Comms Lecture

1
ECM3501: Principles of
Communication Engineering
Po-Ning Chen, Professor
Dept. of Communications Eng.
National Chiao Tung University
Background and Preview
To give you a basic understanding of
communications
2
Po- Ning Chen@cm. nct u Background 3
Figure-1 Theory
The next figure is always the Figure 1 in
every book regarding communications.
Communications
What is communication (or more specifically,
communication engineering)?
The transmission of information from one point to
another through a succession of certain processes.
3
Basic Elements Regard Communications
Source of information
Voice, music, picture, or computer data
Transmitter
Source Source Symbol (i.e., Source Word)
Symbolize the information from a source
Source Symbol Code Word
Encode the source symbol so that the other sources (i.e.,
noise and interfering signal) can hardly interfere the
information transmission.
Code Word Channel Symbol (i.e., Transmitted Signals)
Modulate the code word into a form that is suitable for
transmission over the channel, which involves varying some
parameter of a carrier wave in accordance with the message
signal.
4
Noise/Interference
Unwanted waves that tend to disturb the
transmission and processing of messages.
Could be internal or external to the system.
Could be additive or multiplicative (or both) to the
information-bearing signals.
Receiver
Hard Decision
Channel Symbol Code Bit
Decode from Code Bits to Code Word
Code Word Source Symbol Source
Soft Decision
Decode from Channel Symbol to Code Word
Code Word Source Symbol Source
5
Example: Basic Elements Regard
Communications
Source = An alphabet A
Example : Basic Elements Regard
Communications
Transmitter
Source A Binary Source Symbol (01000001)
Symbolize the information from a source
Source Symbol (01000001) Code Word (000 111 000
000 000 000 000 111)
Encode the source symbol by the three-times repetition code
so that the other sources (i.e., noise and interfering signals)
can hardly interfere the information transmission.
001,010,011,100,101,110 are not code words. Hence, their
appearance is possible only when noise is introduced.
6
Communications
Code Word (000 111 000 000 000 000 000 111)
Channel Symbol (000 555 000 000 000 000 000
555 )
Modulate the code word into some channel-permissible
(physical-medium permissible) symbols.
Due to Channel Interference, we receive: 010 442
222 033 011 020 032 434
Communications
Receiver
Hard Decision
Channel Symbol 010 442 222 033 011 020 032 434
Code Bit (Threshold 2.5) 000 110 000 011 000 000 010
111
Decode from Code Bits to Code Word (Majority Rule)
000 111 000 111 000 000 000 111
Code Word 000 111 000 111 000 000 000 111
Source Symbol 01010001 Source Q
7
Communications
Receiver
Soft Decision
Decode from Channel Symbol 010 442 222 033 011
020 032 434 to (channel-symbolized) Code Word 000
555 000 000 000 000 000 555
By finding the minimum distance to legitimate codewords
000 and 111.
E.g., d(033, 000) = (00)
2
+(30)
2
+(30)
2
= 18
d(033, 555) = (05)
2
+(35)
2
+(35)
2
= 33
Code Word 000 111 000 000 000 000 000 111
Source Symbol 01000001 Source A
Basic Modes of Communications
Broadcasting
Often, uni-directional.
A single powerful transmitter to numerous
(inexpensive) receivers
Example. Radio and TV.
Point-to-point communication
Often, bi-directional.
Two entities exchanges information.
Example. Telephone.
8
Feature Of Communications
Statistics
The source is statistical in nature.
The noise and interference are naturally random.
Principles of Communication Engineering: Principles of Communication Engineering: How to
design a communication system only based on the
knowledge of the statistics of the source and
interferences (without knowing exactly what the
true source and interference are)?
Example
Source
We do not know if the next source symbol is 0 or 1.
But, we do know the probability of the next source
symbol being 0, and also, the probability of the next
source symbol being 1.
Noise/Interference
We do not know what value the noise/interference will
take?
But, we do know the noise is, say, Gaussian distributed.
9
This is the reason why Probabilities (Chapter
1) is considered an important background to
communication study.
Primary Communication Resources
Primary Communication Resources are
something known at the design stage.
As aforementioned, source and noise/interference
are (often) something unknown at the design
stage.
10
Examples of Primary Communication
Resources
Transmitted Power
Specifically, averaged power of the transmitted signals.
A more useful measure than the absolute transmitted
power is the signal-to noise power ratio (SNR),
defined as the ratio of the average signal power to the
average noise power. This quantity is often expressed
in dBs, 10 log
10
(SNR).
Channel Bandwidth
The band of frequencies for use of transmitting
messages.
Design principle of a communication system
How to efficiently use (in a tradeoff fashion) the
communication resources!
11
Sources of Information
Sources can sometimes be viewed as one
kind of Communication Resources.
For example, there are systems designed
specifically for exchanging voices.
Such a system may not be apt to transmit computer
data.
This introduces the subjects of Source-Specific
Communication.
Next, we brief several sources commonly seen in
the literature.
Sources of Information: (1) Speech
Features
Voice spectrum extends well beyond 10kHz.
Most of the average power is concentrated in the
range of 100 to 600 Hz.
A band of 300 to 3100 Hz gives good articulation.
The sound wave propagates through the air at a
speed of 300 meter/second.
523 493.9 440 392.0 349.2 329.6 293.7 261.6
Do Si La So Fa Mi Re Do
Freq ( Hz)
Pit ch Name
12
Schematic representation of the vocal system
The speech-production process may be viewed
as a form of filtering:
A sound source excites a vocal tract filter.
D
D
a
1
a
9
a
10
+
excitation speech
+
+
+
Lips Lips
Vocal tract Vocal tract
Glottal volume Glottal volume
13
As the sound propagates along the vocal tract,
the spectrum (i.e., frequency content) is shaped
by the frequency selectivity of the vocal tract
a resonance phenomenon observed in organ
pipe.
So the hearing mechanism is (and should be)
sensitive to frequency.
Source of Information: (2) Music
Originate from musical instruments, such as
piano, violin and flute.
It consists of:
Melody: A time sequence of sounds.
Harmony: A set of simultaneous sounds.
Different from speech, the spectrum of a music
source may extend up to about 15 KHz.
Accordingly, a much wider bandwidth resource is
demanded.
14
Source of Information: Pictures
Two dimensional information.
Classifications
Dynamic pictures Video, such as North American
Audio TV
Still pictures Facsimile.
To transmit still picture over a telephone channel.
Source of Information: (3) NAA-TV
North American Analog TV
525 horizontal lines, decomposed into two 262.5
line interlaced fields.
Completion of each interface field takes 1/60
second
Horizontal line-scanning frequency is 262.5/(1/60) =
15.75 KHz.
Hence, 30 still pictures are shown per second.
The human persistence of vision phenomenon
will perceive these still pictures to be moving
pictures.
15
Interlaced
raster scan.
In the NTSC (National Television System
Committee) system, a total of 4.2 MHz bandwidth
is demanded for TV transmission.
16
Source of Information: (4) Computer Data
The first code developed specifically for
computer communication ASCII (American
Standard Code for Information Interchange).
17
ASCII (American standard code for
information interchange)
7-bit code for alphabetic numerical characters
Bit 8 is sometimes used as parity-check bit or used
to form the extended ASCII code
Even parity: Total number of 1s is even.
Odd parity: Total number of 1s is odd.
Extended ASCII code can be displayed, but can not
necessarily be printed out.
Bi t originat es
from Bi nar y
Di gi t .
Since ASCII is defined for communication, it
also includes some symbols for communication
purpose, such as
ENQ (enquiry) 05X
ETB (end of transmission block) 17X
18
RS (Recommended Standard) -232
Transmission
Synchronous
Asynchronous
Asynchronous Serial Data
No clock or timing signal required.
S
T
: start bit
S : stop bit
P : parity bit
D
6
~D
0
: data bit (often, exact one ASCII character)
Usually, 10 bit frame with even-parity/7-data-bit or
no-parity/8-data-bit.
S ST D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 P S ST D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 P S
frame
19
Synchronous Serial Data
No start and stop bit required.
P : parity bit
D
6
~D
0
: data bit (ASCII)
Clock : Timing signal.
Note that requiring sync character (after a certain
number of frames) to avoid losing synchronization.
If two sync characters are used. it is called bi-sync.
D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 P D0 D1 D2 D3 D4
Data
Clock
Source of Information: (4)
Computer Data
Windows 98
Baud rate : 110 baud~921600
baud (different for different
computers)
(E)ven parity, (O)dd parity,
(N)one-parity, Mark, Space
4~8 Data-bit
1, 1.5, 2 Stop-bit
The name of mark and
space for 1 and 0
comes from t he days of
t elegraphy.
20
21
The computer data stream so formed is then
applied to a device called a modem (modulator-
demodulator).
Unlike source traffic from speech or video, the
computer data is often bursty rather than
continuous.
Missed Part of Figure-1 in Text
Source before entering the transmitter is often
compressed (in order to save time or space).
This part is missed in Figure 1 of the text.
22
Wit h a source encoder, a di gi t al communi cat i on sy st em
( rat her an anal og communi cat i on sy st em) is formed.
Data Compression
Lossless Data Compression (or Data
Compaction)
Completely reversible (or asymptotically
reversible).
E.g., Lempel-Ziv algorithm (PKZIP, compress, etc),
which will be introduced in Chapter 9.
Lossy Data Compression
Non-reversible with loss of information in a
controlled manner.
E.g., JPEG, MPEG, etc.
23
Lossy Data Compression for Images
JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group)
An image coding standard
Pixels are grouped in 8-by-8 block.
DCT (discrete cosine transform) is then applied to
each block.
Quantize each of the 64 DCT coefficients according
to a pre-specified table.
Huffman-encode (introduced in Chapter 9) the
quantization results.
Lossy Data Compression for Images
DCT

= =
= =
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.
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+
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.
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|
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=
7
0
7
0
7
0
7
0
16
) 1 2 (
cos
16
) 1 2 (
cos ) , ( ) ( ) (
4
1
) , (
16
) 1 2 (
cos
16
) 1 2 (
cos ) , ( ) ( ) (
4
1
) , (
u v
x y
v y u x
v u F v C u C y x f
v y u x
y x f v C u C v u F

where
=
=
otherwise 1
0 for ,
2
1
) (
u
u C
24
Lossy Data Compression for Video
MPEG-1 (Motion Photographic Experts Group)
video coding standard
A video coding standard primarily for 30 fps
(frames per second) video
Result a bit-stream rate of 1.5 megabits per second
Design objective : To reduce four kinds of
redundancies:
Interframe (temporal) redundancy
Its reduction is achieved through the use of prediction to
estimate each frame from its neighbors.
The resulting prediction error is transmitted for motion
estimation and compensation.
Interpixel redundancy within a frame
Psychovisual redundancy
Entropic coding redundancy
25
As with JPEG, the last three redundancies are
reduced through the combined use of DCT,
quantization and lossless entropic coding.
Lossy Data Compression for Audio
MPEG-1 audio coding standard
A perceptual (waveform) coder, as contrary to a
vocoder
The amplitude-time waveform of the decoded audio
signal closely approximates that of the original audio
signal.
26
Encoding process
Time-Frequency Mapping (sub-band decomposition)
Psychoacoustic modeling (operates according to the
psychoacoustic behavior of the human auditory system)
Quantization and coding
Frame-packing (format the quantized audio samples
into a decodable bit stream)
Why Psychoacoustic modeling?
Human ears have a perceptual phenomenon known as
auditory masking.
Specifically, the human ear does not perceive
quantization noise in a given frequency band if the
average noise power lies below the masking threshold
The masking threshold varies with frequency across
the band.
Hence, a perceptual weighting filter is applied to
waveforms before quantization.
27
OSI
OSI (Open System Interconnection) model; the acronym DLC in the
middle of the figure stands for data link control.
Communication Networks
OSI reference model was developed by ISO
(International Organization for Standardization)
in 1977.
Figure 1 only concerns PHY layer.
Now we take a quick look of its relation with
higher layers, such as Network layers.
28
Net w or k Lay er : Rout er s
Routing mechanisms
Circuit Switching
Uninterrupted, exclusively use of links
E.g., Telephone.
Packet Switching
Shared-on-demand links
29
Why OSI reference model?
Each layer can perform its related subset of
primitive functions without knowing the
implementation details of the next lower layer.
The adjacent layers communicate through well-
defined interfaces, which defines the services
offered by the lower layer to the upper layer.
The entities that comprise the corresponding
layers on different systems are referred to as
peer processes.
Two peer entities then communicate through a
well-defined set of rules of procedures, named
Protocol.
Again, this text/course primarily considers PHY
layer.
30
Internet
Internet A special communication network, as
contrary to an Intranet.
Features of Internet
Applications are carried out independently of the
technology employed to construct the network.
The network technology is capable of evolving
without affecting the applications.
Internet
Architecture of
Internet
Di r ect Dat a Ex change Di r ect Dat a Ex change
Cr oss Cr oss- - Rout er Dat a Ex change Rout er Dat a Ex change
31
Internet Protocol (IP)
Internet Service
Internet Service is Best Effort in nature.
As a consequence, no guarantees of timely
transmission, and even delivery.
32
Communication Channels
Channels, where the noise/interference resides,
can be roughly divided into two groups:
Guided propagation channels
E.g., telephone channels, coaxial cables, and optical
fibers
Free propagation channels
E.g., broadcast channels, mobile radio channels, and
satellite channels.
Communication Channels: (i) Telephone
Channel
Features of telephone channel
A channel performs voice electrical signal
sound
Band-limited channel
A speech signal (male or female) is essentially limited
to a band from 300 to 3100 Hz.
33
Channel
Measures used in characterizing channel
Insertion loss = 10 log
10
(P
0
/P
L
)
P
L
= power delivered to a load from a source via the channel
P
0
= power delivered to the same source not not via the channel
P
L
P
0
Channel
Channel
Channel
Envelope delay
The negative of the derivative of the phase response with
respect to the angular frequency = 2f.
Example. Envelope delay = a for the next channel.
fa j
e f H
2
) (

=
) (t g ) ( a t g
)]. ( exp[ | ) ( | ) ( f j f H f H =
The phase response of a channel filter H(f) is (f), where
34
Channel
I nser t i on Loss Envel ope Del ay
Communication Channels: (ii) Coaxial
Cable
A coaxial cable offers a greater degree of
immunity to EMI, and a much higher
bandwidth than twisted pair telephone lines.
Example of its applications
Local area network in an office environment.
Cable television
35
Communication Channels: (iii) Optical Fiber
Features
Enormous potential bandwidth
The bandwidth is roughly equal to 10% of the carrier
frequency (2 10
14
Hz).
Notably, the transmission attainable limit (for additive
white Gaussian noise with SNR=10dB) is around
second per Gigabit 86 . 6918
second per bit 10 91886 . 6
) 10 1 ( log ) 10 2 (
) 1 ( log
13
10 / 10
2
13
2
=
=
+ =
+ =
dB
SNR B C
Communication Channels: (iii) Optical Fiber
Low transmission loss
0.1dB/km
Immunity to electromagnetic interference
Small size and weight (thinner than human hair)
Ruggedness and flexibility
Possibility of being bent or twisted without damage.
36
Communication Channels: (iv) Wireless
Broadcast Channels
Transmission
Up-convert the modulated baseband information-
bearing signal to Radio Frequency (RF) passband
signal
Transmit the RF passband signal via antenna
Reception
Pick up the radiated waves by an antenna.
Down-convert the received passband signal to
baseband signal (perhaps through an intermediate
step called the intermediate frequency (IF) band).
Communication Channels: (v) Mobile Radio
Channels
The main difference between this channel and
the previous channel is the consideration of
mobility.
Due to mobility, there is no line-of-sight path for
communication;
rather, radio propagation takes place mainly by way
of scattering from the surfaces of the surrounding
buildings and by diffraction over and around them.
This results in a multipath fading transmission.
37
Communication Channels: (v) Mobile Radio
channels
Transmitter
Receiver
) , (
1 1

) , (
2 2

) , (
3 3

) (
) (
) (
) (
3 3
2 2
1 1
t n
t s
t s
t s
+
+
+

) (t s
Not ably,
j
and
j
can also be
funct ions of t ime.
Communication Channels: (vi) Satellite
channels
Satellite communications
The satellite is placed in geostationary orbit.
Geostationary orbit
1. The satellite orbits the Earth in exactly 24 hours
(geosynchronous).
2. The satellite is placed in orbit directly above the equator on
an eastward heading.
It acts as a powerful repeater in the sky.
It often uses 6 GHz for the uplink and 4 GHz for
the downlink.
38
channels
The 6/4-GHz band offers the following attributes:
1. Relatively inexpensive microwave equipment.
2. Low attenuation due to rainfall
Rainfall is a primary atmospheric cause of signal loss.
3. Insignificant sky background noise
The sky background noise due to random noise emissions
from galactic, solar and terrestrial sources reaches its lowest
level between 1 and 10 GHz.
channels
A typical satellite in the 6/4-GHz band is assigned a
500 MHz bandwidth, which is divided among 12
transponders.
Each transponder can carry at least one color television
signal, 1200 voice circuits, or digital data at a rate of
50 Mb/s.
39
Classifications of Communication Channels
(according to the natures or resources)
Linear or non-linear
A wireless radio channel is linear whereas a satellite
channel is usually non-linear
Time invariant or time varying
An optical fiber is time invariant, whereas a mobile
radio channel is typically time varying.
Band limited or power limited
A telephone channel is band limited, whereas an
optical fiber link and a satellite channel are both
power limited.
Classification of Modulation Process
Continuous-wave modulation
A sinusoidal wave is used as the carrier.
It can be further classified as:
Amplitude modulation (AM) : Amplitude of the carrier
is varied in accordance with the message.
Frequency modulation (FM) : Frequency of the carrier
is varied in accordance with the message.
Phase modulation (PM) : Phase of the carrier is varied
in accordance with the message.
40
Pulse modulation.
The carrier consists of a sequence of rectangular
pulses.
It can be sub-divided to:
Analog pulse modulation
Digital pulse modulation
Analog pulse modulation
Pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM), pulse-duration
modulation (PDM), pulse-position modulation (PPM)
The amplitude, duration, position of the pulses varies
in accordance with the message signals.
Digital pulse modulation
Pulse-code modulation (PCM)
41
Example of PAM (telephone system)
Sampling t he
voice according
t o some clocks.
Example of PCM
Originate from PAM, but with the following
modifications.
Convert the (sampled) pulse into bits, e.g., 8 bits.
All 8 bits of the input PCM signal are gated to the
output port in parallel.
The gate can now be designed using truth table
which facilitates system integration or multiplexing.
42
What is multiplexing?
To combine (several modulated) signals for
their simultaneous (or concurrent) transmission.
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
Time-division multiplexing (TDM)
Code-division multiplexing (CDM)
Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM),
specifically for use of optical fibers.
Some treats WDM as a special case of FDM, since c =
f .
Shannons Information Capacity Theorem
The underlying limit for digital
communications
43
Transmission Rat e = Source code bit per second ( I nformat ion
bit per second)
Reliable transmission rate (for pre-specified
modulator, channel and demodulator).
The rate for which a proper design of channel
encoder-decode pair can fulfill arbitrarily small
error requirement.
Shannon finds the general formula for the
largest reliable transmission rate, which he
baptized as (coding) channel capacity.
44
For additive white Gaussian noise as
demodulator input = modulator output + Gaussian
the channel capacity is equal to
C = B log
2
(1+SNR) bit/second, where B is the
bandwidth.
It took 45 years (1948~1993) of research to
reach this capacity!
An Exemplified Ideal Digital Communication
Problem Phase Shift Keying
Channel
Encoder
0110
Modulat or
,m(t), m(t), m(t), m(t)
m(t)
T
Carrier wave
A
c
cos(2f
c
t)
s(t)
w(t)
x(t)
Local carrier
cos(2f
c
t)
T
dt
0

correlat or
y
T
>
<
0
0110
No IF here because
this is an ideal
system.
45
Assume that the local carrier (at the receiver
end) is exactly the same as the transmitter
carrier.
Assume that the correlator is completely
synchronized with the transmitter.
So the integration inside correlator covers a
complete message signal m(t). (In other words, it
wont happen that the integration inside correlator
covers 80% of the current m(t), but 20% of the
previous m(t).)
+ =
+ =
+
=
+ =
+ =
+ =
=
T
c c
T
c
T
c c c
T
c
T
c
c
T
c
T
c c
T
c c c
T
c
T
c T
dt t f t w T A
dt t f t w dt t f A T A
dt t f t w dt
t f
A
dt t f t w dt t f A
dt t f t w t f A
dt t f t w t s
dt t f t x y
0
0 0
0 0
0 0
2
0
0
0
) 2 cos( ) (
2
1
) 2 cos( ) ( ) 4 cos(
2
1
2
1
) 2 cos( ) (
2
) 4 cos( 1
) 2 cos( ) ( ) 2 ( cos
) 2 cos( )] ( ) 2 cos( [
) 2 cos( )] ( ) ( [
) 2 cos( ) (
m
(By assuming that f
c
is a
multiple of 1/T.)
46
Some interesting issues to consider.
What if the local carrier does not equal the
transmitter carrier.
What if f
c
is not a multiple of 1/T.
What if the receiver does not synchronize with the
transmitter?
What is the BER of this system?
+ =
T
tc rc c T
dt t f t w t f A y
0
) 2 cos( )] ( ) 2 cos( [
Is the correlator receiver optimal in the sense of
BER?
Is the sign-decision optimal in the sense of BER?
Is the above combination optimal in the sense of
BER?
Is the BER robust for imperfect system, such as
timing and carrier mismatch?
Is the rectangular m(t) a fine choice? Moreover, is
PSK a fine choice? If affirmative, in what sense?
.
47
All these problems will be hopefully answered
in this course (and subsequent courses).

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