Learning

about the transmission and distribution of electricity

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Origin of the word

electricity
The term electricity comes from the Greek word elektron, meaning amber. The ancient Greeks discovered that if they rubbed amber with other materials, such as fur or hair, they would cling to the amber and that if they rubbed long enough, they could generate sparks. The Latin word electricus means to produce from amber by friction.

Direct current and alternating current

Direct current (DC) always flows in the same direction, at a constant value (intensity), just like water circulates in a pipe. It is produced by a generator with a positive pole (+) and a negative pole (-). An everyday example of such a generator is the car battery. Alternating current (AC) repeatedly reverses the direction of flow at regular intervals. A periodic alternating current is characterized by its frequency, measured in hertz (Hz), and representing the number of roundtrips made by the electric current in one second. 50 Hz periodic alternating current makes 50 roundtrips a second, i.e., it changes direction 100 times per second (50 oneways in each direction). At present, the frequency of electric current distributed to end users is generally 50 Hz in Europe and 60 Hz in North America. The majority of electric power systems in the world supply alternating current today. The reason for this is that its easy and inexpensive to adjust AC voltage both upstream and downstream in a network by means of transformers, either to distribute low voltage or to increase the electric power transmitted. Direct current is reserved for special uses, such as most electric railway networks and to transmit electric current over very long distances or under the seas.

But the transmission of alternating current has a drawback. Significant losses of electrical energy occur in the lines as a result of the Joule effect, i.e., the thermal effect produced in a conductor carrying electric current, which causes the conductor to heat up.

A bit of history
Antiquity: Thales, a Greek scholar called the father of science, is considered to be the first person to have experimented with electricity and magnetism. 1878: Thomas Alva Edison, an American inventor, founds the Edison Electric Light Co. in New York. In 1879, he presents his first incandescent light bulb, which stays lit for 45 hours. 1882: Edison inaugurates the first "electric plants" (producing DC power), built in London and New York. The first DC electric power transmission line is constructed in Germany: 2400V, 59 km. 1886: George Westinghouse, an American inventor and industrial entrepreneur, shows an interest in industrial electricity and founds the Westinghouse Electric Corporation. After having obtained a patent in 1887 for a transformer, he creates the first AC supply system for lighting in Buffalo, NY. He wins an installation contract, defeating Edison, for all electric infrastructure in the US. Its for this reason that AC distribution is imposed throughout the entire world today. 1924: Construction of the north-south 110 kV overhead power line linking the German coal-fired electric power plants located near the Rhine to hydro-electric plants in the Alps. 1967: The extra-high voltage networks (380 kV) of France, the Federal Republic of Germany and Switzerland are interconnected for the first time at the Laufenburg substation in Switzerland.

Electricity generation
Electric power is produced in various types of plants: nuclear, fossil fuel-fired (coal, oil, gas) and plants that run on renewable energies such as hydroelectric, wind and solar power, biomass fuel and even tidal energy. Various types of turbines are used to transform the energy generated by these sources into mechanical energy, which is itself transformed into electricity by generators. The quantity of electric energy generated is usually measured in megawatts (MW). A mini hydro-electric plant can generate as little as 10 MW or even less. The output of a nuclear power or coal-fired plant is approximately 1600 MW (EPR).

Once produced, electricity is rushed to users at a speed of around 300,000 km per second.* It can therefore be said that electricity arrives instantaneously to consumers.

Why does electricity have to be transported ?

*i.e., equivalent to encircling the world (42,000 km) several times in 1 second

Electricity generation and consumption occurs almost simultaneously. But electricity has a weakness: it cannot be stored. This is why power plants must be linked directly to areas of consumption. In most countries, electric power is generated close to fuel supply sources, near coal deposits, for example, or natural waterways (the case of nuclear power plants). Deciding where to locate a power plant is consequently determined in relation to technical, economic and environmental criteria. Production sites are linked to consumers by electric power lines and cables. Todays power supply grids must be extended and adapted to account for the increase in decentralized generation based on renewable energies.

Control center

Nuclear power plant

Wind farm

How does an electric power grid work?

Voltage is the difference in electrical potential between a negatively charged particle or ion and a positively charged particle in an electric circuit. Its what pushes the current through the lines or cables. This potential is expressed in volts (V), after Alexander Volta, inventor of the electric battery.

Because electricity cant be stored, because its production must be adjusted to demand, which is constantly fluctuating, the solution is to generate and transmit electric power via a power grid to satisfy demand in real time.

POWER TRANSFORMERS

The AC power grid is composed of

3 main types of voltage networks

1 EXTRA-HIGH VOLTAGE NETWORKS
To transmit electricity over long distances (hundreds of km) while minimizing line losses, the voltage is stepped-up to more than 20,000 Volts when it leaves the power plant. Extra-high voltage lines transmit electricity at national and international level through power grids. The extra-high voltages transmitted are 230 and 400 kiloVolts (kV) in Europe, 500 kV in North and South America, 765 kV in Canada (to link the Gulf of Labrador to northern Quebec, covering a distance of 1200 km), and are as high as 1150 kV in Kazakhstan.

Before transmission, to lower line voltage drops and line losses and improve general system stability, the voltage generated in the power plants is stepped up to several hundred thousand Volts by means of power transformers. This very high voltage electricity is dangerous and obviously cannot be delivered to customers. Step-down transformers therefore lower the voltage once the power is close to its final destination, so that it can be distributed at a lower voltage, one that is suited to the various end users. Transformer technology is limited to changing the voltage of alternating current. Equipment far more complex and more costly would be needed to transform network voltage for direct current transmission.

2 HIGH VOLTAGE NETWORKS

At a smaller scale, electric power transmission is ensured either by extra-high voltage lines (225 kV), or by 50 to 150 kV high voltage lines to transformer substations and the substations of major industrial consumers.

3 MEDIUM VOLTAGE AND LOW VOLTAGE NETWORKS

Medium voltage distribution networks (10 to 30 kV) supply both urban and rural areas. Low voltage networks supply 220-230 V or 110 V electricity locally (at 50 or 60 Hz depending on geographic location) to households and small industries nearby.

Extra-High Voltage lines Example of a power transmission and distribution network Power plant Step-up transformer Step-down transformer
Transformer

400 kV
High Voltage lines

Medium Voltage lines

20 kV

Low Voltage lines

225 kV - 90 kV 63 kV

230 V / 400 V

20 kV

Transmission and distribution lines

Transmission and distribution lines are the most visible part of power supply systems. Overhead power lines send the electricity produced by the various electric power plants through the power grid. These lines can also be installed underground and beneath the seas. The type of installation selected for transmission and distribution lines is determined in relation to cost, efficiency, life safety, public opinion and environmental safety criteria.

Overhead lines (OHL)

These lines are composed of conducting materials in copper, aluminum, steel or various aluminum alloys. They are simpler and less expensive than buried cables and gas-insulated lines, but are affected by wind, freezing temperatures and lightning. The public is also expressing growing reticence concerning their installation because of their negative visual and esthetic impact.
Gas-insulated transmission lines (GIL)

Word for word

Transmission
Transmitting electricity over very long distances via extra high voltage power grids from the electric power plant (thermal, hydro, etc.).

Dispatching unit
(control centers)

Distribution
Transmitting electricity via medium voltage and low voltage networks to electric utility companies for distribution, or to end users.

The operational nerve center where specialist network operators monitor power grid status around the clock and adjust production capacity and source in relation to variations in demand.

These lines are the most costly. The electrical conductor is insulated in a mixture of nitrogen (N2) and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6). These lines ensure power supply to areas where its not possible to construct a new line, or relocate or replace an existing high voltage line. Gas-insulated transmission lines can also be buried. They generate low magnetic interference, possess great transmission capacity and losses due to heat are limited.

Underground power lines or buried cables

Black-out
A local mains failure followed by the generalized failure of the power grid, plunging an entire region or more into darkness.

Burying power lines preserves the landscape, but they are more costly to install than overhead lines (around 10 times more costly for extra-high voltage lines). This option is thus more suitable for urban areas and for undersea transmission.

What is an electric substation ?

Gas-insulated substation

Air-insulated substation

Medium Voltage distribution substation

Electric substations house transformers and all the equipment needed to protect the network to ensure its safe and efficient operation. Substations link together the various parts of a power grid carrying different voltages. The job of substations is primarily to: q transform network voltage (high, medium or low voltage), q transmit, distribute and supervise electricity flows, q control the quality of the electricity supplied so as to respect contractual commitments and the technical limits of equipment, q protect the network in the event of an outage or damage. Substations house several types of equipment: q transformers, q protection apparatus and control devices, q measurement apparatus and monitoring devices, q protection equipment (relays, switchgear, etc.).

Conventional high voltage substations take up considerable space, because they use the ambient air to insulate the various equipment to ground. To keep them from producing magnetic interference during operation, the substation equipment must be spaced apart so that no reciprocal interference is created that could affect their performance. Substations using the ambient air for insulation are called Air-Insulated Substations (AIS). The area taken up by substations is a major factor of substation cost. With a Gas-Insulated Substation (GIS), the site area needed can be reduced because the equipment is installed in a metal enclosure in a gaseous, dielectric* medium (SF6) thus allowing for a more compact design. With GIS technology, substations can be installed in cities and in buildings and can even be placed underground. Most GIS substations are installed indoors (75%), whereas almost all AIS substations are installed outdoors. Medium voltage distribution substations are also either AIS or GIS, but they are much smaller because the voltage is much lower. They can even be prefabricated.

In our time, substations have become increasingly smart. As a result of research and development programs, components are more and more reliable and compact and require less and less maintenance. Substations are equipped with remote controls, and remote measurement and telecommunications systems. Some substations are entirely automatic and can be completely remote controlled.

* That which does not conduct (or only slightly conducts) electricity, but which allows electrostatic forces to be produced.

? ?
How can equipment be protected against lightning and breakdown?

How can the availability of electricity be ensured in relation to fluctuations in demand?

electric power supplies are precisely measured and recorded for customer invoicing purposes. Energy markets today are increasingly deregulated and energy is bought and sold on commodity markets, where traders make offers to purchase electricity at the lowest possible price in a competitive environment. Electricity traders may be engaged on multiple markets simultaneously, just like a trader on the stock exchange. Electricity market control mechanisms have been set up to handle such transactions, compensate for them and regulate them. These mechanisms also allow transmission network operators to make predictions regarding energy distribution and to draw up consumer supply schemes in real time in relation to the various power plants and transmission networks. And lastly, these mechanisms provide the means for setting market price levels.

Alternating current cannot be stored, nor can it be transmitted in large quantities; it must be generated and immediately distributed. Network control centers are therefore set up at local, regional, national and even international level to manage supply and demand. In real time, these centers both manage production in relation to fluctuations in demand and collect data concerning the entire power grid to optimize its operation. Power supply and demand is charted on a voltage map, and

Disturbances in power supply systems can, if they are not controlled, damage installations and cut off power supply. Such disturbances (outages or voltage dips) can be caused by natural occurrences, such as lightning, wind, falling trees or branches, by technical failure or by human error.

To make it easer to handle a breakdown, the networks are divided into protection zones. Protective relays monitor the grid to detect any problems in any of the zones. When a failure occurs, the relays open circuit breakers to isolate the area from the grid; this limits its consequences and allows the rest of the grid to continue to operate normally.

The future interconnection of power grids

Most of the worlds electric power networks supply alternating current; however, major losses occur during AC transmission. Losses are less pronounced in the transmission of direct current. New technologies ensure the efficient transmission of electricity via High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) networks, which immediately lowers line losses. The demand for HVDC transmission has greatly intensified, and specifically for connecting alternating current networks to new sources of power supply, such as offshore wind parks. The installations comprise AC/DC and DC/AC converter substations where alternating current is converted into direct current or vice-versa. Because of the extremely high cost of special substations for DC, transmission of this type is only feasible over very long distances or for submarine power cables. HVDC transmission may be by overhead lines, by submarine power cables or a combination of both. HVDC transmission is generally considered the safest way to transmit huge quantities of energy. HVDC technology can also be the most efficient way to transmit large quantities of electricity over very long distances, exceeding around 700 kilometers. And it can be the only way to interconnect two alternating current supply networks managed separately (by different operators) and which are either asynchronous or of a different frequency.

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