Lecture Notes

BASIC CONTROL THEORY

Module 5
Control Applications in Marine and Offshore Systems

SEPTEMBER 2005
Prepared by Dr. Hung Nguyen
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Contents..............................................................................................................................i
List of Figures................................................................................................................................ iii
List of Tables ..................................................................................................................................iv
References .......................................................................................................................................v
Objectives .......................................................................................................................................vi

1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................1
2. Pneumatic Control Systems.........................................................................................................1
2.1 Essential Requirements.........................................................................................................1
2.2 Basic Pneumatic Control Systems ........................................................................................2
3. Hydraulic Control Systems..........................................................................................................6
3.1 Hydraulic Servo Valve and Actuator.....................................................................................6
3.2 Applications of Hydraulic Servo Valve.................................................................................7
3.2.1 Speed Control System ...................................................................................................7
3.2.2 Hydraulic Steering Machine..........................................................................................8
4. Electrical and Electronic Control Systems ................................................................................10
4.1 Analogue Control Systems..................................................................................................10
4.2 Digital (Computer-based) Control Systems........................................................................12
4.3 PLCs (Sequence Control Systems) .....................................................................................13
4.3.1 The Processor Unit ......................................................................................................13
4.3.2 The Input/Output Section ............................................................................................14
4.3.3 The Programming Device ...........................................................................................14
5. Ship Autopilot Systems .............................................................................................................15
5.1 Mathematical Foundation for Autopilot Systems ...............................................................15
5.1.1 Autopilots of PID Type ...............................................................................................15
5.1.2 P Control .....................................................................................................................16
5.1.3 PD Control ..................................................................................................................17
5.1.4 PID Control .................................................................................................................18
5.2 Automatic Steering Principles.............................................................................................19
5.2.1 Proportional Control....................................................................................................19
5.2.2 Derivative Control.......................................................................................................21
5.2.3 Integral Control ...........................................................................................................22
5.3 Marine Autopilots in Market...............................................................................................23
5.3.1 Autopilot System PR-6000 (Tokimec) ........................................................................23
5.3.2 Autopilot System PR-2000 (Tokimec) ........................................................................23
5.3.3 Autopilot System PR-1500 (Tomimec) .......................................................................24
6. Dynamic Positioning Systems ...................................................................................................24
6.1 Basic Principles of Dynamic Positioning Systems .............................................................25
6.2 IMO DP Classfications .......................................................................................................27
7. Roll Stabilisation Systems .........................................................................................................28
7.1 Fin Stabilisation Systems ....................................................................................................29

i
 7.2 Rudder Roll Stabilisation System .......................................................................................31
8. Trend of Control Systems ..........................................................................................................32
Summary of Module 5...................................................................................................................32
Exercises........................................................................................................................................33

ii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 5.1.........................................................................................................................................3
Figure 5.2.........................................................................................................................................4
Figure 5.3.........................................................................................................................................5
Figure 5.4.........................................................................................................................................5
Figure 5.5.........................................................................................................................................6
Figure 5.6.........................................................................................................................................7
Figure 5.7.........................................................................................................................................7
Figure 5.8.........................................................................................................................................8
Figure 5.9.........................................................................................................................................9
Figure 5.10.......................................................................................................................................9
Figure 5.11 .....................................................................................................................................11
Figure 5.12.....................................................................................................................................11
Figure 5.13.....................................................................................................................................12
Figure 5.14.....................................................................................................................................12
Figure 5.15.....................................................................................................................................13
Figure 5.16.....................................................................................................................................14
Figure 5.17.....................................................................................................................................15
Figure 5.18.....................................................................................................................................15
Figure 5.19.....................................................................................................................................16
Figure 5.20.....................................................................................................................................20
Figure 5.21.....................................................................................................................................21
Figure 5.22.....................................................................................................................................21
Figure 5.23.....................................................................................................................................22
Figure 5.24.....................................................................................................................................22
Figure 5.25.....................................................................................................................................23
Figure 5.26.....................................................................................................................................23
Figure 5.27.....................................................................................................................................24
Figure 5.28.....................................................................................................................................25
Figure 5.29.....................................................................................................................................25
Figure 5.30.....................................................................................................................................26
Figure 5.31.....................................................................................................................................26
Figure 5.32.....................................................................................................................................29
Figure 5.33.....................................................................................................................................30
Figure 5.34.....................................................................................................................................31
Figure 5.35.....................................................................................................................................31

iii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 5.1 ........................................................................................................................................27

Table 5.2 ........................................................................................................................................29

iv
 REFERENCES

AMC (unknown year), Lecture Notes on Automation, Australian Maritime College, Launceston

Chesmond, C.J. (1990), Basic Control System Technology, Edward Arnold, UK.

Fossen, T.I. (1994), Guidance and Control of Ocean Vehicles, John Wiley and Sons, UK.

Fossen, T.I. (1994), Marine Control Systems – Guidance, Navigation and Control of Ships, Rigs
and Underwater Vehicles, Marine Cybernetics, Trondheim, Norway.

Haslam, J.A., G.R. Summers and D. Williams (1981), Engineering Instrumentation and Control,
Edward Arnold, UK.

Kou, Benjamin C. (1995), Automatic Control Systems, Prentice-Hall International Inc., Upper
Saddle River, New Jersey, USA.

Nguyen, H.D. (2000), Self-tuning Pole Assignment and Optimal Control Systems for Ships,
Doctoral Thesis, Tokyo University of Mercantile Marine, Tokyo, Japan.

Ogata, Katsuhiko (1997), Modern Control Engineering, 3rd Edition, Prentice-Hall International
Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA.

Perez, T. (2005), Ship Motion Control – Course Keeping and Roll Stabilisation Using Rudder
and Fins, Springer-Verlag, London.

Richards, R.J. (1993), Solving in Control Problems, Longman Group UK Ltd, Harlow, Essex,
UK.

Seborg, Dale E., Thomas F. Edgar and Duncan A. Mellichamp (2004), Process Dynamics and
Control, 2nd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey, USA.

Taylor, D.A. (1987), Marine Control Practice, Butterworks, UK.

Tetley, L. & C. Calcutt (2001), Electronic Navigation System, Butterworths Heinemann, Woburn,
MA.

v
 AIMS

1.0 Explain structures, operating principles of control systems in industries and maritime
engineering.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1.1 Describe operating principles of pneumatic control systems

1.2 Describe operating principles of hydraulic control systems

1.3 Describe operating principles of electrical and electronic systems including analogue control
systems, digital control systems and programmable logic controllers

1.4 Describe operating principles of autopilot systems for marine vehicles.

1.5 Describe operating principles of dynamic positioning systems

1.6 Describe operating principles of roll stabilisation systems

vi
1. Introduction
As mentioned in the earlier modules, computer science, high performance programming
languages, I/O interface techniques and modern control theories allow very complicated
control systems to be designed for different purposes. A modern control system is a
combination of pneumatic, hydraulic and electronic elements. The trend of new control
systems are computer-based control systems in which the control algorithms are designed in
the form of software. Control applications in industries and marine and offshore systems may
be as follows:
• Pneumatic control systems
• Hydraulic control systems
• Electrical and electronic control systems, including analogue, digital control systems
and PLCs (programmable logic controllers)
• Surface vessels’ autopilot systems
• Manoeuvring, control and ship positioning systems
• Engine and machinery control systems
• Control systems for underwater vehicles and robotics
• Traffic guidance and control systems

In this Module, we deal with pneumatic, hydraulic, and electronic control systems and some
control applications in industries and maritime engineering such as ship autopilots, dynamic
positioning systems, roll stabilisation systems and so on.

2. Pneumatic Control Systems

In previous modules, we dealt with principles of PID pneumatic control systems. This section
gives more information about practical sides of pneumatic control systems.

2.1 Essential Requirements

a) The air must be free of:

• Oil,
• Moisture
• Dust.
b) Sources of contamination are
• Air intake – dust, oil vapour and water vapour
• Compressor – oil, water, carbon wear particles and corrosion products
c) Reduction of contaminants
• System design
• Correct operation
• Regular maintenance

System design: System to be used for control air supply only, preferably of a ring main type
and sized to suit number of items of equipment in the circuit.

Design features:
(a) Compressor discharge pressure should be high enough to prevent condensation and
minimise power requirements. Instruments and controllers require a supply of about 1.5 bar
whilst some actuators may require 5 bar.

1
Operating at a high discharge pressure and reducing pressure at the instruments helps to dry
the air and reduce size of components.

(b) Quantity: System should be sized to match maximum expected demand.

(i) match future expansion
(ii) allow 10% leakage factors
(iii) prevent excessive operation of compressors

(c) Quality (dryness): Often this is over-emphasized resulting in increased costs. Most
instruments will accept as a maximum.
(i) 500ppm water vapour
(ii) 1ppm solids >| micron
(iii) 1gmHC/100m3

Dryness is achieved by
(a) siting of air intake
(b) sizing of air receiver
(c) auto drains
(d) sloping lines
(e) tapping from top of distribution manifold to instruments
(f) drains at low points
(g) use of either:
(i) Absorbent driers
(ii) Refrigerant driers

Compressor Types: Governed by the dryness and oil content of the air. Early instruments
required totally oil free air, however modern instruments will tolerate some oil. Improvement
in filtration systems has allowed use of oil lubricated compressors.

Filtration:
(a) Coalescing filters
(b) Bronze filters
(c) Air intake filters

Operation/Maintenance:
• Operate compressors at rates discharge pressures.
• Check moisture drains regularly.
• Filters to be changes at prescribe intervals.
• Ensure new instruments are correctly connected.
• Site compressor suction in as clean and cry an area as possible.
• Ensure automatic driers functioning.
• Overhaul at prescribed intervals.

2.2 Basic Pneumatic Control Systems

Pneumatic control systems are compressed air to supply energy for the operation of valves,
motors, relays and other pneumatic control equipment. Consequently, the circuits consist of
air lines. Pneumatic control systems are made up of the following:
1. A source of clean, dry compressed air which is stored in a receiving tank at a pressure
capable of supplying all the pneumatic devices in the system with operating energy.

2
 Pressure in the receiving tank is normally maintained between 2.5-10bar depending on
the system.
2. A pressure reducing station which reduces recurving tank pressure to a normal
operating pressure of 1-1.5bar again depending on system requirement.
3. Air lines which can either be copper or polyethylene tubing connect the air supply to
the controlling devices (thermostats and other controllers). These air lines are called
“mains”.
4. Controlling instruments such as thermostats, humidistats and pressure controllers are
used to position the control valves.
5. Intermediate devices such as relays and switches.
6. Air lines leading from the controlling devices to the controlled devices. These air lines
are called “branch lines”.
7. Controlled devices such as valves or damper actuators. These can either be called
operators or actuators.
A typical application of a pneumatic process controller is shown in Figure 5.1. The function
of the controller is to open and close the control valve so as to manipulate the inflow rate, in
the presence of fluctuations in outflow rate. It does this in order that the liquid level in the
tank, as measured by the transducer, shall match as closely as possible the desired value, as
determined by the manually adjusted set point.

VALVE
POSITIONER

CONTROL VALVE

SET POINT
KNOB
manipulated
inflow rate
LEVEL
CONTROLLER
measured level signal
outflow
LEVEL rate
TRANSDUCER

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

outflow rate
level reference controller inflow rate
signal level error output
REFERENCE signal
set point CONTROLLER VALVE & PLANT
= desired level TRANSDUCER POSITIONER PROCESS
CONTROL LAW
SENSITIVITY

LEVEL CONTROLLER
LEVEL
measured level (process TRANSDUCER actual level
variable) signal

BLOCK DIAGRAM
Figure 5.1 Scheme and block diagrams for closed loop control of liquid level in a vessel,
using a pneumatic process controller.

3
The functions of the pneumatic controller are:

• To enable the set point signal to be generated

• To receive the feedback signal representing the measured level
• To generate an error signal by comparing the above two signals
• To amplify the error signal and to incorporate dynamic terms, in generating the
controller output signal.

The control law can incorporate one or more of the terms known as proportional action,
integral action, and derivative action which have been described in Module 3. Figure 5.2
shows a symbolic representation of a controller containing only proportional action (P
Controller). In practice, the PV and set point bellows may be coupled (differentially) to the
flapper through fairly complex linkage arrangements. The flapper-nozzle amplifier and its out
put pressure responds, nonlinearly, to minute changes in flapper displacement. The air relay
behaves as a unity follower, so that its output pressure tracks the amplifier output pressure,
but with significant increase in volumetric flow capacity. The feedback bellows completes a
high gain negative feedback loop, and equilibrium is established by a force balance at the
flapper. Thus, the controller output pressure is proportional to the difference between the set
point and process variable pressures. The constant of proportionality may be adjusted by
manually changing the moment arm ratios of linkages (not shown) which couple the feedback
bellows to the flapper.

flapper input displacement

∝ (set point pressure – PV pressure)

process set point pressure

variable pressure

PV BELLOWS SET POINT BELLOWS

supply air

FLAPPER-NOZZLE
AMPLIFIER

flapper feedback displacement

∝ output pressure

FEEDBACK BELLOWS
AIR controller output
supply air
RELAY pressure

Figure 5.2 Symbolic representation of a pneumatic process controller incorporating only

proportional action

4
Integral action may be incorporated by adding a series connected combination of variable
restriction and (integral action) bellows in the feedback path, as shown in Figure 5.3. The
restriction is analogous to a variable resistor and the bellows is analogous to a capacitor, so
that adjustment of the restriction will cause the integral action time constant to be ‘tuned’. If a
second, variable (derivative) restriction is added at point X in Figure 5.3, in series with the
proportional action bellows, adjustment of this restriction will cause the derivative action time
constant to be tuned.
flapper input displacement

process variable set point

pressure pressure

PV BELLOWS SET POINT BELLOWS

FLAPPER-NOZZLE AMPLIFIER

supply air

PROPORTIONAL INTEGRAL
ACTION BELLOWS ACTION BELLOWS

VARIABLE
RESTRICTION

AIR controller output

supply air pressure
RELAY

Figure 5.3 Symbolic representation of a pneumatic process controller incorporating

proportional and integral action

Figure 5.4 shows the faceplate of a typical pneumatic indicating process controller, and the
features shown are common to all general purpose analog process controllers.

MOVING DEVIATION
INDICATOR 90
AUTO-MANUAL MODE
80 CHANGEOVER SWITCH
percentage deviation
(deviation = process 70
variable – set point) FIXED SET POINT
MARKER
60

50 SET POINT (SCALE)

ADJUSTMENT KNOB
40

KNOB TO CONTROL THE

CONTROLLER OUTPUT
CONTROLLER 0 % 100
OUTPUT DIRECTLY, IN THE MANUAL
MODE
INDICATOR

Figure 5.4 Faceplate of a typical pneumatic process controller showing instrument displays
and manual controls

5
3 Hydraulic Control Systems
3.1 Hydraulic Servo Valve and Actuator

Purely hydraulic controllers are really a controller-actuator combination. Their input signal is
a physical displacement that alters a servo valve.

Servo valve LOAD

Drain

Fluid supply

Drain

Actuator

Input movements Output movements

X P Y

a b

Figure 5.5 Hydraulic servo valve and actuator

When the spool of the servo valve is exactly central, the supply of hydraulic oil is prevented
from reaching the actuator piston. The piston is held in place by the oil trapped between it and
the servo valve spool. If the link then receives an input force, it moves and oil under pressure
flows through the servo valve. This oil exerts a force on the actuator piston, making it move.
Movement of the actuator rod causes the link to move at Y. The link pivots about X and
moves at point P.

The movement at P represents negative feedback. For example, an initial upward movement
at X admits oil into the upper half of the actuator, forcing the piston down. This counters the
initial movement at X. For any given input (X), a new position of equilibrium (Y) is rapidly
reached.

The lengths a and b determine the amount of negative feedback and the relationship of Y to
X.

Ideally, this controller has a first-order characteristic equation. Thus, theoretically, it cannot
oscillate. In practice, however, the compressibility of the oil and mass of the piston-oil
introduce a second-order (inertial) term.

6
This gives the possibility of an oscillatory response to step changes in input. The inherent
damping (friction and leakage) ensures that any oscillation dies away. But additional damping
(usually of the dashpot or vane type) may be necessary to prevent excessive overshoot and
long settling time.

3.2 Applications of Hydraulic Servo Valve

3.2.1 Speed Control System

Let’s consider a speed control system as shown in Figure 5.6. If the engine speed increase, the
sleeve of the fly-ball governor moves upward. This movement acts as the input to the
hydraulic controller. A positive error signal (upward motion of the sleeve) causes the power
piston to move downward, reduces the fuel-valve opening, and decrease the engine speed. A
block diagram for the system is shown in Figure 5.7.

b
a2 a1

z e

ω
Oil under
pressure

y
Engine

Figure 5.6 Speed control system

E(s) a2 K Output Y(s)

a1 + a 2 s

a1 Z(s) bs
a1 + a 2 bs + k

Figure 5.7 Block diagram for the speed control system in Figure 5.6

7
If the flowing condition applies

a1 bs K
>> 1 (5.1)
a 1 + a 2 bs + k s

the transfer function Y(s)/E(s) becomes

Y(s) a 2 a 1 + a 2 bs + k a § k·
= = 2 ¨1 + ¸ (5.2)
E(s) a1 + a 2 a1 bs a1 © bs ¹

The speed controller is of the proportional and integral (PI) control.

3.2.2 Hydraulic Steering Machine

Hydraulic servo valve is applied in the rudder handling system. Figure 5.8 shows a hydraulic
steering machine. The ship actuator or the steering machine is usually controlled by an on-off
rudder control system. The on-off signals from the rudder controller are used to open and
close the port and starboard valves of the telemotor system.

port

poil
Relay operated
valves poil
poil
starboard

(a) (c)

(b)
rudder
steering
telemoter cylinder floating lever

Figure 5.8 Simplified diagram of a two-stage hydraulic steering machine

Assume that both the telemotor and floating lever are initially at rest in position (a). The
telemotor can be moved to position (b) by opening the port valve. Suppose that the rudder is
still in its original position corresponding to position (b); this will cause the steering cylinder
valve to open. Consequently, the floating lever will move to position (c) when the desired
rudder angle has been reached. The maximum opening of the steering cylinder valve, together
with the pump capacity, determines the maximum rudder speed. Figure 5.9 shows a block
diagram of the steering machine with its dynamics.

Amerogen (1982) suggested a simplified steering machine for rudder as shown in Figure 5.10.
This representation is based on the telemotor being much faster than the main servo and that
the time constant Td is of minor importance compared with the influence of the rudder speed.

8
δc Rudder δmax K δ
K
control
algorithm s(1 + Tf s) s(1 + Td s)

Angle Angle
transducer transducer
rudder servo telemotor system main servo

Figure 5.9 Simplified diagram of the hydraulic steering machine

δc δmax δ
δ max 1
from s
autopilot
rudder rudder rate
limiter limiter

Figure 5.10 Simplified diagram of the hydraulic steering machine

Generally, the rudder angle and rudder rate limiters in Figure 5.10 will typically be in the
ranges:

1
δ max = 35 degrees 2 (deg/ s) ≤ δ max < 7 (deg/s) (5.3)
3

for most of commercial ships. The requirement for minimum average rudder rate is specified
by the classification societies such as American Bureau Shipping (ABS), Det norske Verits
(DnV), Lloyds, etc. It is required that the rudder can be moved from 35 degrees port to 35
degrees starboard within 30 seconds. Fossen reported that according to Eda and Crane (1965)
the minimum design rudder rate in dimensional terms should satisfy:

δ min = 132.9 (U/L) (deg/s) (5.4)

where U is the ship speed in m/s and L is the ship length in m. Recently, much faster steering
machine have been designed with rudder speeds up to 15-20 (deg/s). A rudder speed of 5-20
(deg/s) is usually required for a rudder-roll stabilisation (RRS) system to work properly.

Another model of the rudder could be

­°δ max (1 − exp(− (δ c − δ ) / ∆ )) if δ c − δ ≥ 0

δ = ® (5.5)
°̄− δ max (1 − exp((δ c − δ ) / ∆ )) if δ c − δ ≥ 0
The parameter ∆ will depend on the moment of inertia of the rudder. Typical values will be in
the range 3 ≤ ∆ ≤ 10 .

9
In Japan, the MMG (Mathematical Model Group) suggested the following steering machine:

δc − δ
δ = (5.6)
δ c − δ Trud + a

where Trud is the time constant of rudder (seconds) and a is a constant used to avoid zero-
dividing.

4 Electrical and Electronic Control Systems

In earlier modules, we have dealt with very basic principles of PID electrical and electronic
control systems. Generally electrical and electronic control systems can be categorised into
three types: 1) analogue control systems; 2) digital (or discrete) control systems; and 3)
programmable logic controllers (PLCs). This section will outline three types of electrical and
electronic control systems.

4.1 Analogue Control Systems

The control system is interconnected using current or voltage signals. There is no standard
range. Typical common ranges are:

Current: 4-20mA, 10-50mA

Voltage : 0-10V, 1-5V, -5V-+5V, -10V-+10V

The tendency is to use 4-20mA in the loop since the elevated zero (range) means fault
findings is easier and the current loop is less prone to signal noise.

Electronic controllers are most sensitive, have wider adjustment ranges on PI and D actions,
but often require signal conversion to pneumatic at the final control element.

Figure 5.11 illustrates a three-term controller with separate sections. The controller consists of
comparator circuit, proportional controller (P-action), integrator (I-action), and defferentiator
(D-action) and power amplifier.

Figure 5.12 and Figure 5.13 illustrate an application of PID controller into a flow control
system at the Australian Maritime College. In this system, the PID controller plays role as a
comparison element and controller in which the controlling signal is computed. To operate the
whole control system, it is necessary for user to set control gains (including proportional
control gain, integral gain (or integral time) and derivative gain (or derivative).

Comparator circuit

Setpoint
Sensor Actuating error

(Feedback signal)
10

Integrator Proportional gain

Integrator
 Figure 5.11 Three-term controller with separate sections

Globe valve

Rotameter
kPa
Controller
R
Controller C/P Converter Actuator
mA

D/P Cell Control valve

Orifice Valve
Valve
plate (Closed)
(Closed)

PUMP

Water tank

Figure 5.12 The flow control bench system arrangement (Control Engineering Lab, AMC)
Bailey Controller

DC 24V

250 Ω
D/P 11
Cell
4-20mA
Square Root
Circuit
 Figure 5.13 Connection diagram of the flow control bench system
(Control Engineering Lab, AMC)

4.2 Digital (Computer-based) Control Systems

Nowadays computers have been used in many control systems. The microprocessor based
control systems allow user to configure set point variables and a range of subsidiary functions
by means of a keyboard, and display control variable digitally by various indicators.

Input signals can be digital or analogue and can be linearised as required. Some controllers
will accept multiple inputs at the same time, allowing improved control as in gas flow.
• Output signals is by user specification, either
• Solid state or mechanical relay digital, or 4-20mA analogue.

Computer interfacing by using optional boards (I/O (A/D-D/A) interface boards) allows
computer supervisory control. Figure 5.14 shows a computer-based (digital) control system
with I/G interfaces.

Final
DAC Control
Computer
(Control PROCESS
Software)
ADC Measurement

I/O Interfaces

Figure 5.14 Digital control system using computer (software) and I/O interfaces
Figure 5.15 shows the block diagram of a computer-based (digital) autopilot system using a
recursive estimation algorithm in combination with the optimal control law (Nguyen, H.D.,
2000).

12
 Feedback
Noises

Set δ δt Outputs
Autopilot Steering Ship
u(t) = -Kx(t) machine (Shioji Maru)

K Dynamic system
Design
settings State feedback
control gain RPE
Estimator
θ
Optimal Riccati State space
calculator equation model (F,G)

Computing unit (computer)

Figure 5.15 Block diagram of a computer-based autopilot system

4.3 PLCs (Sequence Control Systems)

PLC stands for Programmable Logic Controller. The first PLC was developed in 1968-1969.
The PLC has become an unqualified success. PLCs are now produced by over 50
manufacturers. Varying in size and sophistication, these electronic marvels are rapidly
replacing the hard-wired circuits that have controlled the process machines and driven
equipment of industry in the past. This section outlines operating principles of a PLC.

A programmable logic controller is a solid state device designed to perform the logic
functions previously accomplished by electro-mechanical relays, drum switches, mechanical
timers/counters, etc. for the control and operation of manufacturing process equipment and
machinery.

A typical PLC consists of three components. These components are the processor unit, the
input/output section (I/O interface) and the programming device.

4.3.1 The Processor Unit (CPU)

The processor unit houses the processor which is the ‘brain’ of the system. This brain is a
microprocessor-based system which replaces control relays, counters, timers, sequencers, and
so forth and is designed so the user can enter the desired circuit in relay ladder logic. The
processor then makes all the decisions necessary to carry out the user program for control of a
machine or process. It can also perform arithmetic functions, data manipulation and
communication between the PC, remotely located PC’s, and/or computer systems. A DC
power supply is required to produce the low level DC voltage used by the processor. This
power supply can be housed in the processor unit or may be a separately mounted unit
depending on the model and/or the manufacturer. The processor can be referred to as a CPU
(Central Processing Unit).

4.3.2 The Input/output Section

13
The input/output section consists of input modules and output modules for communication
with peripherals (real world devices). The real world input devices may be pushbuttons, limit
switches, analogue sensors, selector switches and so on, while the real world output devices
could be hard wired to motor starters, solenoid valves, indicator lights, position valves, and
the like.

4.3.3 The Programming Device

The programming device may be called an industrial terminal, program development

terminal, programming panel or simply programmer. Regardless of their names, they all
perform the same function and are used to enter the desired program in relay ladder logic that
will determine the sequence of operation and ultimate control of the process equipment or
driven machinery. The programming device may be a hand held unit with an LED (light
emitting diode) display, an LCD (liquid crystal display), a desktop type with a CRT display or
other compatible computer terminals.

Programming
CPU device

Output Input Gates

devices

Motors Switches (b)

Relays Sensors
Lamps Etc.
Etc.
Output Input
lines lines
(a)

Figure 5.16 (a) Conceptual structure of a PLC-based control system;

(b) Mitsubishi PLC (input/output section)

There are several types of PLC. Each type has its own features. Figure 5.17 shows an example
of a PLC-based control system (AMC Control Lab). The PLC is Mitsubishi MELSEC FXon-
24MR-ES. The CPU is Pentium 4 with Windows XP.

Input/output
Section (see
Figure 5.7b) CPU and
Programming
device
14
 Peripherals

Figure 5.7 Mitsubishi PLC-based Control System (AMC Control Lab)

5. Ship Autopilot Systems

5.1 Mathematic Foundation for Autopilot Systems

Autopilots for course-keeping are normally based on feedback from a gyrocompass

measuring the heading. Heading rate measurements can be obtained by a rate sensor, gyro,
numerical differentiation of the heading measurement or a state estimator. This is common
practice in most control laws utilizing proportional, derivative and integral action. The control
objective for a course-keeping autopilot can be expressed as ψ d = constant.

This control objective is illustrated in Figure 5.18. On the contrary, course-changing

manoeuvres suggest that the dynamics of the desired heading should be considered in
addition.

Waves,
wind & current

ψd δc δ ψ
PID-typed Steering
Autopilot Machine SHIP

Figure 5.18 Autopilot for automatic heading

5.1.1 Autopilots of PID-Type

Most autopilots for ship steering are based on simple PID-control laws with fixed parameters.
To avoid that the performance of the autopilot deteriorating in bad weather and when the
speed of the ship changes, HF rudder motions must be suppressed by proper wave filtering,
while a gain scheduling technique can be applied to remove the influence of the ship speed on
the hydrodynamic parameters. For simplicity, let the LF motion of a ship be described by
Nomoto’s 1st-order model:

 + ψ
Tψ  = Kδ (5.8)

15
Based on this simple model the control laws of P, PD-, and PID-type using feedback from the
LF state estimates will be discussed. The performance and robustness of the autopilot can be
evaluated by using the simulation set-up showed in Figure 5.19. The proposed simulator
models 1st-order wave disturbances as measurement noise while wave drift forces, wind and
sea currents are treated as a constant disturbance.

1st-order wave disturbance

ω2n

2ζωn

White w
noise KW

Wave drift
ψH
Wind & current

ψd δc δc ψL
Autopilot Steering
Machine
K
ψ

Ship (Nomoto’s 1st-order model)

Figure 5.19 Simplified simulation set-up for course-keeping autopilot

5.1.2 P-control

Let us first consider a proportional control law:

δ = K P (ψ d − ψ ) (5.9)

where K P > 0 is a regulator design parameter. Substitution of (5.9) into (5.8), yields the
closed-loop dynamics:

Tψ
 + ψ + KK P ψ = KK P ψ d (5.10)

From this expression the eigenvalues are found to be:

− 1 ± 1 − 4TKK P
λ1, 2 = (5.11)
2T
Since, 1 − 4TKK P < 0 for most ships, it is seen that the real part of the eigenvalues are given
as:

16
 1
Re{λ1, 2 } = − (5.12)
2T
Consequently, the suggested P-controller will not stabilize an open-loop unstable ship (T < 0).
For stable ships (T > 0) the imaginary part of the closed-loop eigenvalues and thus the
oscillatory motion can be modified by adjusting the regulator gain KP. For instance, a
critically damped system is obtained by choosing:

1
KP = (5.13)
4TK

5.1.3 PD-control

Since, the use of a P-controller is restricted to open-loop stable ships with a certain degree of
stability, another approach has to be used for marginally stable and unstable ships. A
stabilizing control law is obtained by simply including derivative action in the control law.
Consider a control law of PD-type in the form:

δ = K P (ψ d − ψ ) − K D ψ (5.14)

Here KP > 0 and KD > 0 are the controller design parameters. The closed-loop dynamics
resulting from the ship dynamics and the PD-controller are:

 + (1 + KK D )ψ + KK P ψ = KK P ψ d
Tψ (5.15)

This expression simply corresponds to a 2nd-order system in the form:

 + 2ζω n ψ
ψ  + ω2n ψ = ψ 2n ψ d (5.16)

with natural frequency ωn (rad/s) and relative damping ratio ζ . Combining (5.15) and (5.16)
yields:

KK P 1+ KK D
ωn = and ζ = (5.17)
T 2 TKK P

The relative damping ratio is typically chosen in the interval 0.8 ≤ ζ ≤ 1.0, whereas the
choice of ωn will be limited by the resulting bandwidth of the rudder ωδ (rad/s) and the ship
dynamics 1/T (rad/s) according to:

1
< ω n 1 − 2ζ 2 4ζ 4 − 4ζ 2 + 2 < ωδ (5.18)
T

ship dynamics closed-loop bandwidth rudder servo

17
For a critically damped ship ( ζ = 1 ) the closed-loop bandwidth ωb is related to the natural
frequency ωn of the closed-loop system (5.17) by a factor of 0.64, that is ωb = 0.64ωn .
Alternatively, we can solve (5.10) for KP and KD which yield:

Tω2n 2Tζωn − 1
KP = KD = (5.19)
K K

Here ωn and ζ can be treated as design parameters.

5.1.4 PID-Control

During autopilot control of a ship it is observed that a rudder off-set is required to maintain
the ship on constant course. The reason for this is a yaw moment caused by the rotating
propeller and the slowly-varying environmental disturbances. These are wave drift forces
(2nd-order wave disturbances) and LF components of wind and sea currents. However,
steady-state errors due to wind, current and wave drift can all be compensated for by adding
integral action to the control law. Consider the PID-control law:

t
δ = K P (ψ d − ψ ) − K D ψ + K I ³ (ψ d − ψ (τ))dτ (5.20)
o
where KP > 0, KD > 0 and KI > 0 are the regulator design parameters. Applying this control
law to Nomoto’s 1st-order model:

Tψ  = K (δ − δ 0 )
 + ψ (5.21)

where δ 0 is the steady-state rudder off-set, yields the following closed-loop characteristic
equation

Tσ 3 + (1 + KK D )σ 2 + KK P σ + KK I = 0 (5.22)

Hence the triple (KP, KD, KI) must be chosen such that all the roots of this 3rd-order
polynomial become negative, that is

Re{σ i } < 0 for (i = 1, 2, 3) (5.23)

This can be done by applying Routh’s stability criterion. Another simple intuitive way to do
this is by noticing that δ can be written as:

§ 1 ·
δ = K P ¨¨1 + TD s + ¸(ψ d − ψ ) (5.24)
© TI s ¸¹

where the derivative and integral time constants are TD = KD/KP and TI = KP/KI, respectively.
Hence, integral action can be obtained by first designing the PD-controller gains KD and KP
according to the previous discussions. This ensures that sufficient stability is obtained. The

18
next step is to include integral action by adjusting the integral gain KI. A rule of thumb can be
to choose:

1 ωn
≈ (5.25)
TI 10

which suggests that KI should be chosen as:

ωn ω3n T
KI = KP = (5.26)
10 10 K

Now let’s consider some practical aspects of designing an autopilot system.

5.2 Automatic Steering Principles

Whatever type of system is fitted to a ship, the basic principles of operation remain the same.
Before considering the electronic aspects of an automatic steering system it is worthwhile
considering some of the problems faced by an automatic steering device.

In its simplest form an autopilot system compares the course-to-steer data, as set by the
helmsman, with the vessel’s actual course data derived from a gyro or magnetic repeating
compass, and applies rudder correction to compensate for any error detected between the two
input signals. Since the vessel’s steering characteristics will vary under a variety of
conditions, additional facilities must be provided to alter the action of the autopilot parameters
in a similar way that a helmsman would alter his actions under the same prevailing conditions.

For a vessel to hold a course as accurately as possible, the helm must be provided with data
regarding the vessel’s movement relative to the course to steer line. “Feedback” signals
provide this data consisting of three sets of parameters.

• Position data: information providing positional error from the course line
• Rate data: rate of change of course data
• Accumulative error data: data regarding the cumulative build-up of error.

Three main control functions acting under the influence of one or more of the data inputs
listed above are: proportional control, derivative control and integral control.

5.2.1 Proportional Control

This electronic control signal causes the rudder to move by an amount proportional to the
positional error deviated from the course line. The effect on steering, when only proportional
control is applied, is to cause the vessel to oscillate either side of the required course, as
shown in Figure 5.20. The vessel would eventually reach its destination although the erratic
course steered would give rise to an increase in fuel expended on the voyage. Efficiency
would be downgraded and rudder component wear would be unacceptable.

19
Figure 5.20 An early electro-mechanical autopilot system using telemotors
(Tetley L. et al. 2001)

20
At the instant an error is detected, full rudder is applied, bringing the vessel to starboard and
back towards its course (Figure 5.21). As the vessel returns, the error is reduced and autopilot
control is gradually removed. Unfortunately the rudder will be amidships as the vessel
approaches its course causing the vessel resulting in a southerly error. Corrective data is now
applied causing a port turn to bring the vessel back onto course. This action again causes an
overshoot, producing corrective data to initiate a starboard turn in an attempt to bring the
vessel back to its original course. It is not practical to calculate the actual distance of the
vessel from the course line at any instant. Therefore, the method of achieving proportional
control is by using a signal proportional to the rudder angle as a feedback signal.

Figure 5.21 The effect of applying proportional control only.

The vessel oscillates about the course to steer

5.2.2 Derivative Control

With this form of control, the rudder is shifted by an amount proportional to the “rate-of-
change” of the vessel’s deviation from its course. Derivative control is achieved by
electronically differentiating the actual error signal. Its effect on the vessel’s course is shown
in Figure 5.22.

Figure 5.22 The effect of applying derivative control only

Any initial change of course error is sensed causing a corrective starboard rudder command to
be applied. The rate-of-change decreases with the result that automatic rudder control
decreases and, at point X, the rudder returns to the midships position. The vessel is now
making good a course parallel to the required heading and will continue to do so until the
autopilot is again caused to operate by external forces acting on the vessel.

21
An ideal combination of both proportional and derivative control produces a more satisfactory
return to course, as shown in Figure 5.23.

Figure 5.23 Applying a combination of proportional and derivative control brings the vessel
back to on track.

The initial change of course causes the rudder to be controlled by a combined signal from
both proportional and derivative signals. As the vessel undergoes a starboard turn (caused by
proportional control only) there is a change of sign of the rate of change data causing some
counter rudder to be applied. When the vessel crosses its original course, the rudder is to port,
at some angle, bringing the vessel back to port. The course followed by the vessel is therefore
a damped oscillation. The extent of counter rudder control applied is made variable to allow
for different vessel characteristics. Correct setting of the counter rudder control should cause
the vessel to make good its original course. Counter rudder data must always be applied in
conjunction with the output of the manual “rudder” potentiometer, which varies the amount of
rudder control applied per degree of heading error.

Figure 5.24 (a) If “counter rudder” and “rudder” controls are set too high, severe oscillations
are produced before the equipment settles. (b) If “counter rudder” and “rudder” controls are
set too low, there will be little overshoot and sluggish return to the course.

Figure 5.24(a) and (b) show the effect on vessel steering when the counter rudder and rudder
controls are set too high and too low, respectively.

5.2.3 Integral Control

Data for integral control is derived by electronically integrating the heading error. The action
of this data offsets the effect of a vessel being moved continuously off course. Data signals
are produced by continuously sensing the heading error over a period of time and applying an
appropriate degree of permanent helm.

22
In addition to proportional control, derivative control and integral control, autopilots normally
have the yaw, trim, draft, rudder limit, and weather controls.

5.3 Marine Autopilots in Market

The marine autopilot receives signals from directional sensors such as the gyrocompass and
uses them to automatically control the helm for navigation.

The history of the TOKIMEC marine autopilots dates back to 1925 with the development of
the P1 single pilot and the P2 single pilot. Later TOKIMEC integrated the gyrocompass into
the autopilot unit ("GYLOT") and also developed the "Navigation Console" with radar and
other navigational instruments all built in. The performance and reliability of these products
obtained the overwhelming support of the marine market. Today, TOKIMEC offers the
following series of autopilots.

PR-6000 For medium to large vessels

PR-2000 For small to medium vessels
PR-1500 For small craft

5.3.1 Autopilot System PR-6000

This high-grade autopilot model was designed with three
fundamental concepts in mind: expanding and strengthening helm
functions, thorough safety considerations, and improved
reliability and more intelligent maintenance functions.
• IBS (Integrated Bridge System) compatibility
• Improved interface
• Complete range of controls
• Compatible with a variety of steering systems
• Safety considerations designed in
• Standard compatibility with digital output gyros

Figure 5.25 Autopilot system PR-6000

 Courtesy of Tokimec Co. Ltd. (Japan)

5.3.2 Autopilot system PR-2000
This best-selling model has been installed in over 15,000 small and
medium vessels including fishing boats, coastal craft, and merchant
ships, and is renowned for its stable performance and ease of use.
• Designed for operational simplicity
• More affordable, with improved course holding ability
• Variety of system configurations (stand-alone model,
GYLOT model, console model)
• Compatible with a variety of steering systems
Figure 5.26 Autopilot system PR-2000
Courtesy of Tokimec Co. Ltd. (Japan)

23
5.3.3 Autopilot system PR-1500

Features of PR-1500 are as follows:

High-grade Functions; Easy to Operate

Wide range of automatic steering modes
• Work mode augments the conventional automatic steering function: Work mode
is used under operational conditions which differ from normal operation - such as
trawling and slow speeds, etc.
• Automatic navigation mode is standard feature: Standard NMEA interface
simplifies connections with GPS navigators or plotters.


Figure 5.27 Autopilot system PR-1500
Courtesy of Tokimec Co. Ltd. (Japan)

Easy steering and easy-to-view display
• Remote Azimuth Holding is standard feature: Remote Azimuth Holding can be
initiated during remote steering. When the vessel is turned on a planned course by
remote steering with the RAH switch activated and remote controller dial returned to
the neutral position, the course setting can be stored in memory.
• Evasive steering (Override function) standard feature: NFU steering can be
employed in any of the steering modes.
• Total information display: The large size LCD provides a comprehensive display of
data such as ship's heading, set course, rudder angle, and control constants.
• Self-diagnostic function simplifies maintenance: Internal checks of main functions
can be performed at the front panel.

6. Dynamic Positioning Systems

In the 1960s systems for automatic control of the horizontal position, in addition to the
course, were developed. Systems for the simultaneous control of the three horizontal motions
(surge, sway and yaw) are today commonly known as dynamic positioning (DP) system.
More recently anchored positioning systems or position mooring (PM) systems have been
designed. For a free floating vessel in DP the thrusters are the prime actuators for station-
keeping, while for the PM system the assistance of thrusters are only complementary since
most of the position keeping is provided by a deployed anchor system.

24
 DP systems have traditionally been a low-passed application,
where the basic DP functionality is either to keep a fixed
position and heading or to move slowly from one to another
location. In addition, specialized tracking functions for cables
and pipe-layers, and operations of remotely operated vehicles
(ROVs), have been included. The traditional autopilot and
way-point tracking functionalities have also been included in
modern DP systems. The trend today is that high-speed
operation functionality merges with classical DP functionality,
resulting in a unified system for all speed ranges and types of
operations.

Figure 5.28 DPS manufactured by Kawasaki Heavy Industries

Co. Ltd.

The first DP systems were designed using conventional PID controllers in cascade with low
pass and/or notch filters to suppress the wave-induced motion component. Figure 5.28 shows
an illustration of a DP system (the control console unit) developed by Kawasaki Heavy
Industries Co. Ltd., Japan. Figure 5.29 shows a conceptual diagram of a DPS.

GPS/GNSS Gyrocompass Barometer Log & Sounder

D-GPS (Position) (Course) (Wind D & S) (Speed, depth)

Steering Machine
Indicators
(rudder controller)
(Monitors)
Course
CPP Controller
Ship speed
(Pitch)
DPS Position
(Advanced Rudder angle
Propeller Technology) Pitch angle
Controller Revolution
Wind direction
Side Thruster Wind speed
Controller Slave Maneuvering
Unit
Figure 5.29 Conceptual diagram of a DPS

6.1 Basic Principles of Dynamic Positioning System

The basic forces and moments act on a vessel operated in seawater as shown in Figure 5.30.
Ship steering dynamics is represented by an appropriate state space model as follows.

x = Ax + Bu (5.27)
y = Cx + Du (5.28)

where x and u are the vector of state variables and the vector of control variables,
respectively, y is the vector of outputs and A, B, C and D are the matrices consisting of
parameters (coefficients).

25
In order to obtain the values of state variables and parameters, many measuring techniques,
filtering and identification procedures are applied. An example of the filtering procedure is
Kalman filter. In order to compute the control signals for the DPS, a control law with a
criterion function is applied. For examples, PID control or optimal control has been applied in
the DPS. Figure 5.31 shows a block diagram of a DPS. Interested readers can find more
information about the DPSs in Fossen (1994) and Fossen (2002).

Figure 5.30 Basic forces and moments (Kongsberg Maritime)

Environmental loads due to

wind, wave and currents 1st-order wave
disturbance

Positioning
heading
Reference Control system D/RTK-GPS
computation (DPS) Compass

Low-frequency estimates of position,

heading, velocities and biases
Observer +
wave filter

Figure 5.31 Dynamic positioning system

Example: an optimal control algorithm (H. Nguyen, 2000)

In order to design an optimal control system (e.g. autopilot system or DPS), in general, it is
assumed that the ship to be controlled is described by a discrete-time state space (matrix)
model as follows.
x( t + 1) = F(θ)x( t ) + G (θ)u( t )
(5.29)
y ( t ) = C(θ)x( t )

where x(t) is the vector of state variables, u(t) is the vector of control variables, and F( θ ),
G( θ ) and C( θ ) are matrices formed by estimated parameters. The linear optimal control law
is to minimize the quadratic cost function (JO)

26
 [ ]
M −1
J O = ¦ ε T ( t )Qε ( t ) + u( t ) T Ru( t ) 5.30)
t =0

where Q and R are weighting matrices (symmetric and positive definite matrices) weighting
the cost of heading errors against the control effort, ε( t ) is the ship heading error and u(t) is
the rudder angle. It should be noted that the system (5.29) could be an MIMO ARX (Auto-
Regressive eXogenous) model, which could be transformed into a state space model as in
(5.29).

The solution to this problem can be found by applying the R. Bellman’s Principle of
Optimality: “An optimal policy, or optimal control strategy, has the property that, whatever
the initial state decision, the remaining decision must form an optimal control strategy with
respect to the state resulting from the first decision.”

Minimizing the cost function leads to finding solution of the following discrete-time matrix
Riccati equation, and then the control signals can be calculated by the following expression.

u( t ) = −Kx( t ) (5.31)

where K is the state feedback control gain resulting from the solution of the Riccati equation.
Interested readers can find more information about optimal control in H. Nguyen (2000),
Forsen (1994) and Fossen (2002) and therein references.

6.2 IMO DP-Classifications

Dynamic positioning systems are classified by IMO as shown in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1 Classifications of DPS according to IMO

Corresponding Class Notations

IMO
(Manufacturers)
Description
DP Class ABS LRS DNV
Manual position control and
automatic heading control under DPS-0 DP (CM) DNV-T
-
specified maximum environmental
conditions
Automatic and manual position and
heading control under specified DNV-AUT
Class 1 DPS-1 DP (AM)
maximum environmental DNV-AUTS
conditions
Automatic and manual position and
heading control under specified
maximum environmental
conditions, during and following Cass 2 DPS-2 DP (AA) DNV-AUTR
any single fault excluding loss of a
compartment. (Two independent
computer systems).

27
Automatic and manual position and
heading control under specified
maximum environmental
conditions, during and following
any single fault including loss of a DPS-3 DP (AAA) DNV-AUTRO
Class 3
compartment due to fire or flood.
(At least two independent
computer systems with a separate
back-up system separated by A60
class division).

7. Roll Stabilization Systems

According to Fossen (1994), the main reasons for using roll stabilizing systems on merchant
ships are to prevent cargo damage and to increase the effectiveness of the crew. From a safety
point of view it is well known that large roll motions cause people to make more mistakes
during operation due to sea sickness and tiredness. For naval ships certain operations such as
landing a helicopter or the effectiveness of the crew during combat are of major importance.
Therefore, roll reduction is an important area of research.

Several solutions have been proposed to accomplish roll reduction. The most widely used
systems are (Van der Klugt 1987):

Bilge keels: Bilge keels are fins in planes approximately perpendicular to the hull or near the
turn of the bilge. The longitudinal extent varies from about 25 to 50 percent of the
length of the ship. Bilge keels are widely used, are inexpensive but increase the hull
resistance. In addition to this they are effective mainly around the natural roll
frequency of the ship. This effect significantly decreases with the speed of the ship.
Bilge keels were first demonstrated in about 1870.

Anti-Rolling Tanks: The most common anti-rolling tanks in use are free-surface tanks, U-
tube tanks and diversified tanks. These systems provide damping of the roll motion
even at small speeds. The disadvantages of course are the reduction in metacentre
height due to free water surface effects and that a large amount of space is required.
The earliest versions were installed about 1874.

Fin Stabilizers: Fin stabilizers are a highly attractive device for roll damping. They provide
considerable damping if the speed of the ship is not too low. The disadvantages with
additional fins are increased hull resistance (except for some systems that are
retractable) and high costs associated with the installation. They are also required
that at least two new hydraulic systems are installed. It should be noted that fins are
not effective at low speed and that they cause drag and underwater noise. They were
first granted a patent by John I. Thornycroft in 1889.

Rudder-Roll Stabilisation (RRS): Roll stabilization by means of the rudder is relatively

inexpensive compared to fin stabilizers, has approximately the same effectiveness,
and causes no drag or underwater noise if the system is turned off. However, RRS
requires a relatively fast rudder to be effective, typically δ max = 5 − 20 (deg/s).
Another disadvantage is that the RRS will not be effective if the ship’s speed is low.

28
 Table 5.2 Overall comparison of ship roll stabilizer systems (Sellars & Martine 1992)

General % Roll Price

Stabilizer Type Installation Remarks
Application Reduction ($ × 1000)
FINS Mega yatchs, 90 100-200 Hull Speed loss,
(small fixed) naval auxiliaries attachment, largest size
supply and about 2m2.
install power
and control
cables
FINS Passenger, 90 400-1500 Hull Sizes range
(retractable) cruise, ferries, attachment, from 2m2 to
large Ro-Ro, supply and about 15m2.
naval install power
combatants and control
cables
FINS Naval 90 300-1300 Hull Speed loss
(large fixed) combatants attachment,
supply and
install power
and control
cables
TANKS Work vessels, 75 30-50 Install Includes liquid
(free surface) ferries, small steelwork level monitor
passenger and supply and
cargo ships install power
and control
cables
TANKS Work vessels, 75 200-300 Install Includes heel
(U-tube) Ro-Ro vessels instrument control system
cables cables
RRS Small, high 50-75 50-250 Install power New
speed vessels and control development,
cables more robust
steering gear
may be required
Bilge keels Universal 25-50 … Hull attachment Speed loss

7.1 Fin Stabilization System

The motions of the ship in a seaway can result in various undesirable effects, examples of
which are human discomfort and cargo damage. Only the rolling of a ship can be effectively
reduced by stabilization. Active or fin stabilization will now be considered. Figure 5.32 shows
a typical fin stabilizer arrangement.

CG

Art view
Figure 5.32 Typical fin stabiliser arrangement

29
The actions of waves on ship in a seaway result in rolling. If the rolling couple applied by the
sea can be opposed then the vessel will be stabilized. The rolling acceleration, velocity, angle
and the natural list of the vessel must all be determined in order to provide a suitable control
signal to activate the fins. The stabilizing power results from the lift on aerofoil fins located
on opposite sides of the ship. The angle of the fins is controlled in order to produce an upward
force on one side of the vessel and a downward force on the other. The resulting couple will
oppose the couple-inducing roll.

One type of control unit uses an angular accelerometer which continuously senses the rolling
accelerations of the ship, see Figures 5.22. The sensor is supported on air bearings to
eliminate friction and provided by a small oil-free compressor via filters and driers and the
system is sealed in operation. The accelerometer output signal is proportional to the rolling
acceleration of the ship. This signal is first electronically integrated to give a rolling velocity
signal and then integrated again to give a roll angle signal. Each signal can be adjusted for
sensitivity and then all three are summed. The summed signal is fed to a moving coil servo
valve which is located in the hydraulic machinery which drives the fins. The stroke of the
hydraulic pumps and the overall gain of the system can each be adjusted. A fin angle
transmitter is provided for each fin to provide a feedback to the servo valve. This type of
stabilization will provide roll reduction in excess 90% at resonance and where low residual
roll occurs over a wide range of frequencies. However, at low speed the stabilizing power
falls off and when the vessel is stopped no stabilization is possible.

Torque
Coil

Sense Torque CR Drift Port fin

Sensor Amp Amp Filter Corrector Angle
Indicators

AR bearing Handroll Gain

assembly input +12V DC

Accelera- Range Summing Atten- Inter- Port Pump Port MC Port FFB pot
tion Filter Switches Amp uator locks Servo Control unit on port fin
Pot Pot main pump Angle Amp

Velocity Roll Roll Summing Pump STBD STBD FFB pot

Drift STBD
integrator Angle Ouput Amp Control MC unit on STBD fin
Corrector Servo-Amp
Integrator Inverter Integrator Pot Main pump Angle Amp

Velocity Timer Running Stabilizer STBD fin

integrator (1.5 min) Relay Off for Angle
relay input RLH 35 sec RLG indicators

Figure 5.33 Stabilizer control system

Figure 5.34 shows the block diagram of the Denny-Brown-AEG Fin Stabilizer.

30
 SIGNAL
CONVERTER LOG

M FIN M SEA M FIN

PORT STARBOARD
FIN SHIP FIN

FIN ANGLE MAIN MAIN FIN ANGLE

TRANSMITTER PUMP PUMP TRANSMITTER
ACCELEROMETER

SERVO VELOCITY SERVO

VALVE INTEGRATOR VALVE

ROLL
INTEGRATOR

SERVO SUMMING SERVO

PUMP AMP PUMP

Figure 5.34 Denny-Brown-AEG ship stabilisation system using fin angle control

7.2 Rudder Roll Stabilisation System

According to Perez (2005), rudder roll stabilisation is a technique based on the fact that the
rudder is located aft and also below the centre of gravity of the vessel, and thus the rudder
impacts not only yaw but also roll moment as shown in Figure 5.35. RRS is an extra feature
of the course autopilot.

CG CG

Rudder force
Rudder force

Art view

Figure 5.35 Rudder induced rolling moment

31
Most of the drawbacks of conventional active fin stabilisers and anti-roll tanks are overcome
by RRS. Provided that the speed of ship and the rudder rate are sufficiently high, this
technique can be applied to different ship types: small and large naval vessels, patrol vessels,
ferries and some Ro-Ro vessels. The main advantages of RRS are as follows:

• Medium to high performance. This can be in the range of 50-57% of roll reduction
• Relatively inexpensive
• No resistance in calm water conditions
• No large spaces required
• Can be combined with other stabilisers to achieve higher performance

Some disadvantages of RRS are indicated as follows:

• Ineffective at low speeds. Nevertheless, this can be higher than that of fins because the
rudders are located in the race of the propellers; and thus operate in higher speed flows
than fins.
• Drag is produced when in use. Nevertheless, this can be less than the drag of fin
stabilisers, provided that the ship turning is prevented.
• Rudder machinery upgrade may be needed to achieve high performance faster than
rudder motion.
• Need sophisticated control systems to extend the good performance to different sailing
conditions.

8. Trend of Control Systems

New technologies have been advanced. IT (computers with high speed CPUs, high
performance software, network and Internet), wireless communication technology and
satellite technology allow very complicated control systems to be designed. In future, control
systems will be integrated computer-based systems with high performance and multi-
functions. Figure 5.36 shows an example of a newly-developed dynamic positioning system.

Figure 5.36 Example of newly-developed dynamic positioning system (Courtesy of NUST)

32
 SUMMARY OF MODULE 5
Module 5 is summarised as follows.

• Pneumatic control systems

• Hydraulic control systems
• Electrical and electronic control systems including analogue control systems,
programmable logic controllers (PLCs) and digital (computer-based) control systems.
• Autopilot systems for marine vehicles
• Dynamic positioning systems
• Fin stabilisation systems
• Rudder stabilisation system.

33
Exercises
1. A damper-spring-mass system is shown in the following figure. Write a differential equation
for the relationship between the output displacement y(t) and the input force u(t). Use the
following numerical values: P = 20N, m = 200kg, λ =100Ns/m, k = 600N/m, and initial
conditions: y(0) = 0 and y (0) = 0.

k
u(t)

y(t)
b

Assuming that the output displacement is measured by a displacement transducer that has
sensitivity of Km = 5 and the displacement is controlled by a PID controller with control gains KP,
KI and KD, draw a block diagram and write the total feedback transfer of the system. Using
MATLAB/Simulink make a simulation program for the system and find control gains such that
the system is stable.

2. Consider the position control system shown in the following figure. Write a MATLAB
program or Simulink model to obtain a unit-step response and a unit-ramp response of the system.
Plot curves x1(t) versus t, x2(t) versus t, x3(t) versus t, and e(t) versus t [where e(t) = r(t) – x1(t)]
for both the unit-step response and the unit-ramp response.

r e 1 x3 2 x2 1 x1
4 5
s 0.1s + 1 s

34
3*. Consider the hydraulic servo system shown in the following figure. Assuming that the load
reaction forces are not negligible, derive a mathematical model of the system. Assume also that
the mass of the power piston is included in the load mass m.
p0 ps p0

4 1
x 2 3

q q k
p1 p2
y m
b

4. Consider the liquid control system shown in the following figure. The controller is of the
proportional type with proportional control gain KP. The set point of the controller is fixed. Draw
a block diagram of the system, assuming that changes in the variables are small. Obtain the
transfer function between the level of the second tank and the disturbance input qd. Obtain the
steady state error when the disturbance qd is a unit step function.

Proportional
controller

qi

V1 h1 R1
qd

Cross-sectional area A1

V2 h2
R2 qo

Cross-sectional area A2

35
5*. Consider the liquid level control system shown in the following figure. The inlet valve is
controlled by a hydraulic integral controller. Assume that the steady state pilot valve
displacement is X = 0 , and steady state valve position is Y . We assume that the set point R
corresponds to the steady state head H . The set point is fixed. Assume also that the disturbance
inflow rate qd, which is small quantity, is applied to the water tank at t = 0. This disturbance
causes the head to change from H to H + h . This change results in a change in the outflow rate
by qo. Through the hydraulic controller, the changes in head causes a change in the inflow rate
from Q to Q + q i . (The integral controller tends to keep the head constant as much as possible in
the presence of disturbances.) We assume that all changes are of small quantities.

Assume the following numerical values for the system: C = 2 m2, R = 0.5 sec/m2, Kv = 1 m2/sec,
a = 0.25 m, b = 0.75 m, K1 = 4 sec-1,

a b
x
h

Y +y
Q +qi qd

V H +h
R
Q +qo
Cross-sectional area A

obtain the response h(t) when the disturbance input qd is a unit-step function. Also obtain this
response h(t) with MATLAB or Simulink.

6. A surface ship is represented by the following Nomoto’s manoeuvring model:

Tψ  + ψ
 = Kδ
where ψ is yaw angle (rad) and δ is rudder angle (rad), T = 7.5 seconds (time constant of ship), K
= 0.11. Ship speed is constant, v = 15 knots (1NM = 1,852.00 m). The position of the ship is
represented by the following model:
x = u cos ψ − v sin ψ
y = u sin ψ + v cos ψ

36
where u is surge velocity and v is sway velocity (assuming that v = 0). The ship’s heading is
control by a PID autopilot system with control gains of KP, KI and KD. It is assumed that the
rudder angle for the PID autopilot is in range of -10o (port) to +10o (starboard), rudder rate in
range of -5 deg/s to +5 deg/s, error (between the actual yaw angle and set course) in range of -
180o to +180o, and yaw angle in range of 0-360o. Using one of the steering machine models (for
rudder) in previous section (Section 2.2.2), draw a block diagram and make a MATLAB program
or Simulink for the PID autopilot.

37