TUNNEL DIODE 1.

INTRODUCTION A tunnel diode or Esaki diode is a type of semiconductor diode which is capable of very fast operation The tunnel diode s basically a pn junction with heavy doping of p type and n type semiconductor materials .tunnel diode is doped 1000 times as heavily as a conventional diode, It was invented in August 1957 by Leo Esaki when he was with Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo, now known as Sony. These diodes have a heavily doped pn junction only some 10 nm (100 ) wide

, Practical tunnel diodes operate at a few miliamperes and a few tenths of a volt, making them low-power devices. Tunnel diodes are also relatively resistant to nuclear radiation, as compared to other diodes. This makes them well suited to higher radiation environments, such as those found in space applications . Tunnel diodes are usually made from germanium, but can also be made in gallium arsenide and silicon materials. They can be used as oscillators, amplifiers, frequency converters and detectors

2.

AIM To acquaint students about the tunnel diode. 3. SEQUENCE a. introduction b. aim c. Technical comparisons d. Physical operation e. Advantages f. Applications

4. TECHNICAL COMPARISONS

A rough approximation of the VI curve for a tunnel diode, showing the negative differential resistance region In a conventional semiconductor diode, conduction takes place while the pn junction is forward biased and blocks current flow when the junction is reverse biased. This occurs up to a point known as the reverse breakdown voltage when conduction begins (often accompanied by destruction of the device). In the tunnel diode, the dopant concentration in the p and n layers are increased to the point where the reverse breakdown voltage becomes zero and the diode conducts in the reverse direction. This heavy doping produces an extremely narrow depletion zone similar to that in the Zener diode for a tunnel diode. Also because of the heavy doping, a tunnel diode exhibits an unusual current-voltage characteristic curve as compared with that of an ordinary junction diode. However, when forward-biased, an odd effect occurs called quantum mechanical tunnelling which gives rise to a region where an increase in forward voltage is accompanied by a decrease in forward current.. ..

Figure 1 - Characteristic curve of a tunnel diode compared to that of a standard PN junction.

The three most important aspects of this characteristic curve are (1) the forward current increase to a peak (IP) with a small applied forward bias, (2) the decreasing forward current with an increasing forward bias to a minimum valley current (IV), and (3) the normal increasing forward current with further increases in the bias voltage. The portion of the characteristic curve between IP and IV is the region of negative resistance. tunneling is defined as: The movement of valence electrons from the valence energy band to the band with little or no applied forward voltage is called tunneling ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM. Figure 1A shows the equilibrium energy level diagram of a tunnel diode with no bias applied. Note in view A that the valence band of the P-material overlaps the conduction band of the N-material. The majority electrons and holes are at the same energy level in the equilibrium state. If there is any movement of current carriers across the depletion region due to thermal energy, the net current flow will be zero because equal numbers of current carriers flow in opposite directions. The zero net current flow is marked by a "0" on the current-voltage curve illustrated in view B. Figure 1 A. - Tunnel diode energy diagram with no bias. conduction

Figure 1 B. - Tunnel diode energy diagram with no bias.

Figure 2, view A, shows the energy diagram of a tunnel diode with a small forward bias (50 millivolts) applied. The bias causes unequal energy levels between some of the majority carriers at the energy band overlap point, but not enough of a potential difference to cause the carriers to cross the forbidden gap in the normal manner. Since the valence band of the P-material and the conduction band of the N-material still overlap, current carriers tunnel across at the overlap and cause a substantial current flow. The amount of current flow is marked by point 2 on the curve in view B. Note in view A that the amount of overlap between the valence band and the conduction band decreased when forward bias was applied. .

. Figure 2 B. - Tunnel diode energy diagram with 50 millivolts bias.

Figure 3, view A, is the energy diagram of a tunnel diode in which the forward bias has been increased to 450 millivolts., the valence band and the conduction band no longer overlap at this point, and tunneling can no longer occur. The portion of the curve in view B from point 2 to point 3 shows the decreasing current that occurs as the bias is increased, and the area of overlap becomes smaller. As the overlap between the two energy bands becomes smaller, fewer and fewer electrons can tunnel across the junction. The portion of the curve between point 2 and point 3 in which current decreases as the voltage increases is the negative resistance region of the tunnel diode.

Figure 3-B. - Tunnel diode energy diagram with 450 millivolts bias.

If forward bias has been increased even further. The energy bands no longer overlap and the diode operates in the same manner as a normal PN junction, as shown by the portion of the curve in view (B) from point 3 to point 4.

4.

PHYSICAL OPERATIONS The physical operations of tunnel diode is depends upon that when we increase doping of p type(trivalent) and n type(penta valent) then depletion region will decrease accoridng to this equation XnND=XpNA Xn/Xp=NA/ND

The Xp is width of depletion region in p type and same for X n for n type material .From this equation we see that when doping of p side or n side is increase then the extent of depletion region at that side will be decrease.so this concept is used in tunnel diode. Also we have Another way for looking it using useful equations of semiconductor physics (studied in class) is Pno=ni^2/ND And Npo=ni^2/NA So here concentration of holes in p type is approximately equal to trivalent impurity and same statement for n type. So here we also deduce one important result that when we increase the doping then corresponding minority charge carriers will decrease but now saturation current or drift current will be decrease.so overall it effects the diffusion current as I=Id-Is But here minority charge carrier is so small as it is neglected and because of higher diffusion current the depletion width will be decrease because we know that in forward biase the depletion region is decrease so diffusion current will increase and vice versa so in tunnel diode the depletion region is so thin that electron and holes easily cross the junction. BIASING So we will discuss about he biasing of tunnel diode. FORWARD BIAS It has 4 regions described below AT SMALL FORWARD VOLTAGE Under normal forward bias operation, as voltage begins to increase, electrons at first tunnel through the very narrow pn junction barrier because filled electron states in the conduction band on the n-side become aligned with empty valence band hole states on the p-side of the p-n junction. AT MAXIMUM TUNNELING CURENT The maximum number of electrons in the n region are opposite to the maximum number of empty states in the p region. Hence tunneling current is maximum

AT DECREASING CURRENT REGION As voltage increases further these states become more misaligned and the current drops because now it enters in negative resistance region. because current decreases with increasing voltage.

AT HIGHER FORWARD VOLTAGE As voltage increases yet further, the diode begins to operate as a normal diode, where electrons travel by conduction across the pn junction, and no longer by tunneling through the pn junction barrier so the tunneling current is zero. Thus the most important operating region for a tunnel diode is the negative resistance region

Forward bias produces immediate conduction. As soon as forward bias is applied, significant current is produced. The current quickly rises to the peak value, IP when the applied forward voltage reaches a value VP. The current variation in the vicinity of origin is due to quantum mechanical tunneling of electrons through narrow space charge region of the junction. With the further increase in forward voltage, the diode current starts reducing till it reaches point A to valley point B and here voltage is Vv and corresponding current is Iv the current decreases with the increase in voltage resulting in negative resistance in this region. In fact, this portion AB constitutes the most useful property of the diode. tunnel diode can be used as a very high frequency oscillator. For voltages higher than valley voltage Vv current starts increasing as in any conventional diode. It can be used as an amplifier, an oscillator, or a switch. Because of very fast response to inputs, it is almost exclusively a high frequency component. The ratio IP/IV is very important in for computer applications. for germanium it is typically 10:1 and for gallium arsenide it is closer to 20:1.

REVERSE BIAS (BACK DIODE) Back diode is a tunnel diode with a suppressed Ip and so approximates a conventional diode characteristic and they are operated in reverse biase. The reverse breakdown for tunnel diodes is very low, typically 200mV, and the TD conducts very heavily at the reverse breakdown voltage. Referring to the BD curve the back diode conducts to a lesser degree in a forward direction . It is the operation between these two points that makes the back diode important. Forward conduction begins at 300 mV (for germanium).

Zener diode and tunnel diode In diodes if we increase the reverse voltage then at one level the voltage will not increase and it causes avalanche breakdown.this is high voltage but with

the fabrication techniques by increasing doping in diode it is possible that this voltage is lowerd and we can adjust its value and it is clled zener break down. So it means they both have high doping and in tunnel diode Under reverse bias filled states on the p-side become increasingly aligned with empty states on the n-side and electrons now tunnel through the pn junction barrier in reverse direction this is the zener effect that also occurs in zener diodes So when we compare tunnel diode with zener diode then increasing doping cause the turn on voltage near to origin and in case of tunnel diode it is approximately 0 volt thats why we compare these two elements to understand the concept of tunnel diode. Diode specification sheets Now we will discuss about the tunnel diode specification sheet as we know all concepts involving tunnel diode. (Specification sheets of planar tunnel diode)

Device ASTD1020 ASTD2030 ASTD3040 ASTD1020 ASTD2030 ASTD3040 ASTD1020 ASTD2030 ASTD3040 All

Symbol Test Min Conditions IP 100 200 300 VP

Typ

Max 200 300 400 135 130 125

Units A

mV mV mV

RV

f=10 GHz RL=10K Pm=-20 dBm

-180 -130 -80

RS

I=10mA f=100 MHz

TYPES OF TUNNEL DIODE Types of tunnel diodes are:

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commercial tunnel diodes broadband tunnel diodes planar tunnel diodes vertical silicon tunnel diodes ACP tunnel diodes hybrid tunnel diodes resonance tunnel diodes silicon/silicon-germanium resonant interband tunnel diodes. ADVANTAGES OF TUNNEL DIODES

One of the main reasons for the early success of the tunnel diode was its high speed of operation and the high frequencies it could handle. This resulted from the fact that while many other devices are slowed down by the presence of minority carriers, the tunnel diode only uses majority carriers, i.e. holes in an ntype material and electrons in a p-type material. The minority carriers slow down the operation of a device and as a result their speed is slower. Also the tunnelling effect is inherently very fast. Its simplicity,linearity ,low power drain and reliability ensure its continued lfe and application so because of these advantages. It also has Relatively resistant to nuclear radiation, Selection parameters are: ? Frequency range: The frequency range that can be switched in GHz. ? Maximum sensitivity: This is the ratio of output voltage (mV) to the input power (mW). ? Flatness: Ratio of the maximum and minimum output voltage with a constant input power measured in dB. ? Video resistance: This is the output resistance at an input power of -20 dBm. ? Other parameters are the operating/storage temperature and input current/voltage.

Load line analysis

(a)

(b) (c) In figure a the load line intersect at positive resistance level so it is stable.it is known as mono stable operation of tunnel deiode Figure b has one operating point and it is negative resistance region so it is unstable. It is known as Astable operation of a tunnel diode In figure c the load line intersect at positive resistance level before negative resistance region(point a) and after negative resistance region(point b) so it is bistable. In negative resistance region it intersect at point c. Now we discuss the reason that why we called stable operating for positive region and unstable operating point in negative region. At point a and b it is stable because a slight disturbance in the network will not set the network in the oscillations or result in a significant change in the location of Q point.F or instance if the defined operating point is at b, a slight increase in supply voltage E will move the operating point up the curve since the voltage across the diode will increase. once the disturbance has passed, the voltage across the diode and the associated diode current will return to the levels defined by the Q point at b. The operating point defined by c is an unstable one because a slight change in the voltage across or current through the diode will result in the Q point moving to either a or b..For instance the slightest increase in E will case the voltage across the tunnel diode to increase above its level at c. in this region, however, an increase in Vt will cause a decrease in IT and so on .The result is an increase in VT

and a change in IT until a stable operating point at b is established. A slight drop in supply voltage would result in a transition to stability at point a..In other words point c can be defined as the operating point using the load line technique, but once the system is energized, it will eventually stabilize at location a or b. 6. APPLICATIONS OF TUNNEL DIODE Although the tunnel diode appeared promising some years ago, it was soon replaced by other semiconductor devices like IMPATT diodes for oscillator applications and FETs when used as an amplifier. Nevertheless the tunnel diode is a useful device for certain applications. Tunnel diode has many applications .some of them is described below a. Oscillators As it has the negative resistance region where unstable operating point concept is included so it is used in oscillators. b. Negative resistance oscillator (Pulse generator) It is constructed using tunnel diode. The choice of network elements is designed to establish a load line such as shown below

Note that only intersection with the characterstics is in the unstable negative resistance region a stable operating point is not defined.When the power is turned on, the terminal voltage of the supply will build up from 0 V to final value of E volts.initially the current IT will increase from 0 mA to IP, resulting in a storage of energy in the inductor in the form of magnetic field.However, once IP is reached, the diode characteristics suggest that the current I T must now decrease with increase in voltage across the diode.This contradicts the fact that E= ITR +IT(-RT) and E=IT(R-RT) If both elements of the equation above werw to decrease, it would be impossible for the supply voltage to reach its set value.Therefore, for the current IT to continue rising, the point of operation must shift from point 1 to point 2.However, at point 2, the voltage VT has jumped to a value greater than

the applied voltage (point 2 is to the right of any point on the network load line). To satisfy Kirchhoff s voltage law,the polarity of the transient voltage across the coil must reverse and the current begin to decrease as shown from 2 to 3. On the characteristics, When VT drops to VV, the characteristics suggest that the current IT will begin to increase again. This is unacceptable since VT is still more than the applied voltage and the coil is discharging through the series circuit. The point of operation must shift to point 4 to permit a continuation of the decrease in IT .However once at point 4, the potential levels are such that the tunnel current can again increase from 0 mA to IP as shown on the characteristics. The process will repeat itself again and again, never settling in on operating point defined for the unstable region. The resulting voltage across the tunnel diode shown below and it will continue as long as the dc power supply is energized.

The result is an oscillatory output established by a fixed supply and a device with negative resistance characteristics. The waveform has extensive application in timing and computer logic circuitry. c. SINUSOIDAL GENERATOR A tunnel diode can also be used to generate a sinusoidal voltage using simply a dc supply and a few passive elements..To generate this output let us first talk about Tank circuit. An LC circuit, also called a resonant circuit or tuned circuit or tank ciruit, consists of an inductor, represented by the letter L, and a capacitor, represented by the letter C. When connected together, they can act as an electrical resonator, an electrical analogue of a tuning fork, storing electrical energy oscillating at the circuit's resonant frequency The purpose of an LC circuit is to oscillate with minimal damping.LC circuits are used either for generating signals at a particular frequency..

Now when we connect resistor R with inductor L then due to the resistor the damping is started. So due to this its amplitude will be gradually decreasing.

Now when we palce a tunnel diode with tank circuit with resistor then then we can have negative resistance of tunnel diode resulting a undamped response. The design must be continue to result in a load line that will intersect the characteristics only in negative resistance region.It is same like a above pulse generator but having capacitor to permit an exchange of energy between the inductor and the capacitor during the various phase of cycle.

d. TUNNEL DIODE OSCILLATOR A tunnel diode, biased at the center point of the negative-resistance range and coupled to a tuned circuit or cavity, produces a very stable oscillator.The oscillation frequency is the same as the tuned circuit or cavity frequency.Microwave tunnel-diode oscillators are useful in applications that require microwatts or a few milliwatts of power, such as local oscillators for microwave.

e. Fast Switching In tunnel diode due to reduced depletion region,it results in carriers Punching through at velocities that far exceed those available with conventional diodes. The tunnel diode can therefore be used in highspeed applications such as computers where switching time in the order of nanoseconds or picoseconds are desireable. f. Low power Amplifier(Low noise amplifier) At the satellite communications transponder, the weak RF uplink signal is amplified in a special low-noise amplifier (LNA). Low-noise, tunnel-diode amplifiers represent an important microwave application of tunnel diodes. Tunnel-diode amplifiers with frequencies up to 85 gigahertz have been built in waveguides, coaxial lines, and transmission lines. The low-noise generation, gain ratios of up to 30

dB, high reliability, and light weight make these amplifiers ideal for use as the first stage of amplification in communications and radar receivers. Most microwave tunnel-diode amplifiers are REFLECTION-TYPE, CIRCULATOR-COUPLED AMPLIFIERS. As in oscillators, the tunnel diode is biased to the center point of its negative-resistance region, but a CIRCULATOR replaces the tuned cavity. A circulator is a waveguide device that allows energy to travel in one direction only, as shown in the figure below. The tunnel diode in figure 2-41 is connected across a tuned-input circuit. This arrangement normally produces feedback that causes oscillations if the feedback is allowed to reflect back to the tuned- input circuit. The feedback is prevented because the circulator carries all excess energy to the absorptive load (R L). In this configuration the tunnel diode cannot oscillate, but will amplify. The desired frequency input signal is fed to port 1 of the circulator through a bandpass filter. The filter serves a dual purpose as a bandwidth selector and an impedance-matching device that improves the gain of the amplifiers. The input energy enters port 2 of the circulator and is amplified by the tunnel diode. The amplified energy is fed from port 2 to port 3 and on to the mixer. If any energy is reflected from port 3, it is passed to port 4, where it is absorbed by the matched

load resistance. g. FREQUENCY CONVERTERS AND MIXERS Tunnel diodes make excellent mixers and frequency converters because their current-voltage characteristics are highly nonlinear. While other types of frequency converters usually have a conversion power loss, tunnel-diode converters can actually have a conversion power gain. A single tunnel diode can also be designed to act as both the nonlinear element in a converter and as the negative-resistance element in a local oscillator at the same time.

Practical tunnel-diode frequency converters usually have either a unity conversion gain or a small conversion loss. Conversion gains as high as 20 dB are possible if the tunnel diode is biased near or into the negative-resistance region. Although high gain is useful in some applications, it presents problems in stability. For example, the greatly increased sensitivity to variations in input impedance can cause highgain converters to be unstable unless they are protected by isolation circuitry. h. Other Applications (a) Since they are more resistant to nuclear radiation, tunnel diodes are used in space applications like amplifiers for satellite communications. (b) We can also use tunnel diode as a flip flop but for one polarity. (c) The fast switching of tunnel diode coupled with their potential low cost and small size make attractive their use in computer logic (d) Used for trigger circuits in oscilloscopes. (e) Sensor modulator for telemetry of temperature in human beings and animals. (f) Used in electron tunneling microscope. (g) Used for the construction of shift register.

DISADVANTAGES The tunnel diode is rarely used these days and this results from its disadvantages. Firstly The disadvantages are that because of the low current, it can be used only in low power applications. While this may be acceptable for low noise amplifiers, it is a significant drawback when they are used in oscillators as further amplification is needed and this can only be undertaken by devices that have a higher power capability, i.e. not tunnel diodes. The negative resistance region is around 50 to 300 millivolts, requiring a bias voltage in the order of, say, 100 millivolts. The reproducibility is quite low and this leads to high production costs and low yield. One difficulty with the tunnel diode is the low voltage required for its operation.