will better prepare one for various future events.

Finding hidden assumptions. Coming up with reasons against a preferred conclusion or

option instead of in favor of that conclusion or option will improve thoroughness of reasoning and give one a basis for contingencies that may occur.

Keeping track of unexpected events. A natural tendency is to discount information when it

does not fit into our expectations. Over time accumulated unexpected information can cause one to shift one's understanding of a situation. The first step in this direction is to pay special attention to information that does not fit into expectations.

Thinking from varied perspectives. Looking at problems from different perspectives can
improve one's understanding of a situation, solution goals, and available options. Taking multiple perspectives helps to understand situations, find new or creative solutions, and reason about solutions. Any shortcoming or restriction in one's perspective is a possible source of problems in reasoning. Problem solvers can adopt different perspectives by taking on the role of another (e.g., the enemy, adjacent unit commander), using new/different frames of reference, shifting attention or importance about various problem elements, reversing the goal, etc. These require an openness of mind to be willing to apply a different perspective and practice in flexibility at shifting perspectives.

 Applying practical reasoning. There are different ways to improve one's reasoning ability.
One way is to have a standard set of questions to ask oneself when faced with uncertainty, when there is an over-willingness to accept what is heard, or when there is a lack of critical thinking. One set of questions is the following: o o o o o What if? (e.g., what if this assessment were not the case?) What else? (e.g., what else could be happening?) So what? (e.g., is there a practical difference?) What specifics? (e.g., can claims be confirmed with specific information?) Is there a weak link? (e.g., are there any inconsistencies or confusions?)

Adapting to the situation. By increasing the awareness of one's own thinking, mental capabilities can be allocated to the problems at hand. One needs to learn how he or she thinks, the patterns and strategies that are used and that have developed naturally throughout one's life. Being better in touch with these can give one what is needed to increase the chances for successful problem resolution. To guide thinking we should think deliberately about how to solve problems and decide. This process is similar to decision triage. Use the GO-FITE-WIN questions to remind how to plan your thinking:

What are Goals and Obstacles of thinking? How Familiar is the situation? How Important is it? How much Time is available? How much Effort is required for an acceptable level of effort? What's Important Now?

Good decisions are based on data, not just gut feelings, emotions, or whoever argues the longest. When a decision is important, start by understanding its context:

Clarify the decision. Make sure everyone has the same understanding of what is being
decided.

Understand deadlines. Know the risks of missing the time window or not making the
decision.

Learn how this decision affects the critical path for the teams work Gather relevant information about past, pending, and implicit decisions that are related to
this one. Determine who should be involved:

 Who has the authority to make the decision? Who is ultimately responsible for the results of the decision? Who is critically affected, both now and in the future? Who has vital information?
Whoever has the authority to make the decision chooses whether and how to involve others. Depending on the nature of the decision, the decision maker could be one member of the team, the entire team, the Team Leader, a subgroup of the team a manager or group of managers outside the team, or another team or group. If the decision is important, whoever decides should gather input from others at different points in the process to reach a more effective decision. (Scholtes, The Team Handbook, 2003)

Methods of Decision Making & When to Use Each Method

Consensus When: Decisions are important, have large ramifications or affect a lot of people Groups are small (10 or fewer) A large group is considering issues of great importance There will be a rich exchange of ideas The group is informed and

Voting When: It is known that consensus is highly unlikely in the time allowed Members of the group are equally informed on the subject matter and understand viewpoints Its been determined can that the the one anothers

majority

handle

implementation without the active involvement of those in the minority There is a plan to handle the reactions of those who disagree with the outcome

individual members feel a similar level of investment or are critical to a good decision Consensus cant be achieved, have a back up method

Subgroup When: A subgroup has the necessary information or expertise to make the decision A subgroup is the only entity affected by the decision and can implement it without the active involvement of the majority The whole group is comfortable delegating its authority to

One Person When: It is an emergency One person has all of the relevant information One person is especially trusted by the team to make a good decision The outcome only affects the

decision maker

representatives

Consensus Decision-Making

Why choose consensus decision-making?

Quality of the decision is important. All opinions and data should be looked at from each
team members perspective. Each team member can add information and express differing values that can affect the decision.

Acceptance of the decision by the team is important. The teams work will be affected by
the decision. Individual members will be committed to the result or consequence of the decision and agree to support it.

Learning from each other is important. Using consensus processes helps us become
aware of differing perspectives, new information, and question our own assumptions. Definition of consensus:

Everyone agrees so that the team can move forward together. Each member can support the decision even though it may not be their first choice. The
support is possible because they recognize they have been heard, that their concerns, information and perspective have been understood and taken into account by the team as it shapes the final decision. Consensus does not mean:

A unanimous vote

 Everyone getting what they want Everyone finally comes around to the right opinion Reaching a compromise
Caution:

Misunderstandings about consensus can prevent teams from obtaining its benefits If members confuse consensus with compromises a creative solution is unlikely If members think consensus means dont rock the boat groupthink can result
Consensus requires:

Time Active participation of all members Skills in communication, listening, conflict resolution, and facilitation Creative thinking and open-mindedness
achieving consensus at this stage often saves time later. Either spend time getting

everyone on board now, or spend time getting them on board later when they are resentful of a decision they did not support or did not fully understand. (Scholtes, 2003) Process for Consensus Decision-Making

Frame the question to be decided Agree that a consensus decision is needed: evaluate time, trust level, quality and
acceptance

Agree on the status quo and the implication of not coming to consensus Outline the steps in an agenda Set a time frame or deadline for making the decision Brainstorm criteria Review and agree on criteria Brainstorm options if options are not given (Use Decision Matrix) Gather input from team members re: how each option matches the criteria Dialogue about the assumptions, data, information that members brought to their application
of criteria

Work toward framing a decision that every member can support or agree that the status quo
is acceptable

Test for consensus

 Gather more information from other stakeholders and affected groups Note any follow-ups Plus/Delta analysis of the consensus development process
Options for Final Consensus:

Characteristics of several options are combined in an acceptable decision The team agrees to pilot or experiment with an option recognizing that there are
concerns or data that exist that this option might not be the best. Those concerns or data then form criteria for assessing the decision at an agreed upon later time

Agreement that those opposed do not have to implement the decision

Ground Rules for Consensus:

Treat each other with respect Treat each other as peers Listen to understand Be open to questioning your own assumptions
Principles for Team Effectiveness (Norms/Ground Rules Important for Consensus):

Test assumptions and inferences Share all relevant information Focus on interests, not positions Be specific use examples Agree on what important words mean Explain the reasons behind ones statements, questions and comments Disagree openly with any member of the group Make statements, then invite questions and comments Jointly design ways to test disagreements and solutions Discuss undiscussable issues Keep the discussion focused Do not take cheap shots or otherwise distract the group Require all members to participate Exchange relevant information with non-group members Make decisions by consensus Complete self-critiques