Overview of Learning Theories

Although there are many different approaches to learning, there are three basic types of learning theory: behaviorist, cognitive constructivist, and social constructivist. This section provides a brief introduction to each type of learning theory. The theories are treated in four parts: a short historical introduction, a discussion of the view of knowledge presupposed by the theory, an account of how the theory treats learning and student motivation, and finally, an overview of some of the instructional methods promoted by the theory is presented.
Behaviorism Cognitive Constructivism Social Constructivism

Knowledge

Repertoire of behavioral responses to environmental stimuli.

Knowledge systems of cognitive structures are actively constructed by learners based on existing structures.

Knowledge is socially constructed.

Learning

Passive absorption of predefined body of knowledge by learner. Promoted by repetition and positive reinforcement.

Active assimilation and accommodation of new information to existing cognitive structures. Discovery by learners.

Integration of students into knowledge community. Collaborative assimilation and accommodation of new information.

Motivation

Extrinsic, reward and punishment (positive and negative reinforcers).

Intrinsic. Learners set their own goals and motivate themselves to learn.

Intrinsic and extrinsic. Learning goals and motives are determined both by learners and extrinsic rewards provided by the knowledge community.

Instruction Correct behavioral responses are transmitted by the teacher and absorbed by the students.

The teacher facilitates learning by providing an environment that promotes discovery and assimilation/accommodation.

Collaborative learning is facilitated and guided by the teacher. Group work.

http://gsi.berkeley.edu/teachingguide/theories/overview.html

Behaviorism Overview Classical Conditioning (Pavlov) GOMS Model (Card, Moran, and Newell)

Operant Conditioning (Skinner) Social Learning Theory (Bandura) Cognitivism Overview Assimilation Theory (Ausubel) Attribution Theory (Weiner) Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller) Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (Mayer) Component Display Theory Elaboration Theory (Reigeluth) Gestalt Psychology (Tolman) Mental Models (Johnson-Laird) Schema Theory Stage Theory of Cognitive Development (Piaget) Constructivism Overview Case-Based Learning Cognitive Apprenticeship (Collins et al.) Communities of Practice (Lave and Wenger) Discovery Learning (Bruner) Goal Based Scenarios Social Development Theory (Vygtosky) Problem-Based Learning (PBL) Situated Learning (Lave) Humanism Overview ARCS Model of Motivational Design (Keller) Experiential Learning (Kolb) Maslows Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow) Self-Determination Theory (Deci and Ryan) Design-Based Research Overview ADDIE Model of Instructional Design ARCS Model of Motivational Design (Keller) Elaboration Theory (Reigeluth) Activity Theory (Vygotsky, Leontev, Luria, Engstrom, etc.) Actor-Network Theory (Latour, Callon) Distributed Cognition (Hutchins) Eriksons Stages of Development (Erikson) Identity Status Theory (Marcia) Self-Theories: Entity and Incremental Theory (Dweck) Affordance Theory (Gibson) Multiple Intelligences Theory (Gardner)

Cognitivist Theories:

Constructivist, Social, and Situational Theories:

Motivational and Humanist Theories:

Design Theories and Models (Prescriptive):

Descriptive and Meta Theories:

Identity Theories:

Miscellaneous Learning Theories and Models:

http://www.learning-theories.com/

Learning Theories Site Map

Welcome to the Learning Theories Web! Here you will find lots of information about theories of learning that have been developed over the past 150 years. Teachers and students of educational psychology, curriculum development, instructional methodology and related areas will find useful information. Brief biological sketches of the theorists are provided, when such information is available.

Read about criteria for useful theory. Theories about human learning can be grouped into four broad "perspectives". These are

1. 2. 3. 4.

Behaviorism - focus on observable behavior Cognitive - learning as purely a mental/ neurological process Humanistic - emotions and affect play a role in learning Social - humans learn best in group activities

The development of these theories over many decades is a fascinating story. Some theories developed as a negative reaction to earlier ones. Others built upon foundational theories, looking at specific contexts for learning, or taking them to a more sophisticated level. There is also information here about general theories of learning, memory, and instructional methodology. Read brief descriptions of these four general perspectives here:

Learning Theories: Four Perspectives

Within each "perspective" listed below, there may be more than one cluster of theories. Click on the name of the theorist to go to the page with biographical information and a description of the key elements of his/her theory.

1. Behaviorist Perspective
Classical Conditioning: Stimulus/Response
Ivan Pavlov 1849-1936 Classical Conditioning Theory Behaviorism: Stimulus, Response, Reinforcement

a. John B. Watson 1878-1958 Behaviorism b. Edward L. Thorndike 1874-1949 Connectivism c. Edwin Guthrie 1886-1959 Contiguity Theory d. B. F. Skinner 1904-1990 Operant Conditioning e. William Kaye Estes 1919 - Stimulus Sampling Theory
Neo-behaviorism: Stimulus-Response; Intervening Internal Variables; Purposive Behavior

a. Edward C. Tolman 1886-1959 Sign Theory & Latent Learning b. Clark Hull 1884-1952 Drive Reduction Theory c. Keneth W. Spence 1907-1967 Discrimination Learning

2. Cognitive Perspective: Learning as a Mental Process

Gestalt Learning Theory:
Perception, Decision making, Attention, Memory, & Problem Solving

Max Wertheimer 1880 -1943 Gestalt Learning Theory Kurt Lewin 1890 - 1947 Field Theoretical Approach Wolfgang Kohler 1887 - 1967 Insight Learning Kurt Koffka 1887 - 1941 Gestalt Theory

Leon Festinger 1919 - 1989 Cognitive Dissonance

Information Processing and Computer Models

D.O. Hebb 1904 - 1985 Neurophysiologic Theory George A Miller 1920 - Information Processing Theory Allen Newell 1927 - 1992 General Problem Solver Craik & Lockhart Levels of Processing Allan Paivio 1941 - Dual Coding Theory David E. Rumelhart 1942 - Interactive Activation with Competition

Constructivism: Knowledge is Constructed; the Learner is an Active Creator

David Ausubel 1918 - 2008 Subsumption Theory Jerome Bruner 1915 - Constructivism Jean Piaget 1896 - 1990 Genetic Epistemology Jean Lave Situated Cognition Chris Argyris 1923 - Double Loop Learning Rand J. Spiro Cognitive Flexibility David Kolb Learning Styles John Flavell Metacognition Roger Schank Script Theory

Psychoanalytic: The role of the Unconscious Mind in Learning

Sigmund Freud 1856-1939 Psychoanalytic Theory of Learning

3. Humanistic Perspective: Emotions and Affect Play a Role in Learning

Abraham Maslow 1908-1970 Humanistic Theory of Learning Carl Rogers 1902-1987 Experiential Learning Jack Mezirow Transformational Learning

4. Social Learning Perspective: Learning as a group process

Lev Vygotsky 1896 - 1935 Social Constructivism Albert Bandura 1925 - Observational Learning John Seely Brown Cognitive Apprenticeship

5. General Theories of Memory & Intelligence

J. R. Anderson ACT* J.P. Guilford Structure of Intellect Howard Gardner Multiple Intelligences Robert Sternberg Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

6. Instructional Theories
John Bransford Anchored Instrution Lee Joseph Cronbach 1916 - 2001 Aptitude Treatment Interaction K.P. Cross CAL- Characteristics of Adult Learners Robert Gagne 1916-2002 Conditions of Learning Malcolm Knowles Andragogy Lev Landa Algo-Heuristic Mager Criterion-Referenced-Instruction Merrill Component Display Theory Reigeluth Elaboration Theory

Conditions of Learning (Robert Gagne) This theory stipulates that there are several different types or levels of learning. The significance of these classifications is that each different type requires different types of instruction. Gagne identifies five major categories of learning: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes. Different internal and external conditions are necessary for each type of learning. For example, for cognitive strategies to be learned, there must be a chance to practice developing new solutions to problems; to learn attitudes, the learner must be exposed to a credible role model or persuasive arguments. Gagne suggests that learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized in a hierarchy according to complexity: stimulus recognition, response generation, procedure following, use of terminology, discriminations, concept formation, rule application, and problem solving. The primary significance of the hierarchy is to identify prerequisites that should be completed to facilitate learning at each level. Prerequisites are identified by doing a task analysis of a learning/training task. Learning hierarchies provide a basis for the sequencing of instruction. In addition, the theory outlines nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes: (1) gaining attention (reception) (2) informing learners of the objective (expectancy) (3) stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval) (4) presenting the stimulus (selective perception) (5) providing learning guidance (semantic encoding) (6) eliciting performance (responding) (7) providing feedback (reinforcement) (8) assessing performance (retrieval) (9) enhancing retention and transfer (generalization). These events should satisfy or provide the necessary conditions for learning and serve as the basis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate media (Gagne, Briggs & Wager, 1992). Application While Gagne's theoretical framework covers all aspects of learning, the focus of the theory is on intellectual skills. The theory has been applied to the design of instruction in all domains (Gagner & Driscoll, 1988). In its original formulation (Gagne, 1 962), special attention was given to military training settings. Gagne (1987) addresses the role of instructional technology in learning.

Example The following example illustrates a teaching sequence corresponding to the nine instructional events for the objective, Recognize an equilateral triangle: 1. Gain attention - show variety of computer generated triangles 2. Identify objective - pose question: "What is an equilateral triangle?" 3. Recall prior learning - review definitions of triangles 4. Present stimulus - give definition of equilateral triangle 5. Guide learning- show example of how to create equilateral 6. Elicit per formance - ask students to create 5 different examples 7. Provide feedback - check all examples as correct/incorrect 8. Assess performance- provide scores and remediation 9. Enhance retention/transfer - show pictures of objects and ask students to identify equilaterals Gagne (1985, chapter 12) provides examples of events for each category of learning outcomes. Principles 1. Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes. 2. Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that constitute the conditions of learning. 3. The specific operations that constitute instructional events are different for each different type of learning outcome. 4. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned and a sequence of instruction.
http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/conditions-learning.html

Background on Gagn's Conditions of Learning Theory The Conditions of Learning theory is familiar to those who study and work in the fields of educational psychology and instructional design. Developed by Robert M. Gagn (1916 2002) and described in his book Conditions of Learning, originally published in 1965, the theory includes theGagn Assumption, the idea that different types of learning exist, and each requires a different type of instruction or instructional condition to promote the various desired learning outcomes.

Gagn identified five types of learning, with each requiring a different type of instruction: 1. Verbal information 2. Intellectual skills 3. Cognitive strategies 4. Motor skills 5. Attitude His theory also described a hierarchy of eight conditions of learning, either internal or external: 1. Signal learning: the learner makes a general response to a signal 2. Stimulus-response learning: the learner makes a precise response to a signal 3. Chaining: the connection of a set of individual stimulus and responses in a sequence 4. Verbal association: the learner makes associations using verbal connections 5. Discrimination learning: the learner makes different responses to different stimuli that are somewhat alike 6. Concept learning: the learner develops the ability to make a generalized response based on a class of stimuli 7. Rule learning: a rule is a chain of concepts linked to a demonstrated behavior 8. Problem solving: the learner discovers a combination of previously learned rules and applies them to solve a novel situation In addition to the five types of learning and the eight conditions of learning (about which you may learn more through many sources), Gagn also identified nine instructional events and corresponding internal cognitive processes, which can be grouped into three phases (Gagn & Briggs, 1974). The instructional events do not produce or guarantee learning but instead support the internal process of the student within the learning environment. These nine events and parallel internal mental processes are listed below; suggestions for potentially incorporating the learning events into UMUC courses are also noted: Phase One: Preparing for Learning 1. Gaining attention (stimuli activate receptors) Application: Possible means for gaining attention are audio, video, animation, storytelling, demonstrations, problem solving, examples that highlight the topic's importance or the course material's relevance and timeliness, or posing stimulating questions or thoughts to arouse curiosity and heighten motivation to learn about the course subject. Media should generally be short, concise, and engaging in order to maintain students' attention. 2. Stating the objective (creates level of expectation for learning) Application: It is important for students to know what they will have the opportunity to learn, either within the course or within a unit/lesson, although some educators recommend not disclosing every detailed objective at the start of the course or lesson so as not to give

away the plot and remove every possibility of surprise. Be aware that instructors or course designers may define objectives more formally for themselves but choose to rephrase them more casually for students.Bullet points may be an easy, forthright, and traditional way to state course objectives, but you may, in addition to any bullets, also wish to think of fresh alternativeseither in content or in formatfor restating or reframing the objectives that might help define the roadmap. Are there new ways to describe the objectives or perhaps to give a visual reinforcement of the terrain the course will cover? Might a short narrative or example say the same thing as bullets but in a new way? Are there activities or exercises to provide opportunities for students to discover objectives and how the course will benefit them? Might there even be an opportunity for students to frame personal learning outcomes based on the course subject and description but which are not already stated in the objectives? 3. Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval and activation of short-term memory) Application: Prior learning may consist of experiences outside the classroom, another course, or even previous material from your own course. What tools or methods can you use to help students connect what they have previously learned or experienced with the materials in your course? Are there exercises, short assignments, discussion questions, surveys/polls, etc., that might assist students in the process of connecting knowledge and experience? Some educators like to have students use concept or mind maps to represent graphically what they are learning and how it relates to other knowledge and experience. The goal is assisting students to build upon a framework of prior knowledge or to bridge any possible gaps between where they have been and where they are now (and potentially will be moving in the future after the course). Phase Two: Acquisition and Performance 4. Presenting the stimulus (selective perception of content) Application: How do you wish to present your content: text, audio, video, PPT, guest speakers, case studies, simulations, games, etc.? How interpersonally or technologically interactive is it (or should it be)? Are there other voices you can recruit or perspectives you can employ to assist in relaying the content? Are there new technologies and media you might use to present text in new modes or to break outside the bounds of the text medium itself and appeal to different learning styles or modes of instruction? Is the material in appropriate and meaningful chunks to facilitate learning and retention and avoid overload? 5. Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding for storage in long-term memory) Application: How can you provide opportunities for students to apply what they have learned and test their skills while you also guide them as they build their abilities and confidence? Perhaps a simulation of one type or another, examples, case studies, visual aids, mnemonics,

analogies, an exercise, writing assignment, or set of discussion questionsall with opportunities for feedback from the instructorwould help clarify questions and strengthen students grip on the content. 6. Eliciting performance (responds to questions to enhance encoding and verification) Application: What interactive exercises, simulations, case studies, demonstrations, read-andrespond discussions, quizzes/tests, or projects provide opportunities for students to practice new skills, apply and display knowledge, and give evidence of what they have learned? Can students demonstrate that they are getting and holding on to the content, that they are further along an educational path now than when they began the course? 7. Providing feedback (reinforcement and assessment of correct performance) Application: Feedback may be part of the process of eliciting performance, but whether it is rolled into that event or follows immediately afterward, you may wish to think of the ways in which you deliver feedback, whether via an interactive instrument, discussion, written comments, audio/video (individually or group), or through face-to-face or online live chats. Whenever possible, be specific, respond in a timely manner, and provide guidance; don't just tell students that they are doing or have done a good job. Phase Three: Transfer of Learning 8. Assessing performance (retrieval and reinforcement of content as final evaluation) Application: Assessment may occur via many forms, including papers, exams, presentations, projects, or any other appropriate means for determining the breadth and depth of what students have learned. It is desirable to include feedback on any of these assessment mechanisms for both correct and incorrect answers. For correct answers, it is helpful to provide additional resources or information to help increase retention and improve the learning process; for incorrect answers, consider providing not only the correct answer but also an explanation of why it is correct and some resources for strengthening skills or knowledge in that area. 9. Enhancing retention and transfer to other contexts (review and generalization of learned skill to new situation) Application: Toward the end of the course, either before or after performance assessment, it is helpful to highlight and review important material, review course objectives and whether they were achieved, highlight various applications for what has been learned, and, in general, assist students in reviewing the ground that they have traveled over the duration of the course. It is not necessary to use every single instructional event in all instances or to use them in this exact order. For example, some educators prefer to make assessment the final step. Some events may be combined (e.g., presenting content may also incorporate providing

learning guidance, eliciting performance, and providing feedback). Each instructor should determine what best suits the subject, course format, course goals, needs and capabilities of the students, his or her own personal style, and technological capacities. One interesting study (Martin, Klein, & Sullivan, 2007), in examining various instructional models, investigated the effects that different instructional elements have when they are combined systematically and when one or more elements is removed. After taking a pretest, college students were divided into six groups and then provided with one of six versions of a Web-based computer literacy course. Each version had a combination of these elements: objectives, information, examples, practice with feedback, and review. The six course versions were: Full program (all five elements) Program without objectives Program without examples Program without practice Program without review Lean program (information only) At the end of each version, the students completed a posttest. Those students who had practice with feedback scored significantly higher than the students who did not have that element in their course. The former also had more positive attitudes in response to a dozen questions about the course and their experiences than did the latter. The study results indicate that within Gagn's scheme of instructional events, events 5 through 7those allowing for students to apply their knowledge, test their skills, and receive feedback based upon their performance (i.e., incorporating practice with feedback)may be pivotal for learners' success. Conclusion Gagn has had his critics who charge that his nine instructional events are outdated and overly general, lead to boring instruction, are too behaviorist in nature, and are lacking in scientific support. Many educators, though, do recognize some value in considering and thinking through the steps and incorporatingand adaptingthem as appropriate to their circumstances. You may, likewise, wish to consider these nine elements to determine how you might apply them in your courses to enhance the educational environment and support student growth and achievement.

http://deoracle.org/online-pedagogy/teaching-strategies/an-overview-of-robert-gagnes-nine-events-ofinstruction.html