Strain and Axial Loading Calculation of stress is essential to ensure that a mechanical or structural component does not fail.

Displacement calculations are also necessary, in order to avoid excessive deformations/displacements during the operation of a machine, or the use of a structure. Furthermore, the relationship between the forces (or moments) and displacements (or rotations) is needed in the stress analysis of statically indeterminate structures. Normal Strain Let us consider the axial displacement of a bar due to a given set of centric axial loads: Let u(x) be the axial displacement of a point (or section) originally (at the unloaded state) located at distance x from the left hand support. By the definition, the normal strain is given by

x x+

x x, u

..(1)

The strain may be regarded as a rate of change of axial displacement with respect to axial co-ordinate x. From Hooke's Law, in the linear-elastic range, = But since stress is the intensity of force, = Therefore ..(2) ..(3)

du = ..(4) dx where F is the induced force in the bar, and A is its cross sectional area. By u=
u 2 u1 =

..(5) ..(6)

If F, A and E remain constant for x1 < x <x2 then

u 2 u1 =

..(7)

Equation (7) may be used for calculating displacements in a bar or a bar segment subject to a constant axial force, provided the material is homogeneous (constant E) and uniform (constant A). In all other cases, equation (6) should be used. Sign Convention: Tensile strain is positive. Other notations in use: i.e. u1 = u(x1). 1 may also be used instead of u1. The relative displacement between two points x1 and x2 is sometimes written as u21 or 21. Thus an alternative form of x F equation (6) would be 21 = x dx AE For a uniform bar segment under constant induced axial force equation (7) may also be written as: F (L ) 21 = 2 1 = 21 21 (7a) ( E21 )( A21 ) where the subscript 2 and 1 refer to the points on the bar segment 12.
2 1

The use of subscript numbers may cause confusion when there are several bars whose displacements need to be distinguished by using a subscript number identifying a bar. In such cases it may be best to denote the displacements using letters as the subscripts. For example uB or B would indicate displacement at point B. Quiz: In calculating axial displacements, it is important to know when to use equations (6) and (7). For each of the following problems indicate which of the two equations is most appropriate or applicable: It should be noted here that although equation (6) is applicable for all cases, use of equation (7) would be more convenient and simpler for some of the problems, while others can only be solved using equation (6).

C P L

Uniform, homogeneous bar, subject to an end load

E1,A1 L1

C P1

E2,A2 D P2 L2

Two bars in series under two concentrated loads

B L

Tapered Bar subject to an end load

Vertical bar under self-weight

Rotating bar under centripetal force

Case1: Uniform, homogeneous Bar subject to an end load. B C P L x1=0 x1=0, x2 = Using equation (7), u2 - u1= F= u1 = u2 = u(L) = c The end displacement c = PL/(AE). As expected the end displacement is proportional to load and the length, and inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area and the elastic modulus. x2 = Determine the displacement of the loaded end of a uniform bar of length L, and cross-sectional area A, subject to a load P at its unrestrained end as shown in the figure. The bar is made of a homogeneous material having an elastic modulus E.

Case 2: Two bars in series under two concentrated loads E1,A1 L1 C P1 L2 E2,A2 D P2

Problem: Find the displacement of D. Let us apply equation (7) to the first bar: x1 = 0, x2 = F= u1(0) = Let u1(L1) = C

Using equation (7) to Bar 1 C = Similarly applying equation (7) to Bar 2 gives: D - C = Adding equations (8) and (9) gives: D = Case 3: Assembly of bars under two several concentrated loads Determine the relative end displacement of the right end (D) of the following bar assembly with respect to its left end (A). i.e. D - A = ? The elastic modulus of the bars is 200 GPa. R A A=0.001
2

..(8)

..(9)

.....(10)

B 250 A2

200 D kN C =0.002 A=0.001

2

50 kN

4m

2m

3m

Let us find the axial force in the bar segments by applying the method of sections: -FCD +50 = 0 Therefore FCD = 50 kN. (Tensile) Note that we could have summed the forces to the left. i.e. FCD 50 = 0 also gives FCD = 50 kN Now taking a cut between B and C and considering the right hand side freebody gives: . FBC + 20050 = 0 FBC = -150 kN (Compressive) 5 FBC FCD D 50 kN

200 kN

50 kN C D

Similarly for FAB we get: FAB 250 + 20050 = 0 giving FAB = A

FAB 100 kN

B 250

200 kN C 50 kN

50 kN

Induced Axial Forces: FAB = 100 kN; FBC = -150 kN; FCD = 50 kN -150 Using equation (6a) for kN Axial Force Diagram segment AB, we have FAB ( L AB ) (100 103 )( 4) B A = = m ..(12a) ( EAB )( AAB ) (200 109 )(0.001) Note that all units used are standard form of S.I. units and the resulting displacement would be in meters. Similarly for segment BC we get, ( 150 103 )( 2) C B = m ..(12b) (200 109 )( 0.002) ( 50 103 )( 3) m ( 200 109 )(0.001) Adding equations (12a,b and c) gives: D - A = 0.002 m = 2 mm. D C = ..(12c) ..(13)

This is the relative displacement of D with respect to A. Since it is positive, D would move right in relation to A, and there will be a net increase in the total length of the bars.

Case 4: Displacement caused by self weight of a vertical bar A uniform column of height H, weight (total) W, and cross sectional area A is shown in the figure. Let the origin of the axial co-ordinate x be at the base, where the displacement B = 0. The displacement of the tip C is required. C P H x B FBC -W
Axial force Diagram

To find the axial force in the member we need to isolate a free-body as shown in the diagram. This free-body is subject to the gravity force P and the induced axial force at the cut FBC. P= Fy = 0 gives: P + FBC = 0 FBC = Hence the axial force diagram is triangular. Using equation (6), H F H u 2 u1 = 0 BC dx = 0 AE = (13)

This is equal to half the displacement caused by a force W applied at the top of the column. The negative sign indicates that the displacement is opposite to the direction of x. (i.e. top moves down, as expected).

Case 5: Displacement caused by centripetal acceleration of a rotating bar Let us now revisit r L the rotating bar whose axial force rad/s distribution was obtained in Chapter 1. Let us consider 2(r+x) the stresses and Elevation F+F F displacements in a Ax uniform bar of x x length L, crossInfinitesimal sectional area A, Element which is fixed to a Plan rad/s hub of radius r. The hub and the bar are rotating at a constant angular speed of rad/s. Let the density and elastic modulus of the material the bar is made of be and E respectively. From Chapter 1, the result for the axial force in the bar is given by:
F= A 2 (r + L) 2 A 2 ( r + x ) 2 A 2 = (r + L) 2 ( r + x ) 2 2 2 2

(14)

Substituting the r.h.s of equation (14) for axial force in equation (6) gives: 2 2 2 L A ( r + L) ( r + x ) u( L) u(0) = 0 dx 2AE

= 2 = 3( r + L) 2 L ( r + L) 3 + r 3 6E Taking the hub as rigid, u(0)=0 which gives 2 u( L) = 3( r + L) 2 L ( r + L) 3 + r 3 6E This is the radial displacement of the tip of the rotating bar.

(15)

Dividing equation (14) by A gives an expression for the stress as

= 2 ( r + L) 2 (r + x ) 2 2

The maximum stress in the bar (at the hub) may be obtained by substituting x = 0 into this equation, giving 8

 max =

2 2 2 ( r + L) 2 r 2 = (L + 2Lr) 2 2

(16)

Note that should be given in radians per second. Case 6: Displacement of a tapered bar Consider the case of a tapered bar of length L which is subject to an axial force P at the free end as shown in the figure. The cross sectional area A may be assumed to decrease linearly from A0 at the left end to A1 at the free end. The material has an elastic modulus E. Find the displacement of the loaded end C.

B L

Tapered Bar An expression for the area A is needed. Since it decreases linearly and is equal to A0 at x = 0, and A1 at x = L, it will be of the form A = A0 For this case, the induced axial force is constant. FBC = P L P Therefore, using equation (6) C B = 0 dx ( A0 A1 ) x E A 0 L A A1 Defining a new variable r = 0 for convenience, this may be written A0 L L P P L 1 P L 1 C B = 0 dx = 0 (1 r x) dx = EA 0 (1 r x) dx EA0 (1 r x ) EA 0 0 = A A0 P PL log e 0 = A E( A A ) loge A EA 0 r 1 0 1 1

(17)

Statically Indeterminate Problems In all the above cases, the axial force distribution in the bar(s) was calculated by applying equations of equilibrium. As explained in Chapter 1, since this is not suffic ient for Statically Indeterminate Problems, we need to obtain compatibility conditions too. Static indeterminacy in bars may occur in cases where any of the following is encountered: additional constraints, temperature changes in bars restrained at more than one point, compounding two or more bars in parallel, or turn-buckles Some examples from the above categories are presented in this section, to explain the strategy for solving these problems by applying: Statics (equation(s) of equilibrium) Compatibility condition(s) Constitutive equation(s) Case 7: A bar restrained at both ends and subject to a point load A uniform bar of length L, cross sectional area A is restrained at both ends. Calculate the maximum stress in the bar due to a point load P acting at distance a from one support as shown in the diagram. The bar is made of a material having an elastic modulus E. Equilibrium: Let the unknown reactions at B and D be RB and RD respectively. The directions were chosen arbitrarily. By inspection, P= Compatibility: The net This may be written as =0 is zero. (19) (18) a RB B C L-a P D Free-body RD a L-a P B C D

Overall Diagram

10

Constitutive equations: The compatibility condition is expressed in terms of displacements, but what is needed is another equation in terms of the unknown forces. At this stage, the force-displacement relationship for each segment of the bar may be applied and the results substituted into the compatibility equation. This will yield an equation in terms of the unknown forces.

( D B ) = ( D C ) + ( C B )
Using the method of sections, the axial force in the bar segments can be shown to be given by the following equations: FBC = ...(20a) FCD = ...(20b) (Alternatively the forces could be expressed in terms of RB and the result would be the same). Substituting these into equation (7a) gives: F (L ) ( P R D )a C B = BC BC = ( E BC )( A BC ) EA F (L ) ( R D )( L a) and D C = CD CD = ( E CD )( ACD ) EA Adding equations (21a) and (21b) results in (D B ) = (C B ) + (D C ) = (P R D )a R D (L a) EA Simplifying both sides of the above equation, we get (D B ) = (P)a R D ( L) EA But from equation (19) D - B = 0 Therefore, (P)a-RD(L) = 0 This gives RD = P(a/L) Consequently, from equation (18) RB = P - RD= P (L-a)/L Also from equations (20a,b) we have FBC = P-RD = P (L-a)/L FCD = -RD = -P(a/L) The stresses in the bar segments are: BC = FBC /A = P (L-a)/(AL) CD = F CD /A = -Pa/(AL) If required, the displacement of C can also be calculated. 11

...(21a) ...(21b)

...(22a) ...(22b)

...(23a) ...(23b)

From equation (21a) C B = Since B = 0, C =

P( L a)a EAL The same result would be obtained, if equation (21b) were used. PL If a = L/2, then C = 4EA Alternative Approach (Flexibility Method): This problem may be solved using a slightly different procedure, in three steps. In the first step, one of the restraints is initially removed from the bar to render the structure statically determinate. The resulting bar (which is referred to as the released structure) can be statically analysed, and its displacement at the point where the restraint was released could be calculated. In the second step, the restraint may be reapplied so as to bring the bar back to where it would be if the restraints had acted all along. The magnitude of the restraining force required is determined by calculating the displacement caused by it and equating it to the negative of the displacement due to the loading on the released structure. The final step involves adding the induced forces (and/or stresses and displacements if necessary) obtained in the first two steps. This procedure is based on the Principle of Superposition as described in Chapter 1, and is applicable only for linear elastic structures undergoing small, deformations. Although it may appear to be cumbersome, it is computationally easier to apply for complex problems, and illustrates some problems (for example, the calculation of temperature induced stresses) more clearly. Step 1: Analysis of the released bar: In this case, any one of the two end reactions could be moved, and the bar would still be stable, although the resulting stress distribution would be different and may cause failure. Any additional constraints that are not needed for maintaining the stability of a structure are referred to as redundants and the first step in the flexibility method is to remove all redundants. For the current problem, only one of the two reactions could be removed. The choice is arbitrary since the bar would be stable without either one. Let us choose the reaction at D as the redundant and remove it. The resulting structure is shown below: Let the displacement of the bar at D due to the loading on the released structure be D,L, where the subscript D refers to the location of a L-a P B C D D,L

FBC ( L BC ) P( L a)a = ( E BC )( A BC ) EAL

Loading on the Released Bar

12

the bar where the displacement takes place, and the subscript L stands for the Loading. The induced forces in the segments BC and CD for this case are FBC,L = P ...(24a) FCD,L = 0 ...(24b) Substituting these into equation (6a) we get: ( P)a D , L C , L = 0 and ( C, L B, L ) = EA Adding the above equations gives ( D, L B, L ) = Pa EA But B,L = 0 since it is a fixed end. Pa Therefore D, L = ...(25) EA Step 2: Analysis of the bar subject to the redundant:

In this step we reapply the redundant RD to nullify the displacement caused by the load on the released bar. At this stage, we consider the effect of the reaction RD only. The bar is under an axial force of - RD (negative because it is a compressive force). FBC,R = - RD FCD,R = - RD

L-a

D,R R

Reapplying RD on the Released Bar

...(26a) ...(26b)

In fact, since the entire bar is under a uniform axial force - RD the displacement of the bar at D may be obtained by putting FBD = - RD and LBD = L into equation (6a) giving: ( D,R B,R ) = R D L EA And since B is a fixed end B,R = 0 which when substituted into the previous R DL equation gives: D, R = ...(27) EA The minus sign indicates that this displacement is in the opposite direction to positive u and positive x, and D moves left. Step 3: Superposition of the effects of the load and redundant:

13

From the Principle of superposition (see Chapter 1), the net result of P and RD acting simultaneously may be found by adding the results in Steps 1 and 2. Using equations (25) and (27), net displacement of D Pa R D L D = D, L + D , R = ...(28) EA Compatibility Condition: Compatibility is enforced, by equating the net displacement due to the load and the redundant to zero. Since D cannot actually move RD must be such that the above expression, equation (28) gives zero. Therefore P a RD L = 0 This gives RD = P where = a/L .....(29a) There is another way to consider compatibility. The displacement due to the redundant (given by the right-hand side of equation (27)) must be equal and opposite to the displacement due to the load (given by the right-hand side of equation (25)). Substituting equation (29a) into equations (26a,b) and adding the results to equations (24a,b) results in the following expressions for the net induced forces: FBC = FBC,L + FBC,R =P(1- ) and FCD = FCD,L + FCD,R = P ...(29b) ...(29c)

The stresses in the bars can be found by dividing the induced forces by the cross sectional area A. BC = P(1- )/A and CD = P/A ...(30a) ...(30b)

14

Case 8: A restrained bar subject to temperature change A uniform bar of length L, cross sectional area A is restrained at both ends. The bar is then subject to a B temperature increase of TC. Find the stress induced in the bar if it is made of a material having an elastic modulus E and the coefficient of linear thermal expansion /C.

D TC

This is done using the flexibility method. One end of the bar may be first released, thus allowing free elongation to take place. Step 1: Analysis of the released bar: L Let us remove the reaction at D and consider the effect of the temperature increase. At this stage the bar is free to elongate and is therefore under B D no internal forces or stresses. Denoting the C T effects associated with the temperature change with a subscript T, we have FBD,T = .(31) The displacement of the end D is caused by the temperature and is given by D,T = .....(32) Step 2: Analysis of the bar subject to the redundant: This is similar to Case 7, and the application of the reaction RD would result in a R DL displacement at D given by equation (27). i.e. D, R = EA Step 3: Superposition of the effects of the load and redundant: Using equations (32) and (27), D = D,T .....(33) Compatibility Condition: Since D is actually restrained, D = 0. Putting equation (33) into this gives, LT + giving RD = TEA .....(34) 15 R DL =0 EA + D,R = LT +
R DL , EA

D,T

The force in the bar is caused by the reaction only, and is equal to RD. i.e. FBD = TEA. Therefore the stress in the bar is BD = F BD/A = TE .....(35) As expected an increase in temperature causes compressive (negative) stress. Expansion Joints: In designing bridges, floor-slabs and railway tracks, a clearance is provided to allow for the free movement of rails due to temperature changes. If the fee due to temperature increase is greater than the clearance, then compressive stresses will develop. They can cause buckling type failure. These thermal stresses can be calculated using a modified compatibility condition. In the case of a bar that is fully restrained at one end and is placed at distance e from a fixed wall at the other end, equation (33) will need to be changed to
R DL LT + e where e is the clearance. If EA

B TC

the left-hand side is less than e then there would be no stress, and only if the temperature increase is sufficiently high then equality would result. i.e. if LT <e, RD =0 If LT e, R D may be calculated using the equation LT + RD = EA(e- LT)/L and the stress is -RD/A = E(e- LT)/L .....(36) e L
R DL =e EA

The above result would also apply in B D the case of C L T L expansion joints between adjacent slab/bar/rail units. In such cases both edges would be free to move by a distance of e/2, Unless some room for movement is provided between with a total structures, stresses may develop due to temperature variations . Is elongation of e per there a similarity between this and the social stresses that develop length L.

among some ethnic communities that are governed by a majority group under unitary administration ? Can these stresses be decreased by providing a degree of autonomy which allows some room for free movement

16

Case 9: A compound bar subject to end loads applied through rigid end plates Consider the case of a compound bar which consists of two identical copper bars and a steel bar, all having length L. The cross sectional areas of the bars are A (for copper) and n(A) (for steel). The elastic moduli for copper and steel are E and r(E) respectively. We may want to find the stresses in the bars in terms of applied load P and the properties of the bars. L P Copper Steel P

Compound Bar

The problem with this case is that from equilibrium alone, we cannot obtain the axial forces in each of the bars. Applying the method of sections for a segment of the compound bar we get FC Fx = 0 gives: FS P -P = 0, FC P= .......(37) Free-body Diagram of a Segment where FS and FC are the axial forces in the steel bar and copper bar respectively. This is the only equation of equilibrium. Compatibility Condition: Since the load is applied through rigid end plates, the elongation of the copper bar = Denoting the changes in length of the steel and copper bar by S and C respectively, S = C .....(38) And from equation (7a) we have, S = .....(39a) C = Substituting equations (39a,b) into equation (38) gives This gives: FS = n.r.FC .....(40) .....(39b)

Substituting equation (40) into equation (37) gives: -P n.r. FC-2FC = 0 Therefore FC =-P/(2+n.r) ...(41a) and substituting this back into equation (40) gives 17

FS = -n.r.P/(2+n.r) The stresses in the bars are given by C = and S = r .P A( 2 + n.r )

P A(2 + n.r )

...(41b) ...(42a) (42b)

It is interesting to note that S/ C = r = ES/EC ..(43) That is to say that the normal stress induced in the components of a compound bar is proportional to their elastic modulus. A material that has a higher elastic modulus (stiffer material) will undergo greater stress when subject to axial loading under same constraints.
J Just for the fun of it, one can think of a possible similarity between this behaviour of materials and what happens to people under stress. Do people who have a stiff/rigid attitude in life, undergo more mental stress than those who take a flexible, compromising attitude? Another point of observation: Why do women have a longer life-span? Is it because they are more flexible (less stiff) than men? Comments like these are given just to have a break from the s (stresses) of learning this course, and should not be taken as the authors view on these matters.

Case 10: Turnbuckle Problems Turnbuckle is a simple device that can be used to adjust the tension in structures, particularly in cables. It consists of two rods having threads running in opposite directions, and a threaded buckle. When the buckle is turned, it would tend to move either in or out simultaneously on both rods. If the other ends of the rod are constrained, say by a cable or directly on to a fixed wall, then the threaded rods and/or the cable that it is attached to, will undergo a change in the axial force. As an example, let us consider the case of two rods connected to a turnbuckle and rigid walls as shown in the following figure.

18

The steel rods having the same cross sectional area (A) are connected by a turnbuckle, and are clamped to rigid walls at the other ends. Calculate the increase in stress caused by tightening the turnbuckle by a third of a turn. The turnbuckle may be assumed to be rigid. For steel E = 207 GPa. Equilibrium: Turnbuckle

Threads at 1.2 mm pitch For equilibrium the axial force in both rods must be same 1.8 m 1.2 m at any time. Let the axial force due to turning the buckle be F and any force that was already present be F0. Compatibility Condition: Let the elongations of the rods on the left and right hand sides be eL and eR respectively. If the buckle is turned (tightened) by a third of the turn, the two ends of the rods inside the buckle would have travelled by a distance of one third of the pitch each. i.e. eL + eR = .....(44)

Constitutive Equations: If both rods were of the same length, the elongations would be the same. Otherwise the longer rod would stretch more. If one rod were to be extremely short, then the elongation of the other rod would be 0.8 mm. In the present case, the elongations can be expresed in terms of the length, force etc, using equation (7). This gives: eL = .....(45a) and eR = .....(45b) Substituting these into equation (44) gives: (1.8 F + 1.2 F)/(AE) = 0.8 10-3 m i.e. F = (AE) (0.8 10-3 ) /3.0 The stress in the rods are given by, = = 55.2 Mpa .....(46)

19

Multi-Axial Loading Poissons Ratio When a rubber block is squeezed it tends to bulge out sideways. When a piece of rubber is stretched, it tends to shrink sideways.

Note that the strain in the direction of loading is opposite to the strain in the direction that is perpendicular to the loading. In the figure shown, when the body is compressed vertically, it expands horizontally, and when it is stretched vertically it shortens horizontally. It was Poisson who first discovered that the ratio of the strain in the direction perpendicular to the loading and the strain in the direction of the loading is a constant for many materials. This ratio is called Poisson's ratio and is denoted by the alphabet (nu). A rubber squeezed between the thumb and a finger has a barrel shape. The surfaces of rubber in contact with the finger/thumb do not move due to friction, causing this distortion. When a material is subject to a state of uni-axial stress, and it is free from any restraints in lateral directions, the strain in the lateral directions is proportional to the strain in the axial direction, the constant of proportionality being -. From Hooke's law, the strain in the direction of the loading is given by = Since we are going to deal with multi-axial loading, we need to assign subscripts to the stress and strain to indicate the direction. The notation we use is as follows: xx refer to the strain in the x-direction caused by the stress in the x-direction (x ) The strains in y, z directions due to x (the stress in xdirection) are denoted by yx and zx respectively. 20 Greek

Complete the expression for yx and zx in terms of x , and E: yx = zx = x ( )

Stress - Strain Relationship We now have the following relationship between the stress and strain: xx = x /E, and yx = zx = x /E A material that has the same elastic properties in all directions is called an isotropic material. The above equation is applicable only for isotropic materials. For anisotropic materials the Poisson's ratio and the elastic modulus would depend on the orientation. For isotropic materials, we may write the stress - strain relationship as follows: xx xy xz yx yy yz zx zy zz If an element is subject to stresses in all three directions, then how does one calculate the resulting strains? For example when an element is under a state of tri-axial stress (x, y, z) what is the net strain in the x direction? x = + + .........(1) Similarly, y = ( y ( x+ z))/ .........(2) z = (z ( x + y))/ .........(3)

and

These together with equations relating shear stress and shear strain are called Generalised Hooke's law or General constitutive equations for isotropic materials. Bulk Modulus and Dilatation 21

The change in volume per unit volume is referred to as the dilatation of a material and is denoted by e. Dilatation may be regarded as volumetric strain. Consider the change in volume of an infinitesimal element of dimensions dx, dy and dz. Let the new lengths of these sides be dx', dy' and dz'. Using Hooke's law, dx'= dx(1+ x), dy'= dy(1+ y) and dz'= dz(1+ z) Change in volume = New volume - old volume =dx'dy'dz'-dxdydz =dxdydz((1+ x)(1+ y)(1+ z)-1) = old volume ((1+ x)(1+ y)(1+ z)-1) But dilatation e = change in volume/old volume dy' =old volume ((1+ x)(1+ y)(1+ z)-1) /old volume =1+ x y z+ x y+ x z+ y z+ x+ y+ z-1 = x y z+ x y+ x z+ y z+ x+ y+ z Neglecting the product terms this becomes, dz' dx' e = x+ y+ z = sum of normal strains Now we have e = x+ y+ z .......(4)

From Generalised Hooke's Law, we also have the stress strain relationship. Substituting this relationship into the above equation yields: e = x-( y+z)/ + y-(x+z)/+ z-( x+y)/ ( ( ( = ( x+y+z)(12)/ .......(5)

Special Case: If an element is subject to a uniform pressure p then x = x = x = - p e = -3p(1-2)/E ......................(6) which may be written as e = -p/k ......................(7) where k = E/(3(1--2)) ............(7a) k is called the bulk modulus or modulus of compression of the material. From the above equation, one can deduce the practical limits of Poisson's ratio for an isotropic material. When a body is subject to a uniform pressure can its volume increase?

22

For common structural metals such as steel, is about 0.3. Rubber has a value close to 0.5. Did you see the Walt Disney movie "Absent minded Professor" ? I suspect the Professor's invention flubber may have a greater than 0.5 : ) It should be noted here that some anisotropic materials may have Poisson's ratio greater than 0.5 in some directions._ Summary: Dilatation (volumetric strain) e = x+ y+ z.......(3) = ( x+y+z)(12)/.......(4) Also e = -p/k ......................(7) where Bulk modulus k = E/(3(1-2))............(7a)_ Example: Here is a chance to design your own problem. Choose the volume of a steel block (in mm3) to be subject to hydrostatic pressure: Initial volume V0 = For steel, take =0.3 and E= From equations (7) and (7a) k = The pressure that the block is going to be subject to is MPa But change in volume = e Vo = (Hint: Use equation (7))

23

Shear Stress and Shear Strain We have seen that the effect of normal stress is normal strain which is defined as the change in length divided by the original length. Shearing stress does not cause a change in the dimension of an element. It causes distortion, or a change of shape. The shear strain is defined as the change in the angle of a corner of a rectangular infinitesimal element as illustrated in the following diagram:

In cross-section, a rectangular element becomes a parallelogram under shearing stresses. The angles at the corners change from /2 to /2- or /2+. Angle is defined as the shearing strain. The relationship between the shear stress and shear strain is very similar to the relationship between normal stress and strain. The linear part of the stress-strain curve is expressed = G where G is called the shear modulus or modulus of rigidity. Since is nondimensional (radians) G has the same units as that of stress.

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Summary: Determination of axial force, stress and displacement in bars Strategy: Determine whether or not the problem is statically indeterminate. If it is not possible to calculate the internal forces from statics then the problem is statically indeterminate. Statically determinate problems 1. Apply method of sections to calculate the internal axial force. This involves sketching a free-body and applying either equations of equilibrium, or equations of motion (Newton's second law). 2. For a series of loads, make cuts at various points, or use singularity functions, although this is not usually needed for axial loading problems. 3. Axial force may vary as a continuous function of axial co-ordinate due to body forces (such as force due to gravity or acceleration) or other external forces (friction and drag forces in 'pile driving'). For uniform bar subject to constant acceleration, finite free-body diagrams may be sketched, and either equations of equilibrium or equations of motion (depending on whether the body is stationary or not) may be applied. 4. If the body forces were to vary with distance (such as in rotating bars, or accelerating tapered bars), then consider the motion of an infinitesimal element, and apply Newton's second law of motion. 5. Calculate the stress by using the formula = F/A where F is the induced axial force. This does not include stress concentration effects and is applicable only for centric uni-axial loading. 6. Use one of the following equations to determine the relative displacement between two ends of a bar segment: u2 u1 = x
u2 u1 =
x2
1

F ( x 2 x1 ) ..(ii) depending on whether any of the parameters, F, A AE

F dx AE

..(i)

or

and E vary with x or not. Statically indeterminate problems An equilibrium problem is said to be statically indeterminate if the number of unknowns exceed the number of independent equations of equilibrium. The difference between the two numbers is referred to as the degree of static indeterminacy. To solve these problems one needs to use: (a) Equation(s) of equilibrium (see steps 1-4 above) (b) compatibility condition(s) (c) constitutive equation(s) formed using formula (i) or (ii) above.

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Compatibility conditions are geometric conditions imposed by the supports or connections to other structures, and give a relationship between displacements. Substituting the force-displacement equation(s) into compatibility condition will result in additional equations in terms of unknown forces. In some problems, it is convenient to remove some of the constraints to make the system statically determinate and stable. The actions thus removed are called redundants. Number of redundants = degree of static indeterminacy. The compatibility condition is enforced by superimposing the displacements due to the loading and redundant(s) on the released structure. Examples of statically indeterminate problems include constrained bars, thermal stresses, compound beams and stresses due to imposed displacements such as in turn-buckles.

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