Hydro Treating

Chapter #1 Introduction
C CHAPTER HAPTER # 1 # 1
I INTRODUCTION NTRODUCTION
1.1 NAPHTHA
Naphtha is a petroleum fraction invariably consists of c
6
to c
10
hydrocarbons.
Naphtha is widely used in fertilizer plants and petrochemical industries as a feed stock. It is
a highly volatile product, manufactured from crude oil by direct atmospheric distillation
and by catalytic cracking of heavy residues. There are two types of Naphtha marketed
namely, High Aromatic Naphtha (HAN) and Low Aromatic Naphtha (LAN) known as
Naphtha (Petrochemical). Naphtha essentially consists of paraffin, naphthenic and aromatic
Hydrocarbons. The presence of Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Naphtha is very critical
especially when it is used in fertilizer plants. In fact, the design of a fertilizer plant may
entirely depend upon the composition of Naphtha available or a refinery has to produce
Naphtha according to the needs and specifications demanded by a fertilizer plant. This is
one of the reasons that IS Specifications for Naphtha has been withdrawn.
Naphtha is used as a fuel in fertilizer plant reformers where high temperatures are required.
It is also used as a fuel for steam generation in the plants where reforming is done with the
help of steam. Some gas turbines for power generation have also been installed recently
which will require Naphtha as fuel.
1.2 HYDROTREATING OF NAPHTHA
Hydrotreating processing is commonly used to remove Platforming catalyst poisons from
straight run or cracked naphthas prior to charging to the Platforming Process unit. It can be
seen that the primary function of the naphtha Hydrotreating Process can be characterized as
a Clean up Operation. The catalyst used 1n the Naphtha Hydrotreating Process 1s
composed of an alumina base impregnated with compounds of cobalt or nickel and
molybdenum. The catalyst is insensitive to most poisons which affect dehydrogenation
reactions. A relatively high percentage of carbon on the catalyst does not materially affect
Hydrotreating of Naphtha 1
its sensitivity or selectivity. Volumetric recoveries of products depend on the sulfur and
olefin contents, but usually are 100% + 2%
The Naphtha Hydrotreating Process 1s a catalytic refining process employing a selected
catalyst and a hydrogen-rich gas stream to decompose organic sulfur, oxygen and nitrogen
compounds contained in hydrocarbon fractions. In addition, hydrotreating removes organo-
metallic compounds and saturates olefinic compounds.
Organo-metallic compounds, notably arsenic and lead compounds, are known to be
permanent poisons to platinum catalysts. "The complete removal of these materials by
Hydrotreating processing gives longer catalyst life in the Platforming unit.
Sulfur, above a critical level, is a temporary poison to Platforming catalysts and causes an
unfavorable change 1n the product distribution. Organic nitrogen is also a temporary
poison to Platforming catalyst. It is an extremely potent one, however, and relatively small
amounts of nitrogen compounds in the Platformer feed can cause large deactivation effects,
as well as the deposition of ammonium chloride salts in the Platforming unit cold sections.
Oxygen compounds are detrimental to the operation of a Platformer. Any oxygen
compounds which are not removed in the hydrotreater will be converted to water 1n the
Platforming unit, thus affecting the water/ chloride balance of the Platforming catalyst.
Large amounts of olefins contribute to increase coking of the Platforming catalyst. Also,
olefins can polymerize at Platforming operating conditions which can result in exchanger
and reactor fouling.
The Naphtha Hydrotreating Process makes a major contribution to the ease of operation
and economy of Platforming. Much greater flexibility is afforded in choice of allowable
charge stocks to the Platforming unit. Because this unit protects the Platforming catalyst, it
is important to maintain consistently good operation in the Hydrotreating Unit.
In addition to treating naphtha for Platformer feed, there are uses for the UOP Naphtha
Hydrotreating Process in other areas. Naphthas produced from thermal cracking processes,
such as delayed coking and visbreaking, are usually high in olefinic content and other
contaminants, and may not be stable in storage. These naphthas may be hydrotreated to
stabilize the olefins and to remove organic or metallic contaminants, thus providing a
marketable product.
1.3 PROCESS SELECTION
History:
Until the end of World War 2, there was little incentive for the oil industry to pay
significant attention to improving product quality by hydrogen treatment.
However, soon after the war the production of high sulphur crudes increased significantly,
which gave a more stringent demand on the product blending flexibility of refineries, and
the marketing specifications for the products became tighter, largely due to environmental
considerations.
Furthermore, the catalyst used in the Platforming process can only handle sulfur in the very
low ppm level, so hydrotreating of naphtha became a must. The necessity for hydrotreating
of middle distillates (kerosene/gas oil) originates from pressure to reduce sulfur emissions
into the environment. Overall, this situation resulted in an increased necessity for high
sulphur removal capability in many refineries.
REFINING PROCESSES
Today's refinery is a complex combination of interdependent processes. These processes
can be divided into three basic categories:
a. Separation processes
The feed to these processes is separated into two or more components based on some
physical property, usually boiling point. These processes do not otherwise change the
feedstock. The most common separation process in the refinery is distillation.
b. Upgrading processes
These processes improve the quality of a material by using chemical reactions to remove
any compounds present in trace amounts that give the material the undesired quality.
Otherwise, the bulk properties of the feedstock are not changed. The most commonly used
upgrading processes for jet fuel are sweetening, hydrotreating, and clay treatment.
c. Conversion processes
These processes fundamentally change the molecular structure of the feedstock, usually by
"cracking" large molecules into small ones, for example, catalytic cracking and
hydrocracking
Here we are concerned with upgrading processes for petroleum
UPGRADING PROCESSES
Sweetening processes remove a particular class of sulfur-containing compounds called
mercaptans from jet fuel. Mercaptans are undesirable because they are corrosive and also
because of their offensive odor.
Processes for merceptans removal:
Several processes have been developed to remove mercaptans by converting them to
disulfides. These disulfides are not corrosive and their odors are not as strong as the
mercaptans they replace. Sodium plumbite and copper chloride have been used as catalysts
for this conversion in the past.
Merox Process:
In recent years, the Merox (mercaptan oxidation) process, which uses a cobalt-
based catalyst, has almost completely replaced the older technologies.
Most of these chemical sweetening processes do not change the total sulfur content
of the fuel; they merely convert sulfur from one chemical form to another.
Some versions of the Merox process extract the disulfides that are formed and thus
lower the total sulfur content
Hydrotreating Process:
The objective of the Hydrotreating processes is to remove sulfur as well as other unwanted
compounds, e.g. unsaturated hydrocarbons, nitrogen, oxygen, organo-metallic compounds
from refinery process streams. It is catalytic hydrogenation process with very high
efficiency, even some plants remove sulphur up to 0.2ppm.
A main representative reaction is shown as under.
PROCESSES FOR HYDROTREATING
For Hydrotreating, two basic processes are applied,
1. The liquid phase (or trickle flow) process for kerosene and heavier straight-
run and cracked distillates up to vacuum gas oil
2. Vapor phase process for light straight-run and cracked fractions.
Both processes use the same basic configuration: the feedstock is mixed with hydrogen-
rich make up gas and recycle gas.
The mixture is heated by heat exchange with reactor effluent and by a furnace and it enters
a reactor loaded with catalyst, in the reactor, the sulphur and nitrogen compounds present
in the feedstock are converted into hydrogen sulphide and ammonia respectively. The
olefins present are saturated with hydrogen to become di-olefins and part of the aromatics
will be hydrogenated. If all aromatics need to be hydrogenated, a higher pressure is needed
in the reactor compared to the conventional operating mode. The reactor operates at
temperatures in the range of 300-380 0C and at a pressure of 10-20 bars for naphtha and
kero, as compared with 30-50 bar for gas oil, with excess hydrogen supplied. The
temperature should not exceed 380 0C, as above this temperature cracking reactions can
occur, which deteriorates the color of the final product.
The reaction products leave the reactor and, after having been cooled to a low temperature,
typically 40-50 0C, enter a liquid/gas separation stage.
The hydrogen-rich gas from the high pressure separation is recycled to combine with the
feedstock, and the low pressure off-gas stream rich in hydrogen Sulphide is sent to a gas-
treating unit, where hydrogen Sulphide is removed.
The clean gas is then suitable as fuel for the refinery furnaces. The liquid stream is the
product from hydrotreating. It is normally sent to a stripping column where H
2
S and other
undesirable components are removed, and finally, in cases where steam is used for
stripping, the product is sent to a vacuum drier for removal of water. Some refiners use a
salt dryer instead of a vacuum drier to remove the water.
The catalyst used is normally cobalt, molybdenum and nickel finely distributed on alumina
extrudates. It slowly becomes choked by coke and must be renewed at regular intervals
(typically 2-3 years). It can be regenerated (by burning off the coke) and reused typically
once or twice before the breakdown of the support's porous structure unacceptably reduces
its activity.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HYDROTREATING AND
HYDRODESULPHURIZATION:
A hyrotreater and a hydrodesulphuriser are basically the same process but
A hydrotreater termed is used for treating kerosene or lighter feedstock
A hydrodesulphuriser mainly refers to gas oil treating.
The hydrotreating process is used in every major refinery and is therefore also
termed as the work horse of the refinery as it is the hydrotreater unit that ensures
several significant product quality specifications.
In most countries the Diesel produced is hydrodesulphuriser before its sold.
Sulphur specifications are getting more and more stringent. In Asia, countries such
as Thailand, Singapore and Hong Kong already have a 0.05%S specification and
large hydrodesulphurization units are required to meet such specs.
The by-products obtained from HDT/HDS are light ends formed from small amounts of
cracking and these products are used in the refinery fuel gas pool. The other main by-
product is Hydrogen Sulphide which is oxidized to sulphur and sold to the chemical
industry for further processing.
In combination with temperature, the pressure level (or rather the partial pressure of
hydrogen) generally determines the types of components that can be removed and
also determines the working life of the catalyst. At higher (partial) pressures, the
desulphurization process is 'easier', however, the unit becomes more expensive for
instance due to larger compressors and heavier reactors. Also, at higher pressure,
the hydrogen consumption of the unit increases, which can be a significant cost
factor for the refinery. The minimum pressure required typically goes up with the
required severity of the unit, i.e. the heavier the feedstock, or the lower levels of
sulphur in product required.
1.4 APPLICATIONS OF HYDROTREATING PROCESS:
A more recent development is the application of Hydrotreating for pretreatment of
feedstock for the catalytic cracking process. By utilization of a suitable hydrogenation-
promoting catalyst for conversion of aromatics and nitrogen in potential feedstock, and
selection of severe operating conditions, hydrogen is taken up by the aromatic molecules.
The increased hydrogen content of the feedstock obtained by this treatment leads to
significant conversion advantages in subsequent catalytic cracking, and higher yield of
light products can be achieved.
Hydrotreating can also be used for kerosene smoke point improvement (SPI). It closely
resembles the conventional Hydrotreating Process however an aromatic hydrogenation
catalyst consisting of noble metals on a special carrier is used. The reactor operates at
pressure range of 50-70 bar and temperatures of 260-320 0C. To restrict temperature rise
due to the highly exothermic aromatics conversion reactions, quench oil is applied between
the catalysts beds. The catalyst used is very sensitive to traces of sulphur and nitrogen in
the feedstock and therefore pretreatment is normally applied in a conventional hydrotreater
before kerosene is introduced into the SPI unit. The main objective of Smoke Point
Improvement is improvement in burning characteristics as the kerosene aromatics are
converted to naphthenes.
Hydrotreating is also used for production of feedstock for summarization unit from
paralysis gasoline (pygas) which is one of the byproducts of steam cracking of hydrocarbon
fractions such as naphtha and gas oil.
CONCLUSION
It is obvious from economical data of many commercial Plants that the fixed Capital
Investment on Merox sweetening Process is 90% less then Hydrotreating and the operating
Cost is almost 95% less then Hydrotreating, But the efficiency of Hydrotreating Units are
normally above 99% which cannot be achieved by Merox process, the feed quality
requirements of Platformer Section cannot be fulfilled by Merox Process. Further more
hydrotreating also removes many other impurities and saturated some olefins as well. This
is why; Hydrotreating Process is employed as feed preparation unit, where ever Platformer
Plant is to be installed.
CHAPTER 2
D DESCRIPTION ESCRIPTION O OF F P PROCESS ROCESS F FLOW LOW
2.1 PROCESS DESCRIPTION
A typical Naphtha Hydrotreating unit processing a straight run naphtha for Platfonner feed
will have a reactor section and a stripper 'section. In addition, some units have a
prefractionation section upstream of the reactor section.
A. Prefractionation Section
In some special applications, it is desirable to produce a narrow boiling range naphtha cut
for feed to a Platformer. An example of this would be an operation aimed at making
aromatics, where the end point of the feed to the Platformer is limited to about 160C
(325F) to concentrate aromatic precursors in the feed. A full boiling range naphtha cut
from the crude unit could be processed through a prefractionation section to accomplish
this task.
The prefractionation section typically consists of two fraction-action columns in series,
with the overhead of the second (rerun) column being the heart cut for processing in the
reactor section of the hydrotreater. The heart cut boiling range is controlled by the amount
of light naphtha taken overhead in the prefractionation column and by the amount of heart
cut taken overhead in the rerun column. For example, if a 38-204C (100-400F) boiling
range naphtha is charged to a prefractionation section, the overhead temperature controller
of the first column sets the amount of overhead product, and increasing the overhead
temperature will increase the endpoint and quantity of the overhead product. This cut is
what controls the initial boiling point of the heart cut.
The prefractionator column bottom is charged to the second (rerun) column, where the
desired product is taken overhead, again controlled by an overhead temperature controller.
Increasing the overhead temperature will increase the amount of material taken overhead
and will increase its endpoint. Thus, if a heart cut of 82-174C (180-345F) is desired, it
can be obtained by adjusting the prefractionation column overhead/ temperature to set the
initial boiling point, and the rerun column overhead temperature to set the endpoint.
Usually, the feed to the prefractionator will be heat exchanged with rerun column bottoms,
and a steam heater can be used to provide the remaining heat that is required. The prefrac-
tionator bottom is normally pumped directly to the rerun column without any reheat. Both
columns have reboilers to provide the heat necessary for vaporization of naphtha so that
sufficient reflux can be maintained. The overhead product from the prefractionator and the
rerun bottoms product are sent to storage for blending or further processing downstream
units. A typical prefractionation flow scheme 1s depicted in Figure IV-1.
B. Reactor Section
Naphtha feed can enter the unit either from intermediate storage or from another process
unit. In the case of feed from storage, the tank must be properly gas blanketed to prevent
oxygen from being dissolved 1n the naphtha. Even trace quantities of oxygen and/or olefin
in the feed can cause polymerization of olefins in the storage tank when stored for long
periods or in the combined feed/reactor effluent exchangers if the feed is not prestripped.
'This results in fouling and a loss of heat transfer efficiency.
Naphtha feed from the charge pump combines with a-hydrogen-rich gas stream, and this
combined feed enters the combined feed/ reactor effluent exchangers, where the feed is
heated and the reactor effluent is cooled. The combined feed leaving the exchanger 1s all
vapor, and flows to the ch_aj2ge_jTe^tej^here it is heated to the required reaction
temperature. The amount of fuel burned in the heater is controlled by the temperature of the
combined feed leaving the heater and flowing to the reactor. Most reactors are designed for
down flow operation, and contain/ sufficient catalyst to remove contaminants to the level
required.
The reactor effluent flows through the combined feed/reactor effluent exchanger, usually
on the tube side, and then to the product condenser. A water wash injection point is
provided in the reactor effluent line to the product condenser so that any salt buildup in the
line or condenser may be washed out. Reactor effluent flows out of the condenser at a low
enough temperature to ensure complete recovery of the naphtha and enters the product
separator. A mesh blanket coalescer is provided in the separator to ensure complete
separation of gas, hydrocarbon liquid, and water. The product separator is also provided
with a water boot to collect the water injected for salt removal. This water is usually
pressured to a sour water stripper for disposal.
There are alternate methods for providing the required hydrogen-rich gas to the reactor.
Most common is a recycle gas compressor taking suction from the top of the product
separator with the discharge joining the naphtha feed upstream of the combined
feed/reactor effluent exchanger. Since the process consumes hydrogen, a hydrogen-rich gas
stream is brought into the unit as makeup just upstream of the product condenser. This
stream is controlled by the product separator pressure controller, allowing gas to enter and
hold a constant separator pressure. This flow scheme is depicted in Figure IV-2.
In some units, rather than having a recycle gas compressor, a comparable amount of a
hydrogen-rich gas stream is brought Into the unit on flow control, and flows on a once-
through basis through the reactor section to the product separator where it is vented ''on
pressure control. This flow scheme is depicted in Figure IV-3.
The choice between these two flow schemes is made during the design of each unit based
upon the availability of a high pressure hydrogen-rich gas stream, and the cost of
compression for each stream.
Stripping Section
The liquid hydrocarbon in the separator is pressured on level control through the stripper
feed/bottoms exchanger, and thus heated enters near the top of the stripper. A reboiler is
provided to supply the required heat input for generating vapor. This vapor strips hydrogen
sulfide, water, light hydrocarbons and dissolved hydrogen from the feed to the stripper,
which then passes overhead to the overhead condenser and to the overhead receiver.
Normally, no net overhead liquid product is produced, and all of the liquid in the receiver is
pumped back to the stripper as reflux. A reflux/feed ratio of approximately 0.25 is
sufficient to strip the light ends and water from the tower. The reflux is pumped into the
stripper on receiver level control. To increase the amount of reflux, the reboiler heat Input
must be Increased to provide more overhead material. The net overhead gas leaves the
receiver on pressure control, usually to amine scrubbing and then to fuel gas.
The stripper overhead system is equipped with inhibitor addition facilities to prevent
corrosion of the process lines and equipment by the hydrogen sulfide in the overhead
vapor. The corrosion inhibitor is pumped directly from a drum, diluted with a small'
slipstream of reflux, and injected directly into the overhead vapor line at the top of the
stripper.
The stripper bottoms material is pumped through the feed/bottoms exchanger and usually is
charged directly to the Plat forming unit. On many units, a small slipstream of stripper
bottoms is further cooled in a trim cooler and sent to storage for later use as sweet startup
naphtha. This flow scheme is depicted in Figure IV-4.
The dry, stripped naphtha hydrotreating unit product must meet the following
specifications to be acceptable as Plat former feed:
Total Sulfur, wt-ppm0.5 max.
Total Nitrogen, wt-ppm 0.5 max.
EP, F 400 max.
*Lead, wt-ppb <20 max.
*Arsen1c, wt-ppb 1 max.
*Iron + Chloride, wt-ppm 1 max.
*Copper + Heavy Metals, wt-ppb <25 max.
Additionally, water plus total oxygen must be low enough to produce less than 5 mole ppm
water in the Platformer Recycle Gas with no water injection to that unit.
2.2 CHEMISTRY
As previously stated, the main purpose of the Naphtha Hydrotreating Process is to "clean-
up" a naphtha fraction so that it is suitable as charge to a Platforming unit. There are six
basic types of reactions that occur in the hydrotreating unit.
A. Reactions
1. Conversion of organic sulfur compounds to hydrogen sulfide
2. Conversion of organic nitrogen compounds to ammonia
3. Conversion of organic oxygen compounds to water
4. Saturation of olefins
5. Conversion of organic halides to hydrogen halides
6. Removal of organo-metallic compounds
B, Discussion
1. Sulfur Removal
For bimetallic Platforming catalysts, the feed naphtha must contain less than 0.5 weight
ppm sulfur to optimize the selectivity and stability characteristics of the catalyst. In
general, sulfur removal in the hydrotreating process is relatively easy, and for the best
operation of a Platformer, the hydrotreated naphtha sulfur content should be maintained
well below the 0.5 weight ppm maximum. Commercial operation at 0.2 weight ppm sulfur
or less in the hydrotreated naphtha is common.
Typical sulfur removal reactions are shown below.
a. (Mercaptan) C-C-C-C-C-C-SH + H
2
> C-C-C-C-C-C +H
2
S
b. (Sulfide) C-C-C-S-C-C-C t 2H?> 2 C-C-C + H2S
c.(Disulfide) C-C-C-S-S-C-C-C + 3H
2
> 2 C-C-C + 2
d.(Cyclic sulfide) C - C-C + 2\\2 > C-C-C-C-C +
C C-C C
e. (Thiophenic) C C-C + 4H2 > C-C-C-C-C + H2S
C C-C C
It is possible, however, to operate at too high a temperature for maximum sulfur removal.
Recombination of hydrogen sulfide with small amounts of olefins or olefin Intermediates
can then result, producing mercaptans in the product.
C-C-C-C = C-C + H2S> C-C-C-C-C -C-
If this reaction is occurring, the reactor temperature must be lowered. Generally, operation
at 315-340C (600-645F) reactor Inlet temperature will give acceptable rates of the
desired hydrogenation reactions and will not result in a significant amount of
olefin/hydrogen sulfide recombination. This temperature is dependent upon feedstock
composition, operating pressure, and LHSV.
2. Nitrogen Removal
Nitrogen removal is considerably more difficult than sulfur* removal in naphtha
hydrotreating. The rate of denitrification is only' about one-fifth the rate of
desulphurization. Most straight run naphtha contain much less nitrogen than sulfur, but
attention must be given to ensure that the feed naphtha to a bimetallic Platforming catalyst
contains a maximum of 0.5 weight ppm nitrogen and normally much less. Any organic
nitrogen that does enter the Platformer will react to ammonia and further with the chloride
in the recycle gas and form ammonium chloride. The ammonium chloride then deposits in
the recycle gas circuit or stabilizer overhead system. This problem can be very annoying
and time consuming, but it can be avoided or minimized by maximizing nitrogen removal
in the Naphtha Hydrotreating unit. Nitrogen removal is much more important when a
Naphtha Hydrotreating unit processes some cracked naphtha, since these feed stocks
normally contain much more nitrogen than a straight run naphtha. The ammonia formed in
the denitrification reactions, detailed below, is subsequently removed in the hydrotreater
reactor effluent wash water.
5. Halide Removal
Organic halides can be decomposed 1n the Naphtha Hydrotreating Unit to the
corresponding hydrogen halide, which is either absorbed In the reactor effluent water wash
or taken overhead in the stripper gas. Decomposition of organic halides is much more
difficult than desulphurization. Maximum organic halide" removal is thought to be about
90 percent, but is much less at operating conditions set for sulfur and nitrogen removal
only. For this reason, periodic analysis of the hydrotreated naphtha for chloride content
should be made, since this chloride level must be used to set the proper Platformer chloride
injection rate. A typical organic chloride decomposition reaction is shown below.
C-C-C-C-C-C-C1 H
2
> HC1 + C-C-C-C-C-C
6. Metal Removal
Most metallic impurities occur at the part per billion (ppb) levels in naphtha. The UOP
Hydrobon catalyst is capable of removing these materials at fairly high concentrations, up
to 5 weight ppm or more, on an intermittent basis at normal operating conditions. Most
metallic Impurities are permanently deposited on the catalyst when removed from the
naphtha. The catalyst loses activity for sulfur removal as higher metal loadings are reached.
Some commonly detected components found on used Hydrobon catalyst are arsenic, iron,
calcium, magnesium, phosphorous, lead, silicon, copper, and sodium.
Removal of metals from the feed normally occurs in plug flow with respect to the catalyst
bed. Iron is found concentrated at the top of catalyst beds as iron sulfides. Arsenic, even
though it is rarely found in excess of 1 weight ppb in straight run naphtha's, is of major
importance, because it is a potent Platinum poison. Arsenic levels of 3 weight percent and
higher have been detected on used Hydrobon catalysts that retain their activity for sulfur
removal / Contamination of storage facilities by leaded gasoline and reprocessing of leaded
gasoline in crude towers are the common sources of lead on used Hydrobon catalysts.
Sodium, calcium and magnesium are apparently due to contact of the feed with salt water
or additives. Improper use of additives to protect fractionators overhead systems from
corrosion or to control foaming account for the presence of phosphorus and silicon.
Removal of metals is essentially complete above temperatures of 315C (600F) up to a
total metal loading of about 2-3 weight percent on the catalyst:. Above this level, the
catalyst begins approaching the equilibrium saturation level rapidly, and metal
breakthrough is likely to occur. In this regard, mechanical problems inside the reactor, such
as channeling, are especially bad since these results in a substantial overload on a small
portion of the catalyst in the reactor.
I.e Reaction Rates and Heats of Reaction
The approximate relative reaction rates for the three major reaction types are:
Desulphurization 100
Olefin Saturation 80
Denitrification 20
The approximate heats of reaction (1n kJ per kg of feed per cubic meter of hydrogen
consumed) and relative heats of reaction are:
Heat of Reaction Relative Heat of "Reaction
Desulphurization 8.1 1
Olefin Saturation 40.6 5
Denitrification 0.8 0.1
As can be seen from the above summary, desulphurization is the most rapid reaction taking
place, but it is the saturation of olefins which generates the greatest amount of heat.
Certainly, as the feed sulfur level increases, the heat of reaction also increases. However,
for most of the feedstock processed, the heat of reaction will just about balance the reactor
heat loss, such that the Naphtha Hydrotreating reactor inlet and outlet temperatures are
essentially equal. Conversion of organic chlorides and oxygenated compounds are about as
difficult as denitrification. Consequently, more severe operating conditions must be used
when these compounds are present.
The following table summarizes the physical properties of UOP Hydrobon catalysts.
TABLE I
UOP HYDROBON CATALYSTS FOR NAPHTHA HYDROTREATING SERVICE
Designator S-6* S-9* S-12 S-15 S-16 /
Base Alumina Alumina Alumina Alumina Alumina
Form Sphere Sphere Extrudate Extrudate Extrudate
Size 1/16" 1/16" 1/16" 1/16" 1/16"
ABD
ABD
(lbs/ft
3
) 36 38 45 45 45
Lbs/Drum 250 275 300 325 300
Metals: Ni N1 Ni
Mo Mo Mo Mo Mo
Co Co Co
Regeneration: Steam/ Steam/ Inert Inert Inert
A1r A1r Gas Gas Gas
*Also available In 1/8" spheres designated as S-6 (L) and S-9(L).
2.3 PROCESS VARIABLES
A. Reactor Pressure
The unit pressure is dependent on catalyst life required and feed stock properties. At higher
reactor pressures, the catalyst is generally effective for a longer time and reactions are
brought to a greater degree of completion. For straight run naphtha desulphurization, 20 to
35 kg/cm
2
g (300 to 500 psig) reactor pressure is normally used, although design pressure
can be higher if feed nitrogen and/or sulfur contents are higher than normal. Cracked
naphtha contain substantially more nitrogen and sulfur than straight run naphtha and
consequently require higher processing pressures, up to 55 kg/cm2g (800 psig). Similarly,
higher operating pressures are necessary to completely remove organic halides. Halide
contamination of naphtha is usually sporadic in occurrence and is normally due to
contamination by crude oil well operators.
The selection of the operating pressure is influenced to a degree by the hydrogen to feed
ratio set in the design, since both of these parameters determine the hydrogen partial
pressure in the reactor. The hydrogen partial pressure can be increased by operation at a
higher ratio of gas to feed at the reactor inlet. The extent of substitution is limited by
economic considerations.
Most units have been designed so that the desulphurization and denitrification reactions go
substantially to completion well below the design reactor temperature, for the design
feedstock. Small variations in pressure or hydrogen gas rate in the unit will not cause
changes great enough to be reflected by significant differences in product quality.
B. Temperature
Temperature has a significant effect in promoting hydrotreating reactions. Its effect,
however, is slightly different for each of the ' reactions that occur. Desulphurization
increases as/ temperature 1s raised. The desulphurization reaction begins to take place at
temperatures even as low as 230C (450F) "With the rate of reaction increasing markedly
with temperature. Above 340C (650F) there are only slight increases in further removal
of sulfur compounds due to temperature.
The decomposition of chloride compounds in low concentrations (< 10 weight ppm) will
require about the same temperature as the sulfur compounds decomposition.
Olefin saturation behaves somewhat similarly to the desulphurization reaction with respect
to temperature, except that olefin removal may level off at a somewhat higher temperature.
Because this reaction is very exothermic, the olefin content of, the feed must be monitored
and perhaps limited to keep reactor peak temperature within an acceptable temperature
range.
At very high temperatures, an apparent equilibrium condition limits the degree of olefin
saturation. This may even cause the residual olefins in the product to be greater at higher
temperatures than would be the case at lower operating temperatures. In certain cases,
when processing a naphtha with a significant amount of light ends over fresh catalyst, S
can react with these olefins to form mercaptans. In such a case, lowering the reactor
temperature can eliminate residual olefins and thus mercaptan formation.
Decomposition of oxygen and nitrogen compounds requires a somewhat higher
temperature than desulphurization or olefin saturation, and the removal of these compounds
does not appear to level .off in the same way at elevated temperatures. Units with
significant levels pf nitrogen or oxygen must be designed for high pressure and low LHSV
to ensure complete conversion.
The demetalization reactions are not very dependent on temperature. Above 315C
(600F), metals removal is essentially complete. Below this temperature, there may be
some cases where all the metals will not be removed.
The .recommended minimum reactor inlet temperature to ensure a properly prepared
Platformer feed is 315C (600F). There are two factors which are important in
determining this minimum temperature; first, below the minimum temperature, reaction
rates for contaminant removal may be too low. Second, the temperature must be
maintained high enough to ensure that the combined feed (recycle or once-through gas plus
naphtha) to the charge heater is all vapor.
Normal reactor design temperatures for both straight run and cracked naphtha (SRN) are
399C (750F) maximum. "Actual operating temperatures will vary, depending upon the
feed type, from 285C (550F) to 285 C (650F). Cracked stocks may require processing
at higher temperatures because of the higher sulfur, nitrogen, and olefin contents. For these
feeds, the reactor delta T will be higher, 1n the range of 10-55C (20-100F).
As the catalyst ages, the product quality may degenerate, which may be corrected by
Increasing reactor inlet temperature. If increasing the temperature does not improve the
product quality, a regeneration or change of catalyst will be required, depending on the
history of the operation and catalyst state.
In addition to catalyst deterioration, scale and polymer formation at the top of the bed may
cause high reactor pressure drops which may result in reactor channeling. This may be
corrected by skimming the top of the catalyst bed; and/or unloading, screening and
reloading. High pressure drop problems should be/ corrected as soon as possible to
minimize the possibility of equipment damage and degradation of product quality
C. Feed Quality
For normal operation, daily changes in hydrotreater inlet temperature to accommodate
changes in feed quality should not be necessary. However, in some cases, such as when a
refinery is purchasing outside crude from widely different sources, the naphtha quality may
change significantly, and adjustment of reactor Inlet temperature may be necessary.
The final selection of reactor temperature should be based upon product quality. The above
relations of feed quality and temperature assume operation within the normal temperature
operating ranges given 1n the preceding section.
D. Hydrogen to Hydrocarbon Ratio
The minimum hydrogen to feed ratio (nm
3
/m
3
or SCFB) is dependent on hydrogen
consumption, feed characteristics, and desired product quality.
For straight run naphtha of moderate sulfur content, 40-75 nm
3
/m
3
(250-400 SCFB) is
normally required. Cracked naphtha must be processed at higher H2 ratios [up to 500
nm
3
/m
3
(3000 SCFB)]. As feedstock varies between these limits, the hydrogen to feed ratio
is proportioned between the extremes.
Ratios above 500 nm
3
/m
3
(3000 SCFB) do not contribute to the rate of reactions. The use of
low purity hydrogen as makeup gas is limited by economical operation of the recycle
compressor. Recycle gas with hydrogen sulfide contents up to 10X and with large
quantities of carbon monoxide and nitrogen are not harmful/ to the catalyst, again when
reasonable desulphurization is the only criterion. For nitrogen removal or complete' sulfur
removal, high hydrogen purity (70X minimum) is necessary, and CO may act as a
temporary catalyst poison. The prevention of excessive carbon accumulation on the catalyst
requires maintenance of a minimum H2 partial pressure, so impurities present in the
makeup gas require higher operating pressures.
Lower hydrogen to hydrocarbon ratios can be compensated for by increasing reactor inlet
temperature. The approximate relation for these variables is 10C (18F) higher reactor
temperature .requirement for a halving of the hydrogen/feed ratio. This rule assumes
operation above the minimum values of 315C (600F) reactor inlet temperature and 40
nm3/M
3
(250 SCFB) hydrogen ratio. This relation is approximate, and it should again be
pointed out that product quality should dictate the actual reactor temperature utilized.
E. Space Velocity
The quantity of catalyst per unit of feed will depend upon feedstock properties, operating
conditions, and product quality required. The liquid hourly space velocity (LHSV) is
defined as f ol1ows:
LHSV = volume of charge per hour volume of catalyst
With most charge stocks and product objectives, a simplified kinetic expression based on
sulfur and/or nitrogen removal determines the initial liquid hourly space velocity. This
initial value may be modified due to other considerations, such as size 'of unit, extended
first cycle catalyst service, abnormal levels of feed metals and requirements of other
processing units in the refinery flow scheme. Relative ease of conversion for Hydrobon
catalysts indicate that olefins react most easily sulfur compounds next, then nitrogen and
oxygen compounds. There is considerable overlap with several reactions occurring
simultaneously and to different degrees. Charge stock variability is so large that only
approximate ranges of space velocities can be indicated for the various feed types. SRN is
processed at 4-12 LHSV and cracked naphtha at 2-8 LHSV.
For daily changes in the LHSV, inlet temperature on the Naphtha Hydrotreating reactor
may be adjusted according to the equation below:
T
2
= Ti - 45 in LHSVi (f
or
F) LHSV
2
or
T
2
= TI - 25 in LHSVi (f
or
C) LHSV
2
Where T^ = required inlet reactor temperature at LHSVi T
2
= " " " " LHSV2
The above relation assumes operation between 4 and 12 LHSV and assumes that reactor
temperatures are within the limits discussed in Section II.
F. Catalyst Protection, Aging, and Poisons
The process variables employed affect the catalyst life by their effect on the rate of carbon
deposition on the catalyst. There is a moderate buildup of carbon on the catalyst during the
initial days of operation, but the rate of increase in carbon level soon drops to a very low
figure under normal processing conditions. This desirable control of the carbon-forming
reactions is obtained by maintaining the proper hydrogen to hydrocarbon ratio and by
keeping the catalyst temperature at the proper level.
Temperature is a minor factor in respect to the hydrotreating catalyst life. A higher catalyst
temperature increases somewhat the rate of the carbon-forming reactions, with other factors
being equal. It must be remembered that a combination of high catalyst temperatures and
inadequate hydrogen is very injurious to the catalyst activity.
Catalyst deactivation Is measured by the decrease in relative effectiveness of the catalyst at
fixed processing conditions after a period of catalyst use.
The primary causes of catalyst deactivation are: 1. accumulation of coke on the active sites,
and 2. chemical combination of contaminants from the feedstock with the catalyst
components. In normal operation, a carbon level above 5 wt-% may be tolerated without
significant decrease in desulphurization although nitrogen removal ability may be
decreased.
Permanent loss of activity requiring catalyst replacement 1s usually caused by the gradual
accumulation of inorganic species picked up from the charge stock, makeup hydrogen or
effluent wash water. Examples of such contaminants are arsenic, lead, calcium, sodium,
silicon and phosphorus. Very low concentrations of these species, ppm and/or ppb, will
cause deactivation over a long period of service because buildup of deposits depends on the
integrated effect of both temperature and time. This effect is important in SRN processing
for Platformer feed.
Apparent catalyst deactivation may be caused by the accumulation of a deposit on top of
the catalyst bed. The flow pattern through the balance of the bed is disturbed and product
quality is diminished. This condition is easily remedied by skimming a portion of the
catalyst, screening and reloading, or replacing with fresh catalyst. The deposit is generally
iron sulfide,
Hydrobon catalysts exhibit a high tolerance for metals such as arsenic and lead. Total
metals content as high as 2 to 3 wt-% of the catalyst have been observed with the catalyst
still effective. However, if the calculated metals content of the catalyst is 0.5 wt-%, the
frequency of product analyses should be increased to prevent metal breakthrough to the
Platforming catalyst. Organic lead compounds are decomposed by Hydrobon catalysts
and for the most part deposit in the upper portion of the catalyst bed as lead sulfide. Metals
are not removed from the catalyst during regeneration. When the total metals content of the
catalyst starts to approach 1 to 2 wt-%, consideration should be given to replacing the
catalyst.
The only certain method of minimizing the effect of trace metal contaminants on the
catalyst is to limit their entry to the system. This is done by careful, conscientious feed
analysis and correcting the source of, or conditions, causing the presence of the metal
contaminant.
Dissolved oxygen, though not a catalyst poison, should be eliminated from the feed. With
oxygen in the feed, excessive fouling of equipment, particularly the feed-effluent
exchangers can occur.
Chapter #3 Material and Energy Balance
C CHAPTER HAPTER 3 3
M MATERIAL ATERIAL AND AND E ENERGY NERGY BALANCE BALANCE
3.1 MATERIAL BALANCE
Basis
4000 Barrel of Naphtha per stream day to be Hydrotreated
Bbl/hr Hydrotreated = 4000/24
= 166.66 bbl/hr
MW = 109.7
Density = 0.7424 kg/lit
So
Weight of Naphtha
= 166.66 bbl/hr 42/lbbb gallons 3.78 lt/1us gallon 0.7424kg/1lit
= 19539.18 kg/hr
= 42987 lbs/hr
For getting high %age desulphurization we take 400 SCF H
2
Per bbl
(from literature)
So
Feed rate of H
2
= 166.66 400
= 66664 scf/hr
Taking H
2
purity = 0.712
(from analysis of fresh and recycle gas)
H
2
lb moles = 66664/379
= 175.9 lb mol
= 79.95 kg moles
Total H
2
Stream = 79.95/.712
= 247.05 lb
As avg M.W of H
2
Stream = 10.02
So w.t. of H
2
Stream = 2475.44 lb
= 1125.2 kg
Balance Around Heat Exchanger and furnace is same as same amount of combined feed is
entering and leaving that is
Wt of comb feed = 42987 + 2475
= 45462 lbs/hr
= 20664.5 kg/hr
BALANCE AROUND REACTOR
As first we know how to calculate the chemical hydrogen consumption in the reactor.
As there are a number of reactions going on in reactor so the scientist have developed a
formula for calculation of chemical hydrogen consumption that is as follows.
The general formula for the chemical hydrogen consumption applicable to all feed stocks
can be written as
(aS+bN+cB+E) % Wt H
2
on feed where in:
S Sulphur content in feed minus. Sulphur contents in product
N Nitrogen contents as above
Br Bromine number of fed g/100gm
E extra consumption
a, b,c coefficient, depending on type of feed stokes
According to our feed specification
a = 0.12 (coefficient accounts for desulphurization)
b = 0.57 (coefficient accounts for denitrification)
c = 0 (coefficient accounts for olefin saturation)
E = 0.042 (coefficient accounts for extra consumption)
Wt% sulfur contents in feeds = 0.10335%
Wt% sulfur contents in removed = .10335 0.9995
= .1033
N
2
contents in feed = 0.001%
Wt% N
2
contents removed from feeds = 0.001 0.95
= 0.0095 % wt
Extra Cons. = 0.042
Putting values in formula
= 0.12 0.1033 + 0.57 0.0095 + 0 +
0.042
= 0.0598 wt % H
2
on feed
So
H
2
Consumption = 42987
100
0598 . 0
= 25.71 lbs
= 11.68 kg/hr
Lb moles H
2
S formed =
32 100
42987 1033 . 0
= 1.388lbs
= 0.63 kg mol/hr
The reactor effluents pass through H. exchanger & after this some amount of condensate
is added for removing salts coming with Naphtha and for dissolving some NH
3
which is
formed in reactor.
Water added = 1750lbs
= 795.45 kg/hr
BALANCE AROUND SEPARATOR
In separator some gases streams are separated in gas phase and most of water added is
separated from boot (The remaining waters evaporated).
So
Combined reactor effluent in = 45462 lbs/hr
Water in = 1750 lbs
Water out from boot = 1736 lbs
Gaseous stream out = 1257 lbs
Naphtha out = 44219 lbs/hr
BALANCE FOR STRIPPING SECTION
In stripping section the remainder gases ion naphtha are removed and hydrotreated product
is obtained
SO
Naphtha in = 44219 lbs/hr
Gases out = 1275 lbs/hr
Pure Naphtha out = 44219-1275
= 42944 lbs/hr
= 19520 kg/hr
Detailed material balance is tabulated with Process flow sheet
3.2 ENERGY BALANCE
BALANCE AROUND EXCHANGER TRAIN E-110
Cold Side
Naphtha flow rate = 42987 lb/hr
= 19539.18 kg/hr
H
2
stream flow rate = 1125.2 kg /hr
Naphtha + H
2
Stream in at = 120F = 49C
Heat Capacity of liquid Naphtha from (120F) 49C to 248.0 (4708.4F)
Cp = (0.388+0.00045T)/(SP.G)

2
) 7424 . 0 (
478 00045 . 0 388 .
) 7424 . 0 (
120 00045 . 0 388 .
2 / 1 2 / 1
1
]
1
'
+
+
'
+
Cp
1
= 0.605 Kcal/kgm (Equation might subject an error 4% up to)
Heat Capacity of H
2
Stream
Taking molar weighted heat capacity and neglecting. Molar heat capacity departure from
weighted value
Cp
2
= 0.745 k cal/kg
Heat capacity of Naphtha vapor for the range
= (478.4F) 248C to (621F) 327.2C
Cp
g
= (4-Sp) (T+670)/(6450)
Cp =
6450 2
) 670 621 )( 7424 . 4 ( ) 670 4 . 478 )( 7424 . 4 (
+ + +
= 0.616 kcal/kg
Now calculating heat loads
Heat Requirements for heating liquid Naphtha up to boiling point
= m Cp T
= 19539.18 .650 (248-49)
= 2352419.57 kcal/hr
Latent heat requirements for vaporizing Naphtha
= m
= 19539.18 98
= 1,914,839.64 kcal/hr
Hear requirements for superheating Naphtha Vapors up to 327.22C
= m Cp T
= 19539.18 /616 (327.22-248)
= 953.502.60 kcal/hr
Heat Requirements for heating hydrogen gas stream from 49C 327.22C
= m Cp T
= 1125.2 .745 (327.22-49)
= 233,224.59 kcal/hr
Total heat load of exchanger train E
1
= 2352419.57 + 1914839.64 + 953502.6 + 233244.59
= 5,453,986.4 kcal/hr
= 5.5 10
9
cal/hr
Hot side
Inlet stream at = 374C
Overall Cp = 0.715
Mass flow rate in = 20664.2 kg/hr
Heats required to cool the reactor effluents up to condensation
Temp = mCp T
= 20664.2 0.715 0.715 (374-242)
= 1950287.19Kcal/hr
Latent heat of condensation = 19539.18 98
Neglecting pressure effects)
Change in = 1914839.64 kcal/hr
Heat required to lower the temp of liquid naphtha + gaseous stream up to 115C.
For Naphtha = 19539.18 .615 (242-110)
= 1586176 kcal/hr
For H
2
Stream = 1125.18 0.71 (242-110)
= 105453.74
Total load = 1950287.19 + 1914839 + 15861756 + 105453.74
= 5.5 10
9
cal/hr
BALANCE AROUND FURNACE E-120
Flow rate of Naphtha + H
2
stream = 19539.18 + 1125.2
= 20664.38 kg/hr
Feed in at = 621F
= 327.2C
Over all Cp = 0.715
Out Temp = 696F
= 368.8C
Heat Requirements in F1 = m Cp T
= 20664.38 0.715 41.68C
= 615 954.65 kcal/hr
BALANCE AROUND REACTOR R-130
Feed flow rate in = 20664.38 kg/hr
Feed inlet Temp = 368.8C
H
2
Consumed in desulphurization reactions =
2
18 . 19539 .
100
1033 . 0 12 .
= 1.21 kg moles
Overall heat of reaction for H
2
consumption in hydrosulphurization reaction
= 1100 kcal/kg mol
So
Heat evolved due to desulphurization = 1.21 11000
= 13310 kcal/hr
As Extra Consumption of H
2
is assumed to be due to saturation of Aromatics
So
H
2
Extra consumption =
2
18 . 19539
100
042 . 0
= 4.103 kg mol/hr
Heat evolved in Saturation of aromatics = 4.103 16000 kcal/kg mol
= 65651.64 kcal/hr
Total heat evolved = 65651.64 + 13310
= 78961.64 kcal/hr
Cp = 0.72 Kcal/kg
Temp rise in reactor
Q = mCpT
Q/mCp = T
T =
72 . 0 38 . 20664
64 . 78961
= 5.3C
So reactor out let temp = 368.8 + 5.3
= 374C
BALANCE AROUND AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGER E-140
Inlet Temp = 93.3C
Outlet temp = 60C
Heat load = mCp
0.A
T
( Subscript CpOA stands for Over all Heat capacity)
= 21460 0.62 (93.3-60)
= 443063 Kcal/hr
BALANCE AROUND TRIM COOLER E-150
Inlet temp = 60C
Outlet Temp = 43.3C
Heat load = mCp T
= 21460 0.618 (60-433)
= 221480 kcal/hr
BALANCE AROUND
COLUMN FEED/EFFLUENT HEAT EXCHANGER E-185
Inlet temp = 43.3C
Outlet temp = 173.9C
Heat load = mCp
0.A
T
= 20098 (173.9-43.3) (0.626)
= 1643156.7 kcal/hr
BALANCE AROUND ACHE E-182
Inlet Temp = 151.66C
Outlet Temp = 60C
Heat required for condensation of vapours = m
= 4645 .95
= 441275 kcal/hr
Heat required to Fall the temps of combined mixture upto 60C
= 5225 0.62 (151.66-60)
= 296932.5 Kcal/hr
Total load of ACHE
= 441275 + 296932.5
= 7.38207 10
5
kcal/hr
BALANCE AROUND TRIM COOLER E-183
Inlet temp = 60C
Outlet temp = 43.3C
Heat load = mCp
0.A
T
= 5225 0.618 (60-43.3)
= 53925.13 kcal/hr
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
E EQUIPMENT QUIPMENT D DESIGN ESIGN
4.1 SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN
Introduction:
In the majority of chemical processes heat is either given out or absorbed, and fluids must
often be either heated or cooled in a wide range of plant such as furnaces, evaporators,
distillation units, dryers and reaction vessels.
The process of heat exchange between two fluids that are at a different temperature and are
separated by a solid wall occurs in many chemical engineering applications. And the device
used to implement this exchange is known as heat exchanger.
Definition:
The word exchanger really applies to all type of equipment in which heat is exchanged
but is often used specifically to denote equipment in which heat is exchanged between two
process fluids.
Such as:
Heaters And Coolers:
Exchangers in which a process fluid is heated or cooled by a plant service stream.
Vaporizer:
If the process stream is vaporized the exchanger is termed as a vaporizer.
Reboiler:
If the stream is essentially completely vaporized then the exchanger is a reboiler. It is
associated with a distillation column.
Evaporator:
For the purpose of concentration of a solution the exchanger is called as an evaporator.
Fired exchanger:
It is used for exchangers heated by combustion gases, such as boilers.
Modes Of Heat Transfer
Heat transfer will take place in one or more of three different ways:
Conduction:
In a solid, the flow of heat by conduction is the result of the transfer of vibrational energy
from one molecule to another and in fluids it occurs in addition as a result of the transfer of
kinetic energy. Heat transfer by conduction may also arise from the movement of free
electrons.
Convection:
Heat transfer by convection arises from the mixing of elements of fluid. It occurs as a result
of actual mixing of hotter part of the fluid with the colder part of fluid due to density
variation caused by temperature difference. There are two type of convection:
(a) Natural convection
when convective heat transfer is caused by temperature variation.
(b) Force convection
when convective heat transfer is caused by temperature variation and some external source
for the mixing purpose.
Radiation:
All the bodies radiate thermal energy in the form of electromagnetic waves at a certain
temperature. These waves pass through vacuum and air and falls on a body then there are
three possibilities either they are:
Transmitted
Reflected
Absorbed
Depending upon the material upon which they fall. Only the absorbed radiations affect the
heat transfer.
In many of the applications of heat transfer in process plants, one or more of the
mechanisms of heat transfer may be involved. For example in the case of heat exchangers
heat passes through a series of different intervening layers before reaching the second fluid.
TYPES OF HEAT EXCHANGERS:
Following are the ways of classification of heat exchangers:
(1) According to transfer process:
1. Direct contact type
2. Indirect contact type
(a) Direct transfer type
(b) Storage type
(2) According to surface compactness:
1. Compact (Surface density > = 700 m
2
/m
3
)
2. Non compact (Surface density < 700 m
2
/m
3
)
(3) According to construction:
1. Tubular
(a) Double pipe
(b) Shell And Tube
(c) Spiral Plate
2. Plate
(a) Gasketed
(b) Spiral
(c) Lamella
3. Extended Surface
(a) Plate-Fin
(b) Tube-Fin
4. Regenerative
(a) Rotary
(b) Fixed- matrix
(4) According to Flow arrangement:
1. Single Pass
(a) Parallel Flow
(b) Counter Flow
(c) Cross Flow
2. Multi Pass
(5) According to Number of Fluids:
1. Two-Fluid
2. Three-Fluid
3. n-Fluid(n >3)
(6) According to Heat transfer mechanism flow arrangement:
1. Single phase convection on both sides
2. Single phase convection on one side, two phase convection on other side
3. Two phase convection on both sides
4. Radiation heat combined transfer convection
Principal Types Used in Chemical Industry:
The principle types of heat exchanger used in the chemical process and allied industries are
as follows:
1. Double pipe exchangers
2. Shell and tube exchangers
3. Plate and frame exchangers
4. Plate- Fin exchangers
5. Spiral heat exchangers
Shell Side Inlet
Temp = t
1
=120.2
o
F=49
o
C
Shell Side Outlet
Temp = t
2
=219.2
o
F=104
o
C
6. Air cooled: coolers and condensers
7. Direct contact: cooling and quenching
8. Agitated Vessels
9. Fired Heaters
Selection of Heat Exchanger Type:
One of the more important actions taken by the design engineer in arriving at a satisfactory
solution for a specific heat exchange is the careful selection of the heat exchanger type that
should be used.
The selection process include a number of factors, all of which are related to the heat
transfer application. These are as:
1. Thermal requirement
2. Material Compatibility
3. Operational maintenance
4. Environmental, health, and safety considerations and regulations
5. Availability
6. Cost
In the chemical industry the preferred choice has been the shell and tube heat exchanger
due to the fact:
(1) These exchangers give a large surface area in a small volume
(2) Good mechanical layout
(3) Uses well-established fabrication techniques
Shell Side Inlet
Temp = t
1
=120.2
o
F=49
o
C
Shell Side Outlet
Temp = t
2
=219.2
o
F=104
o
C
(4) Can be constructed from a wide range of materials
(5) Easily Cleaned
(6) Well-established design procedures
(7) More than one heat exchanger can be used in a parallel or series arrangement to
meet special heat transfer or physical requirements.
(8) High thermal performance, even with fouled heat transfer fluids.
Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
___________________________________________
Shell Side Inlet
Temp = t
1
=120.2
o
F=49
o
C
Shell Side Outlet
Temp = t
2
=219.2
o
F=104
o
C
Tube Side Inlet
Temp= T
1
= 323.6
o
F=162
o
C
Tube Side Outlet
Temp=T
2
= 230
o
F=110
o
C
Shell Side: (cold) Tube Side: (hot)
Naphtha + H
2
Reactor effluents
Temp of naphtha + H
2
inlet = t
1
= 49
o
C = 120.2
o
F
Temp of naphtha + H
2
outlet = t
2
= 104
o
C = 219.2
o
F
Total Pressure = 451 psia = 30.68 atm
Temp of reactor effluents inlet = T
1
= 162
o
C = 323.6
o
F
Temp of reactor effluents outlet = T
2
= 110
o
C = 230
o
F
Flow rate of naphtha stream entering = 42987 lb / hr
Flow rate of naphtha stream leaving = 42987 lb / hr
Flow rate of reactor feed and effluent = 2475 lb / hr
Designing Steps:
STEP 1
To Calculate Heat Duty Q:
For Exchanger E-1:
For naphtha = mC
p
T
= 42987 x 0.6 (219.2-120.2)
= 2553427.8 Btu / hr
For H
2
Stream = mC
p
T
= 2475 x 0.73 (219.2-120.2)
= 178868.25 Btu / hr
Total Heat Load (Q) = 2553427.8+ 178868.25
= 2.74 x 10
6
Btu / hr
STEP 2
Assumed Overall Coefficient:
U = 50 Btu /hr ft
2

o
F
STEP 3
Log Mean Temperature Difference:
T
1
T
2
T
l m
=

ln T1

T
2

(T
1
t
2
) - (T
2
t
2
)
=

ln (T
1
t
2
)

(T
2
t
1
)

(323.6 219.2) - (230

120.2)
=

ln (323.6 219.2)

(230 120.2)
104.4 - 109.8
=

ln (104.4)

(109.8)
= 107
o
F
For True Temperature Difference:
(T
1
t
2
)
R =
(T
2
t
1
)
323.6 230.0
= = 0.94
219.2 120.2
(t
2
t
1
)
S =
(T
1
t
1
)
219.6 120.2
= = 0.48
323.6 120.2
(Using Figure 12.19 for 1-shell 2-tube pass)
F
t
= 0.86
T
m
= F
t
x T
l m
= 0.86 x 107
= 92.02
o
F
STEP 4
Provisional Area:
As
Q = UA T
m
1
= (2.74 x 10
6
) / (50 x 92.02)
= 496 ft
2
= 55.1 m
2
STEP 5
Heat Exchanger Specifications:
1 2 Pull Through Floating Head Type
Tubes
16BWG
Outside Dia 0D = inch = 0.75 inch = 0.0625 ft = 0.0208
Inside Dia 1D = 0.620 inch = 0.0516 ft (Table 10 Kern)
Length of Tubes L = 12 ft = 3.65 m
Square pitch = 1 inch = 0.0833 ft
Baffles:
25% cut horizontal segmental baffles
Area of single tube = (0.1623 x 12 x 30.48) / 100 = 0.1809m
2
No. of tubes = 55.1 / 0.1809= 304.8
(From nearest count table 9)
No. of Tubes = 324
For 2 pass
Bundle Dia:
D
b
= d
o
(N
t
/ K
1
)
1/n
1
(From Table 12.4 Coulson)
For Square Pitch:
K
1
= 0.156
N
1
= 2.291
D
b
= 0.0208 (324 / 0.156)
1/2.291
= 0.58 m = 1.9 ft
Shell:
(From Fig 12.10)
Shell-bundle clearance:
C = shell inside dia bundle dia = 0.093 m = 0.31 ft
Shell dia inside = 0.093 + 0.58
(D
s
) = 0.673 m = 2.21 ft
Baffle Spacing (B):
B =0.6 x shell dia
= 0.6 x 0.673
= 0.4 m = 1.31 ft
No of Baffles:
No. of Baffles = 3.65 / 0.4 = 9.1 9 Baffles
STEP 6
Physical Properties:
Average Temp Shell Side = 169
o
F
Average Temp Tube Side = 276.8
o
F
API Gravity = 59
k for H
2
in feed stream = 0.122 Btu / lb ft
2

o
F
k H
2
in leaving stream = 0.135 Btu / lb ft
2

o
F
k for naphtha in feed stream = 0.0858 Btu / lb ft
2

o
F
k for naphtha in leaving stream = 0.0845 Btu / lb ft
2

o
F
Heat capacity of naphtha in feed stream = 0.545 Btu / lb
o
F
Heat capacity of naphtha in leaving stream = 0.650 Btu / lb
o
F
Heat capacity of gases in feed stream = 0.9 Btu / lb
o
F
Heat capacity of gases in leaving stream = 1.025 Btu / lb
o
F
for H
2
in feed = 0.0099 cP
for H
2
in product = 0.011 cP
for naphtha in feed stream = 0.3 cP
for naphtha in leaving stream = 0.2 cP
Mean Properties: (Feed)
(i) Mean Heat Capacity
0.9314 x 2475 + 0.545 x 42987
C

=
2475 +42987
= 0.61 Btu / lb
o
F
(ii) Mean Density
0.635 x 2475+ 46.325 x 42987
=
2475 +42987
= 43.958 lb / ft
3
(iii) Mean Viscosity
0.0099 x 2475+ 0.3 x42987

=
2475+42987
= 0.285 c
= 0.6897 lb / ft hr.
(iv) Mean Thermal Conductivity
0.122 x 2347.88 + 0.0858 x 42987
k =
2347.88 +42987
= 0.087 Btu / lb ft
2

o
F
Mean Properties: (Product Stream)
(i) Mean Heat Capacity
0.0099 x 2475 + 0.3 x42944

=
2475 +42944
= 0.669 Btu / lb
o
F
(ii) Mean Density
1.74 x 2475+ 0.650 x 42944

=
2475 +42944
= 4309 lb / ft
3
(iii) Mean Viscosity
0.011 x 2475 + 0.2 x 42944

=
2475 +42944
= 0.19 cP x 2.42
= 0.4598 lb / ft hr.
(iv) Mean (k)
0.027 Btu / lb ft
2

o
F
STEP 7
Over All Heat Transfer Coefficient:
Shell Side Calculations:
1. Flow Area :
ID x C x B
a
s
=

P
T
ID = 0.673 m
= 0.673 x 3.281
= 2.2 ft.
C = 1 0.75
= 0.25 inch.
= 0.0208 ft.
B = 0.4 m
= 1.3124 ft
P
t
= 1 inch = 0.0833 ft.
2.2 x 0.0208 x 1.3124
a
s
=
0.0833
= 0.72 ft
2
2. Equivalent Dia.
For square pitch:
1.27
D
e
= (P
t
2
0.785 d
o
2
)
d
o
d
o
= tube outside dia = 0.625 ft.

P
t
= 0.083 ft
D
e
= 0.078 ft
3. Mass Velocity
G
s
= W
s
/ a
s
= 45506.67 / 0.66
= 68949.5 lb/hr ft
2
4. Reynolds No
R
e.s
= D
e
G
s
/
0.078 x 68949.5
=
0.6897
= 7797.68
5. j
H
Factor
From fig (28)
j
H
= 47
6. Prandtl No
Pr = (c / k)
1/3
= 1.6475
7. Outside Heat Transfer Coefficient
j
H
k (c / k)
1/3
( /
w
)
0.14
h
o
= D
e
= 47 x (0.087/0.078) x 1.6475 x 1
h
o
= 86.36 Btu/ hr. ft
2

o
F
Tube Side Calculations:
1. Flow Area:
N
t
a
t

a
t
=
n
n = 2
N
t
= 324
a
t
= 0.3302 in
2
(From Table 10)
= 0.0021 ft
2
324 x 0.0021
a
t
=
2
= 0.34 ft
2
2. De = ID of tube
= 0.62 inches
= 0.0516 ft.
3. Mass Velocity
G
t
= W
t
/ a
t
= 45506.67 / 0.34
= 133843.14 lb/hr ft
2

4. Reynolds No
R
e.t
= D
e
G
t
/
0.0516 x 133843.14

=
0.4598
= 15020.2
5. j
H
Factor
j
H
= 70
6. Prandtl No
Pr = (c / k)
1/3
= 1.5228
7. Inside Heat Transfer Coefficient
j
H
k (c / k)
1/3
( /
w
)
0.14
h
i
=
D
e
= 70 x (0.087 / 0.0516) x 1.5228
= 179.7 Btu/ hr. ft
2

o
F
8. Inside to Outside Heat Transfer Coefficient
h
io
= h
i
x ID/OD
= 179.7 x (0.0516 / 0.0625)
= 148.36 Btu/ hr. ft
2

o
F
9. Clean Overall Coefficient:
h
io
x h
o

U
c
=
h
io
+ h
o
148.36 x 82.69

=
148.36 + 82.69
12267.8

=
231.05
U
c
= 53.09 Btu/ hr. ft
2

o
F
10. Corrected Overall Coefficient:
Q

U
d
=
A x T
m
A = N
t
a

L
= 324 x 0.1623 x 12
= 631.0 ft
2
Corrected Area = 58.6 m
2
2.74 x 10
6

U
d
=
631.0 x 92.02
Corrected Overall coefficient = 47 Btu /hr. ft
2

0
F
R
d
= 0.00243
11. Dirt Overall Coefficient:
1 1
R
d
=
U
d
U
c
U
d
= 48 Btu /hr. ft
2

0
F
STEP 8
Pressure Drop:
Shell Side Pressure Drop: ( P
s
)
For single phase flow:
f G
s
2
D
s
(N + 1)
P
s =

5.22 x 10
10
D
e
S
s
R
e.s
= 7797.68
f = from fig (29)
= 0.0023
D
s
= 0.642 m
= 2.11 ft.
N+1 = 10
D
e
= 0.078 ft.
s = 0.7424
G
s
= 68949.5 lb / hr ft
2
0.0023 x (68949.5)
2
x 2.11 x 10
P
s =
= 0.076 Psi
5.22 x 10
10
x 0.7424 x 0.078
For two phase flow: ( P
TP
)
P
TP
=
lo
2
x P
lo
Where
lo
2
= 1 + (Y
2
1)[B x
o
g
(1 - x
o
g
) + x
o
g
2
]
` x
g
= flow quality of liq phase
Or
mass flow rate of liq phase
=
total mass flow rate
42987
=
4.88
= 0.95
2
B =
Y + 1
B = 0.25
Y = 2/2.25 1
= 8-1 = 7
lo
2
= 1 + (7
2
1) [0.25 x 0.95 (1 0.95) + 0.95
2
]
= 49 [0.01187 + 0.9025]
= 44.8
P
TP
= 44.8 x 0.076
= 3.42 Psi
Tube Side Pressure Drop: ( P
t
)
For single phase flow:
f G
t
2
D
s
Ln
P
t
=
5.22 x 10
10
D
e
s
t
R
e.t
= 15020.2
f = from fig (26)
= 0.00025
L = 12 ft.
n = 2
D
e
= 0.0516 ft.
s = 0.7424
G
t
= 133843.14 lb/hr ft
2

0.00025 x 133843.14
2
x 12 x 2
P
t
=
5.22 x 10
10
x 0.0516 x 0.7424

= 0.053

Psi

4n v
2
P
r
=
s 2g
From Fig (27)
V
2
= 0.0023 x 46/144

2g
= 7.3 x 10
-4

4 x 2 x 7.3 x 10
-4

P
r
=
0.7424

= 7.8 x 10
-3
P
T
= P
t
+ P
r
P
T
= 0.053

+ 0.0078
= 0.0608 psi
For two phase flow:
lo
2
= 1 + (Y
2
1)[B x
o
g
(1 - x
o
g
) + x
o
g
2
]
lo
2
= 1+ ( 7
2
1 )[ 0.25 x 0.95( 1- 0.95 ) + 0.95
2
]
= 49 [ 0.001187 +0.9025 ]
= 44.8
P
TP
=
lo
2
x P
T
= 44.8 x 0.0608
= 2.7 psi
SPECIFICATION SHEET
Identification: Unit Shell And Tube Heat Exchanger
Item No. E-110-A
Type 1-2 Pull Through Floating Head
Function: To heat the reactor feed
Operation:
Heat Duty Q 690480 kcal/hr
Heat Transfer Area A 58.6 m
2
U
c
301.5 W/ m
2
. K

U
d
272.55 W/ m
2
. K
R
d
0.00243
Shell Side Tube Side
Fluid Circulated Naphtha + H
2
Naphtha + H
2
Flow Rates 20664.5 kg / hr 20664.5 kg / hr
Temperature Inlet 49
o
C
Outlet 104
o
C
Inlet 162
o
C
Outlet 110
o
C
Pressure Drop 0.23 atm 0.18 atm
Material Of Construction Carbon Steel Carbon Steel
Specification I.D 0.67 m
C 0.094 m
B 0.4 m
I.D 0.015 m
O.D 0.019 m
P
t
0.0253 m
L 3.65 m
n 2
N
t
324
4.2 FURNACES
Introduction:
Furnace is a device for generating the control heat with the objective of performing work.
Definition:
A furnace is an enclosed place in which heat is produced by the combustion of fuel, as for
reducing ores or melting metals, for warming a house, for baking pottery, etc. this is
drawn sufficiently wide terms to cover almost all heating operations. The range of
operation and the condition under which those processes must be carried out cover a very
wide field, and the types of furnaces are equally diverse; therefore, no attempt will be made
to describe or figure particular types of furnace.
Furnaces may operate over a range of temperature from 300 F or thereabouts, to upwards
of 3000 F and they may be intermittent or continuous in operation. The capacity may vary
from that of a small pot furnace used for the tempering steel springs, where a few gallons
of oil is heated to about 500 F to a blast furnace producing a thousand tons of pig iron a day
at a temperature of about 3000 F. The number of types are as great as the number of
heating operations, but most comprise a combustion chamber in which the fuel is burned
and a hearth (or its equivalent) on which the charge is heated.
The principle of fuel economy is the same in all furnaces, and involve
a) The complete combustion of fuel
b) The rejection of the products of combustion at the lowest practicable temperature
b) The reduction of external losses by means of suitable insulation
Types of Furnaces
However we have made an attempt to classify the furnaces so only the names are indicated
here, which also shows the purposes for which the furnaces are employed.
(1) Classification on the basis of fuel used
- Fuel heated furnaces
(a) Fuel and charge in contact
(1) Hearth furnaces
Without blast
With blast
(2) Shaft furnaces
Natural draught
Forced blast
(b) Charge heated by flame alone
(1) Reverberatory Furnace
Natural Draught
Forced Draught
(2) Rotary Furnace
(3) Sintering machines
(c) Closed Vessel Furnaces
Charge heated by conduction of heat through the walls of the vessel
(d) Charge containing its own fuel
Solid charge
Liquid Charge
- Electrical furnaces
(2)Classification on the basis of material heating
(a) Boiler furnace (To get steam from water)
Fire Tube Boiler
Water tube Boiler
Longitudinal Drum
Cross Drum Straight tubes
Cross Drum Bend tubes
(b) Refinery furnace (Crude oil cracking)
De Florez circular furnace
Box Type furnaces
Double Radiant section Box Type Furnace
Furnace with overhead convection bank
(c) Metallurgical furnaces
Metal Industries
The metallurgical furnaces are further classified on the basis of following purpose
For Tempering
For Annealing
For Carbonizing
For Forging
For Ensiling
(3)Classification on the basis of nature of transfer of heat
(a) Oven Furnaces
On the basis of method of firing Oven furnaces have four types
Direct Fired
Over Fired
Side Fired
Under Fired
(b) Muffle Furnace
(c) Liquid Bath Furnaces
(d) Recirculating type Furnace
(e) Radiant tube furnace
(4) Classification on the basis of material handling
(a) Batch furnaces
(b) Continuous furnaces
Fired Heaters
Introduction and operation:
Most of the fired heaters used in the petroleum refinery and petrochemical and other
chemical plants is a pipe still heater, which is designed to heat process fluid in tubes
effectively by burning fuel. The function of the heater is similar to that of the steam-
generating boiler except that usually process fluid is heated instead of water.
Basically a pipe still heater consists of a combustion chamber for heat release, surrounded
by tubes through which the process feedstock flows to absorb heat by both radiation and
convection. Using a predetermined air mix ratio, the heat is supplied by the gas or oil
burners provided on the floor or on the walls of combustion chamber.
The feedstock is fed into and passed through tubes inside the heater. If a convection section
is provided, the feedstock is fed to the convection section first, then introduced into the
radiant section. During passage of the feedstock through the fired heater, it is subjected to
both radiant and convection heat.
The inside walls of the heater are refractory lined, to cope with the high temperatures
generated by the firing fuel.
The feed stock is heated to the required temperature at the specified phase and fed to the
next unit in the process sequence; e.g., distillation column, fractionators or reactor etc. the
temperature of the feed stock when leaving the fired heater differs according to the
operating requirements, but is generally with in a range of 250
o
C to 500
o
C.
The fired heaters most generally used are the box type and the vertical cylinder type.
Types of Fired Heaters
Fired heaters are classified by their construction and purpose. There are basically two types
of construction, the box type and the vertical cylinder type. These are further divided by
their tube layout, combustion method, purpose and characteristics. Although there are
many types of construction to meet process requirements
Purpose of fired heaters
1) Heating
Raising the temperature of a liquid
Raising the temperature of a gas
Vaporizing a liquid
2) Thermal Cracking
Gas cracking
Liquid cracking
3) Thermal Reforming
Gas reforming
Heat Transfer
The purpose of a fired heater is to transfer heat to the process feedstock at a predetermined
temperature. This is accomplished by burning a fuel or gas, causing large quantities of flue
gas to enter the heater. The heat is transferred to the feedstock by radiation, conduction and
convection.
Heat Transfer in Fired Heaters
In the radiant section, the heat is transmitted to the tubes by heat radiation from the burner
flame and the heater walls. This heat is transferred to the feedstock by conduction and
convection. In the convection section, the heat is transmitted to the tubes by convection of
the hot flue gas and is then transferred to the feedstock by conduction and convection
Mechanical drafts are induced, forced or balanced. All the four draft methods are used in
fired heaters, although a natural draft is more generally applied.
Heater Components
Burners
The following types of burners are used for the combustion of oil or gas, or both in fired
heaters:
1) Premix gas burner
2) Non-Premix gas burner
3) Steam atomizing oil burner
4) Combination gas and oil burner
The burners are designed to produce a uniform flame suitable to the type of firebox
involved, together with the most efficient, safe and complete combustion of the fuel.
Refractory
The following kinds of refractories are used in fired heaters to protect the heater casing
(insulating materials) from hot flue gas:
1) Cast able (aluminum cement +aggregates)
2) Brick (fire bricks & insulation fire bricks)
3) Ceramic fiber (Al2O3 and SiO2)
Heating tube
Heating tube is a kind of container in which high temperature and high pressure process
feed stock is contained and receives the heat of combustion.
In some special heaters the tube metal temperature will be more then 8000C.
The material of heating tube is selected from among carbon steel, low alloy and high alloy
steel depending upon service temperature, corrosiveness of process feed stock and others.
Generally the heating tube is classified into three types, that is, bare tube, finned tube and
studded tube.
Tube Support
The tube support is literally, the component that supports the tubes.
Tube supports are usually of high alloy casting.
Auxiliary Equipment
There are some auxiliary equipment for fired heaters to achieve higher heater efficiency
and to keep the fired heater in proper condition.
Air Preheater
The flue gas at the exit of the fired heater still contains some available heat which is high
enough to heat the combustion air.
Air Preheater is a kind of heat exchanger and is designed to exchange the heat between flue
gas and combustion air efficiently.
With preheated combustion air the fuel quantity required can be reduced, since preheated
air has more heat than ambient air.
When the flue gas is cooled too much some trouble may occur in the air preheater
elements, fan elements and the refractories in the duct or stack, since flue gas generally
contains sulfur compounds.
Soot Blower
When fuel oil is used as a fuel, a large amount of ash, carbon etc. will be generated and
accumulate onto the convection heating tubes, resulting in low heat transfer.
Furnace Calculation
Step 1
Partial pressure of CO
2
and H
2
O (P) is found from graph which is plotted against excess air.
Step 2
Emmisivity is found from the graph, it is plotted against PL (product of partial pressure and
flame length) different curves for different temperatures.
Step 3
Exchange factor finally is found by graph, where it is plotted against ratio of refractory area
to cold plane area, (AR/a A
CP
), different curves for different emmisivities.
What is meant by design of a furnace?
When we talk about furnace design it means we want to find
1. Size require for the given heat duty
2. Number of tubes require
3. Arrangement of tubes
4. Flue gas temperature
5. Amounts of fuel air steam
Methods for designing
There is no universally applicable method for the furnace design for all types of the
furnaces specially fuel used determent the design method applicable , there are four known
design methods
1. Method of Lobo and Even
2. Method of Wilson Lobo and Hattel
3. The Orrak- Hudson equation
4. Wohlenberg Simplified Method
Here we shall consider only method of lobo and evans. This is a trial and error method
which make use of the overall exchange factor () and a Stefan-Boltzmann type equation.
It has a good theoretical basis and is used extensively in refinery furnace design work. It is
also recommended for oil or gas fired boilers.
As in all trial and error solutions, a starting point must be assumed and checked. For
orientation purposes, we shall estimate the number of tubes required in the radiant section
by assuming an average flux ( permissible average radiant rate ) Btu/(hr)(ft
2
of
circumferential tube area).
Here we have taken vertical tube cylindrical furnace
Furnace Design Calculation By Method Of Lobo And Evvans
1-Average radiant heat flux:
First of all we shall assume radiant heat flux. In literature, permissible average
radiant rate for different types of feedstocks are available.
From table 19.2 (Kern)
For naphtha hydro treating charge heater
Average radiant heat flux= 3000 Btu/(hr)(ft
2
of circumferential tube area)
2-Find Q/Acp:
=2 x Average flux
=20x3000
=6000 Btu/(hr)(ft
2
of circumferential tube area)
Where,
Acp= Equivalent cold plane surface (ft
2
)
= effectiveness factor
Acp=effective cold plane surface (ft
2
)
Q= heat transferred to cold surface (Btu/hr)
3- Overall exchange factor () :
Assume overall exchange factor. Normally it is in the range of 0.55 to 0.65
Here lets take = 0.57
4- Actual heat transfer between hot and cold surfaces:
Q/Acp = 6000/0.6
= 10000(Btu/ hr. ft
2
)
5- Tube surface temperature (Ts):
It is fixed depending upon the desired temperature of fluid in tubes.
Lets, Ts=800 F
6- Evaluate temperature of the gases leaving the radiant section:
From fig. 19.14 (Kern)
Tg= 1140 F
Or by substituting Q/Acp and Ts in the following heat transfer equation
Q/Acp=0.173[(Tg/100)
4
-(Ts/100)
4
]+7(Tg-Ts)
Where, all the terms have usual meaning as described.
7- Heat balance:
Heat balance is necessary for the solution of heat absorption problem. The heat balance is
as follows:
Q = Q
f
+ Q
a
+ Q
r
+ Q
s
Q
w
Q
g
Where,
Q = total radiant section duty , (Btu/hr)
Q
a
=Sensible heat above 60F in combustion air, (Btu/hr)
Q
f
= Heat liberated by fuel, (Btu/hr)
Q
r
=sensible heat above 60F in recirculated flue gases, (Btu/hr)
Q
s
=Sensible heat above 60F in steam used for oil atomization, (Btu/hr)
Q
w
=Heat loss through furnace walls, (Btu/hr)
Q
g
=Heat leaving the furnace radiant section in the flue gases, (Btu/hr)
A- Total required heat duty (Q):
Q =2.3x 10
6
Btu/ hr (from overall energy balance)
B- Efficiency of furnace ():
Suppose the overall efficiency of furnace == 0.70
C- Heat liberated by fuel (Qf):
Qf=Q/ = (2.3x10
6
)/ 0.70
=3.28x10
6
Btu/hr.
D- Lower heating value of fuel (L.H.V):
We have taken refinery gases as fuel which are obtained during distillation , cracking and
other processing of petroleum and its fractions which contain paraffins (e.g. methane
ethane , propane and butane) olefins (e.g. ethylene, propene and butene) and hydrogen are
called refinery gases.
L.H.V of refinery gases = 20500 kcal/ Nm
3
=20500x(1/0.252)x(22.4/1)x(1/2.2)
=828282.82 Btu / lb.mol.
E- Amount of fuel consumed (qf):
qf =Qf/L.H.V
=3.28x10
6
/828282.82
=3.96 lb.mols. / hr.
as the composition of refinery gas is:
COMPONENTS COMPOSITION % LBS./LB.MOLS.
Propane 40 =0.4 x 44 17.6
Butane 30 =0.3 x 58 17.4
Ethane 10 =0.1 x 30 0.3
Methane 10 =0.1 x 16 1.6
Hydrogen 10 =0.1 x 2 0.2
=39.8
Lbs of fuel gas = qf =3.96x39.8 =157.6 lbs./ hr.
F- Sensible heat in combustion air (Qa):
(a)- evaluate lb. Air/ lb. Fuel for 20 %excess air
lb. Air / lb. Fuel = 20.67 ( from table 18-10 ( nelson))
(b)- evaluate air required (qa):
qa = qf x (lb.of air / lb.of fuel)
=157.6x20.67 = 3263.43 lbs. / hr.
(c)- air enter at ambient temperature = 77 F
enthalpy of air at this temperature = Ha = 10.78 Btu/lbs.
(d)- Qa = qa x Ha
= 3263.43 x10.78
= 35179.8 Btu/ hr.
G- heat loss through wall ( Qw) :
Qw= 2% of Qf
=0.02 x3.28x 10
6

= 65714.28 Btu/ hr.
H- Sensible heat in steam (Qs):
Since it is a gas fuel , no steam is required for atomization , so
qs. = 0 lb.mols. / hr.
Qs = 0 lb.mols. / hr.
I - Heat in the flue gases (Qg):
Qg = Q(N
2
) +Q(O
2
) + Q(CO
2
) +Q(H
2
O)
a- Mass flow rate of the flue gases
(qg) = qf +qa +qs
= 157.6 + 3263.43 + 0
= 3421.23 lbs.hr.
b- basis : 1 lb.mol. of fuel gases:
O2 Required
(lb.mols.)
CO2 Produced (lb.mols) H2O Produced
(lb.mols.)
H2O + 0.5O2H2O 0.05 0.1
CH4+2 O22 H2O + CO2
0.2 0.1 0.2
C2H6+3.5 O22 H2O + CO2
0.35 0.2 0.3
C3H8+5 O23 CO2+4 H2O 2 1.2 1.6
C4H10+6.5 O24 CO2+5H2O 1.95 1.2 1.5
=4.55 =2.7 =3.7
As, Fuel gas required (qf) =3.9657 lb.mols.
O
2
required = 4.55 (lb O2/ lb.mol. Fuel gas) x 3.965 (lb.mol fuel gas)
=18.044 lb.mols.
with 20% excess air O2 fed = 18.044x1.2
= 21.65 lb.mols.
N
2
entered = (21.65 x 0.79)/ 0.21 = 81.45 lb.mols. = N
2
leaving
O
2
consumed = 18.044 lb.mols.
O
2
unconverted = 21.65- 18.044 = 3.606 lb.mols. = O
2
leaving
CO
2
leaving = 2.7 x 3.9657 =10.707 lb.mols.
H
2
O leaving = 3.7x3.9657 = 14.67 lb.mols.
b- enthalpies of flue gases as flue gas temperature :
COMPONENT OF FLUE GAS ENTHALPY OF COMPONENT AT Tg (Btu/ lb.mol.)
N2 8004
O2 8427
CO2 12200
H2O 9602
So,
Q (N
2
) = 81.4x8004 = 651925.8 Btu/ hr.
Q (O
2
) = 3.606x8427 =8430.606 Btu/ hr.
Q (CO
2
) = 10.207x12200 =124525.4 Btu/ hr.
Q (H
2
O) = 14.67x9602=140861.34Btu/ hr.
Therefore,
Qg = Q(N
2
) +Q(O
2
) + Q(CO
2
) +Q(H
2
O)
= 925743.146 Btu/ hr.
So overall heat balance is:
Q = Q
f
+ Q
a
+ Q
r
+ Q
s
Q
w
Q
g
= 3.28 x 10
6
+ 35179.8 + 0+0 - 65714.28 925743.146
= 2.3 x 10
6
Btu/ hr.
8- Establish the number and Sizes of tubes:
Fix tube length = l = 22 ft
Fix outer diameter of tubes = 3.5 inch. = 3.5/12 ft.
Area of tubes = xDx l = x (3.5/12)x 22 = 20.158 ft.
2
Heat transferred per tube = Average flux x surface area per tube
=3000x20.158
= 60444 Btu/ hr.
Number of tubes = total radiant section duty (Q)/ heat transferred per tube
= 2.3 x10
6
/ 60444
= 38 tubes
9- Arrangement of the tubes:
Height of furnace = 23.5 ft
Center to center distance = (3.5+ 4) /12 = 0.625 ft
Tubes are vertically mounted in a single row along the wall of the cylindrical furnace
about one tube diameter away from wall.
Diameter of furnace (D) =(number of tubes x center to center distance)/
= (38x0.625)/ 3.14
= 8 ft.
Checking the performance of furnace
10- Evaluate effectiveness factor ():
For C-C distance / O.D = 2.3
& Arrangement of tubes is single row when only one is present
From fig 19.11 (kern)
= 0.79
11- Evaluate equivalent cold plan surface area (Acp):
Acp = (number of tubes)x (length of each tube) x (C-C distance)
= 38 x 22 x 0.625
= 523.21 ft
2
So,
Acp. = 0.79 x 523.21
= 413.33 ft
2

12- Evaluate the total area of furnace surface (A
t
):
For cylindrical furnace,
A
t
= xD xH
=3.14x8x23.5
= 590.32 ft
2
13- Evaluate effective refractory surface (Ar):
Ar = At - Acp
= 590.32- 413.33
= 176.99 ft
2
14- Evaluate (Ar/ Acp):
Ar/ Acp = 179.99/ 413.33
= 0.43 (this would be used to evaluate
exchange factor)
15- evaluate mean beam length (L):
It depends on the dimensions of the furnace & found from any suitable formula from
table (19.1)
Here, for cylindrical furnace whose dimensions are like Dx2D
L = 1x diameter of furnace (D)
= 1x8
= 8 ft
16- evaluate gas emissivity (g):
a- Evaluate partial pressure of (CO
2
+ H
2
O)
At 20% excess air
p(CO
2
+ H
2
O) = 0.24 atm. from fig. 1-7 (Evans)

b- Calculate pxL:
pL = p (CO
2
+ H
2
O) xL
= 0.24x8
=1.92 atm.ft.
c- At pL =1.92 atm.ft. & Tg = 1140 F
g = 0.44 from fig (1-8) (Evans)
17- Evaluate Overall exchange Factor ():
at g = 0.44 & Ar/ Acp = 0.43
= 0.55 (from fig. 19.15 Kern)
18- CHECK:
Check of gas temperature (Tg) required to effect assumed duty on assumed
surface)
a- Calculate Q/Acp using the above calculated value of
= 0.55
Q = 2.3e6
Acp. = 413.33 ft
2

Q/Acp= 2.3e6 /(413.33x0.55)
= 10117.3 Btu/ hr. ft
2

b- Evaluate Tg (actual) at calculated Q/Acp & Ts

Tg = 1170 F
So, trial indicates that less duty than 2.2 million Btu/ hr. is performed since this duty does
not cool the fuel gases to 1140 F but to only 1170 F , while the flux corresponding to this
duty could be effected by a gas temperature of 1140F.
In short as assumed Tg (1140 F) is quite different from calculated Tg (1170 F), so we have
to repeat the calculations by assuming another value of Tg.
SECOND TRIAL:
Suppose Tg = 1160 in step 6 (basically we have supposed = 0.57 in step 3 so
that Tg will come out to be 1160F after performing step 6)
Qf, Qa, Qw, will remain the same, only Qg (heat taken away by the flue gases) changed.
enthalpies of flue gases as flue gas temperature :
COMPONENT OF FLUE GAS ENTHALPY OF COMPONENT AT Tg (Btu/ lb.mol.)
N2 8774
O2 9251
CO2 13470
H2O 10562
So,
Q (N
2
) = 81.4x8774 = 714203.6 Btu/ hr.
Q (O
2
) = 3.606x9251 =33359.1 Btu/ hr.
Q (CO
2
) = 10.207x13470 =137488.29 Btu/ hr.
Q (H
2
O) = 14.67x10562=154944.54 Btu/ hr.
Therefore,
Qg = Q(N
2
) +Q(O
2
) + Q(CO
2
) +Q(H
2
O)
= 1039995.53 Btu/ hr.
So overall heat balance is:
Q = Qf + Qa + Qr + Qs Qw Qg
= 3.28x10
6
+ 35179.8 + 0+0 - 65714.28 1039995.53
= 2.20 x 10
6
Btu/ hr.
So number of tubes:
Number of tubes Nt = total radiant section heat duty / heat transferred per tube
=(2.0x10
6
)/60444
=36
(In the previous trial, no of tubes were 38. as there is very small change in the no. of tubes
so we use the previous value (i.e. 38 ) to avoid the repetition of calculations)
Similarly assuming that does not change (actually it will fall slightly)
i.e.
(Calculated) = 0.55
so,
Q/Acp = 2.3e6 / (413.33x0.55)
= 101173.38 Btu/hr.ft.
2
We have,
Tg = 1155F (calculated)
Where as assumed Tg was 1160 that is close enough.
Circumferential flux = Q / (Dl) (Nt)
=(2.3x10
6
)/ (3.14x0.29x22x38)
= 3019 Btu/hr.ft
2
As compared with the specified flux =3000 Btu/hr.ft
2

Such a difference is negligible.
Final Results
Number of tubes = 38
Flue gas temperature = 1160F
Heat duty = 2300000 Btu / hr
Flux calculated 1 = 3019 Btu/ hr ft
2
Dimension of furnace = 23.5 x 8
% Error = [(3000-3019) / (3000)]x 100 = 0.63 %
SPECIFICATION SHEET
Identification:
Unit Furnace
Item No. E-120
Type Vertical Cylinderical
Function: To heat the reactor feed
Operation:
Heat Duty Q 2.42*10
9
J/hr
Furnace Tube
Fluid Circulated Combustion Gases Naphtha + H
2
Flow Rates 20664.5 kg / hr
Temperature Inlet 327
o
C
Outlet 369
o
C
Material Of Construction Carbon Steel Carbon Steel
Refractory material Refractory Brick
Specification Diameter 2.44 m
Height 6.55 m
B 0.4 m
L.T 6.096 m
O.D

0.088 m
C-C.Dis 0.1905 m
4.3 REACTOR
Types of Reactors
The most common types of Reactors are
1. Fixed bed Reactor
2. Fluidized bed Rector
3. Stirrer tank Reactor
Fixed bed reactor can be further classified on the biases of either heat is supplied during
reaction or not.
o Adiabatic
o Non adiabatic
The reactions taking place within the reactor may be in gas phase or there might a case of
trickle operation.
For gas phase reactions some important reactor configurations are as under.
1. Single adiabatic bed
2. Radial flow
3. Adiabatic beds in series with intermediate cooling or heating
4. Direct-fired non-adiabatic
Except reactor type and configuration some other factors are important like , Distribution
system and Sporting ceramic balls which also serves for uniform distribution of flow as
well.
Our Reactor in this case is non isothermal adiabatic reactor with basket type distribution
system and standard ceramic balls installation . Detailed calculations of distribution system
is given in design calculations.
REACTOR DESIGN CALCULATIONS
7HP S
R
&
3UHVVXUH DWP
6XOSKHUFRQWHQWV SSP
7HP S
R
&
3UHVVXUH DWP
6XOSKHU&RQWHQWV SSP
) HHGUDWH . JKU
PLANT SPECIFICATIONS
Feed rate = 4000 bbl/std
Wt % S in Feed = .10335
Wt % S in Product = .00005
Operating Pressure = 430 Psi =28.4atm
Operating Temperature = 700 F = 374
o
C
Pressure Drop maximum allowable = 10 Psi
Catalyst
Each pellet (dimention 1/8 inch = .3175 cm)
Area = 2*.785*.3175
2
+ .3175 .3175
= .474cm
2
Dp = diameter of a sphere of same surface = (.474 )
1/ 2
= .388cm
Diameter of a sphere of same volume 2[(/4)(0.3175
2
)(0.3175)]
1/ 3

4/3
= 0.388cm
Outer surface / unit volume solid = 0.474
(/4)(0.3174
3
)
= 18.9 cm
2
/cm
3

Volume of solid /cu ft bed is (1-e) = 0.6 cu ft
Total Pellet surface in sq ft /cu ft bed = (0.6)(18.9)(30.48)
= 345 ft
2
/ ft
3
However, some of surface is blocked where the pellets touch. A better figure is 310ft
2
= 28.81m
2
Per cu ft bed, obtained by graphical interpolation of the values given by Sherwood and Pig
ford, p. 87.
Pellet surface in sq ft/ cuft of bed
From test data
Kg = Gm/(aPl)
p
f
dy/y = 45.9 ln(.10335/.00005)
(310)(30)(9)
= 0.004186
Feed rate = 4000bbl * 42gal * 3.76 lit * 0.7424 Kg * 2.2 lbs
24hr 1bbl 1 gal 1 lit 1Kg
= 42987 lbs/hr = 19539.5 kg/hr
Moler Feed rate = 42987/109.7 = 391.86 lb mols/hr = 178.1Kg mol/hr
H
2
stream Feed rate = 245.7 lb mols /hr =111.68 Kg mol / hr
Mixed feed rate = 391.86 + 245.7 = 637.6 lb mols/hr
Letting S be crossectional area , ft
2
L be bed height in ft
As Gm = G/S
So our design equation for calculating bed volume is
Gm
p

f
dy/y = aPKg L
Putting values in above equation according to our conditions
We get
637.6 * ln 0.10335 = 310*29.25*0.004186 L
S 0.00005
Sl = Volume of catalyst bed = 128.23 ft
3
=11.91m
3
Know we have to calculate height and dia of catalyst bed suitable for our bed volume,
Which is decided on the base of pressure drop across the catalyst bed.
For using equation for pressure drop, which is in Perry chemical engineering handbook on
p. 393, we have to calculate Nre first
Nre = DpG

Nre = 0.364 G
(30.48)(0.0383)(2.42)
= 0.128G
Total average molar flow rate = 637.6
Average molecular weight = 4`2987+``2475
637.6
= 71.3
Gas density at 710 F = 2.31 lbs/cuft =37Kg/ m
3
And equation for P
P/L = 2fU
2
= 2fG
2
= (2fG
2
) (30.48)
g
c
Dp g
c
Dp (32.2)(3600
2
)(2.31)(0.364)
= 0.0000001737fG
2
G = 45462/S
F = 5Nre
1
+ 0.4Nre
0.1
G Nre 5/Nre 0.4/Nre F P/L S L P dia
1000 128.00 0.039063 0.246229 0.285 0.03 45.46 2.82 0.08 7.61
1500 192.00 0.026042 0.236445 0.262 0.06 30.31 4.23 0.25 6.21
2000 256.00 0.019531 0.22974 0.249 0.10 22.73 5.64 0.56 5.38
2500 320.00 0.015625 0.22467 0.24 0.15 18.18 7.05 1.06 4.81
3000 384.00 0.013021 0.220611 0.234 0.21 15.15 8.46 1.78 4.39
3500 448.00 0.011161 0.217236 0.228 0.28 12.99 9.87 2.76 4.07
4000 512.00 0.009766 0.214355 0.224 0.36 11.37 11.28 4.05 3.80
4500 576.00 0.008681 0.211845 0.221 0.45 10.10 12.69 5.67 3.59
5000 640.00 0.007813 0.209624 0.217 0.54 9.09 14.10 7.67 3.40
5500 704.00 0.007102 0.207636 0.215 0.65 8.27 15.51 10.08 3.24
6000 768.00 0.00651 0.205837 0.212 0.76 7.58 16.92 12.94 3.10
6500 832.00 0.00601 0.204196 0.21 0.89 6.99 18.33 16.28 2.98
7000 896.00 0.00558 0.202689 0.208 1.02 6.49 19.74 20.15 2.87
Reactor design Parameters
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
G (mass velocity)
H
e
i
g
h
t
,

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

d
r
o
p
,

D
i
a
Know choose a value of G and calculate Nre, f, P/L, S, L, and P
From above table we suggested value of
Dia of bed = 3.8ft = 1.158m
Height of bed = 11.28ft3.44m
G = 4000lb/ft
2
.hr = 19560Kg/(m
2
.hr)
P = 4.05 Psi =0.2755atm
Know we have to select the distribution system for the feed
According to stander procedure ceramic balls are located at both ends of catalyst bed.
Generally the balls used are of 3mm Dia, 6mmdia and 19mmdia.
For a reactor ID of 3.8ft from table V-4
Main inlet distribution baskets Dia = 2 ft = 0.61m
Small distribution baskets dipped in catalyst bed, Dia = 6 inches
= 0.1524m
Small baskets height = 4 ft = 1.219m
Number of small baskets = 7
According to the conventional procedure 60% of small baskets is dipped in catalyst bed,
So increase in catalyst bed height due to dipping of small baskets.
= 7x (0.5
2
) x 4 x 0.6
4 x 13ft
2
= 0.217 ft = .0661m
So
Corrected bed height = 11.28 + 0.217 = 11.5 ft
Bed height with ceramic ball = 11.5 +2 = 13.5 ft
Giving 20% vacant space on top and bottom.
Additional Reactor height = .4 x 11.5 = 4.6 ft
Total Reactor Height = 18.1ft = 5.51m
Reactor Dia = catalyst bed Dia = 3.8 ft = 1.158m
SPACIFICATION SHEET REACTOR-130
Identification:
Unit Reactor
Item No. R-130
Type Fixed Bed, Catalytic, Adiabatic,
Nonisothermal
Function: Hydrotreating of Naphtha
Type of Operation Continuous, Gas phase operation
Reactor Catalyst
Fluid Circulated Naphtha + H
2
Stream Name S-7
Feed Rates 20664.5 kg / hr Composition
Temperature
Inlet 369
o
C
Outlet 374
o
C
P = 0.278atm
Sulphur Contents
Feed 1033.5ppm
Product: 0.5ppm
5% Cobalt Oxide
10% Nicle Oxide
20% Molybdenium oxide
On Silica / Alumina Sport
Material
Material Of Construction Killed Steel
Specification Distribution System
Bed volume 11.9m
3
Diameter 1.16 m
Height 5.51 m
Main basket
Small Baskets
No
1
6
Dia
0.61m
0.152m
Height
0.914m
1.21m
4.4 AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGER
An ACHE is a device for rejecting heat from a fluid directly to ambient air. This is in
contrast to rejecting heat to water and then rejecting it to air, as with a shell and tube heat
exchanger.
Air cooler has many advantages over water cooling so there is a comparison between air
and water cooling
Air Versus Water Cooling

Air Water
1. Air is available free in
abundant quantity with no
preparation cost.
2. Mechanical design of an air
cooler is very much easy as
the process fluid is always
on the tube side.
3. Cleaning and Maintenance is
easy in air coolers.
4. Non corrosive in nature.
1 Water is corrosive and require
treatment to control both scaling and
deposition of dirt.
2 Danger of process fluid
contamination is much greater.
3 Operating cost for water
cooler is high, because of
higher cooling water
circulation pumps HP &
water treatment cost.
TYPES OF AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGER
1) Forced Draft
2) Induced Draft
An ACHE consists of the following components:
One or more bundles of heat transfer surface.
An air-moving device, such as a fan, blower, or stack.
Unless it is natural draft, a driver and power transmission to mechanically
rotate the fan or blower.
A plenum between the bundle or bundles and the air-moving device.
A support structure high enough to allow air to enter beneath the ACHE at a
reasonable rate.
Optional header and fan maintenance walkways with ladders to grade.
Optional louvers for process outlet temperature control.
Comparison of forced and induced draft Air cooled Heat exchangers
Forced Draft ACHE Induced Draft ACHE
Lower HP requirement if the
effluent air is hot.
Better accessibility for
maintenance.
Easy to work on fan
assembly.
Offered higher heat transfer
coefficient.
Better distribution of air.
The hoods offer protection from
weather.
More difficult to work on fan
assembly, due to heat from the
bundle and due to their location.
DESIGN CALCULATIONS OF AIR COOLER
Mass flow rate of naphtha = 42987lb/hr
Mass flow rate of water = 1750lb/hr
Total mass flow rate = 42987+2475+1750
= 47212.2 lb/hr
Feed Temperature:
Inlet temperature = 200
0
F
Outlet temperature = 140
0
F
Q = mCpT
= 47212.2x0.74x(200-140)
= 2096221.68Btu/hr
Assuming,
U = 75 Btu/hr.ft
2
.
0
F
Calculation of temperature difference:
T
1
= Process fluid inlet temperature = 200
0
F
T
2
= process fluid outlet temperature = 140
0
F
Ta
1
= Air inlet temperature = 90
0
F
Fins Selection:
Circular fins of aluminum
Height of fins = 5/8in
Thickness = 0.017in
8fins/inch
Number of tube rows = 4
Ft
2
bare tube area /ft
2
face area = 5.04
Tube OD = 1 in
Air velocity employed = 650ft/min
For calculating face area required of bundle
Through factor calculation and then through graph
UA
t
/ KV
f
= 75x5.04/1.08x650
= 0.5384
From graph
KV
f
A
f
/wCp = 1.8
So,
A
f
= 1.8x47212.2x0.74/1.08x650
= 90ft
2
So a bundle of standard size
4x24 ft
2
face area should be selected
A safety factor of 6.6% is provided
Air temperature rise for 90ft2 face area = Q/KA
f
V
f
= 2096221/1.08x90x650
= 33.17
0
F
Air outlet temperature from bundle = 90+33
= 123
0
F
T
lm
= (200-123)-(140-90)/ln (200-123)/ (140-90)
= 62.54
0
F
P = t
2
-t
1
/T
1
-t
1

= 123-90/200-90
= 0.3
R = T
1
-T
2
/t
2
-T
1
= 60/33.1
= 1.81
From graph we found the correction factor for log mean temperature difference
For two pass flow,
F
T
= 0.99
T
lm
= 62.54x0.99
= 61.9
0
F
As,
Q = U A LMTDc
Required surface area = 2096221/61.9x75
= 451.41 ft
2
Surface area from 90 ft
2
face,
Area = 90x5.04
= 453.1 ft
2
This is close enough so, selection of U is right
Tube area of 4x24 bundle face for 4 row bundle,
Area = 96x5.04
= 483.84 ft
2
Number of tubes /Row = Total bare area/No. of row x Length x Tube bare area /ft of tube
23 = 483.84/4x24x0.2260
Total no of tubes = 90 tubes
Two pass flow of tube side process stream
Air face velocity = 650 ft /min
Density of air =
air
= 0.073 lb/ft
3
Gross free area = 12(2.375-1)
= 16.5 in
2
Fin blockage = 12x8x2x0.017x0.625
= 2.041 in
2
Net free area = 14.4 m
2
Free area /face area = 14.46/2.375x12
= 0.508
Gm = 650x0.073x60/0.508
= 5604.3 lb/ft
2
.hr
From figure,
h = 9.8 Btu/hr ft
2 0
F
For fin efficiency for alluminium curve
(2h/kt)
1/2
xL = (2x9.8/120x0.017x12)
1/2
x0.625/12
= 0.56
D
fo
/D
t
= 2.25/1
= 2.25
From above two factors using graph
Fin Efficiency = 86%
Fin area = 12x8[(2.25)
2
-1
2
]x2x/4 + x2.25x0.017
= 624in
2
= 4.33ft
2
Tube bare area per length feet of tube
= d
o
(1-nt) L
= 3.14x1x(1-8x.017)x12/144
= 0.2261 ft
2
Ratio of fin area to tube area = 4.33/0.2261
= 19.15
Air side heat transfer coefficient
Based on outside diameter = 9.8(1915x0.86+1)
ho = 171. Btu/hr ft
2 0
F
Now calculating inside heat transfer coefficient hi
Cross sectional area = 4.5 x x (0.0695)
2
/4
= 0.1707ft
2
G = Mass flow rate /flow area
= 47212/0.1707
= 276578.8lb/ft
2
hr
Re = DG/
= 0.0695x276578.8/0.46
= 41787.44
hi = 0.023xk/dx(Re)
0.8
x(c/k)
1/3
=0.023 x 0.06/0.0695 x (41787.4)
0.8
x (0.71x0.46/0.061)
1/3
= 175.59 Btu/hr ft
2 0
F
For air cooled heat exchanger
1/U = 1/ho + (Do/2Kw) lnDo/Di + (1/hi) Do/Di + Re
= 1/171.19 + 0.083/2 x 30 ln0.083/0.0695 + 1/175 x 0.083/0.0695 + 0.0004
= 0.013308
U = 75.15
So from above it is proved that selection of U is right so the area selected is right too
Calculation Of Air Side Pressure Drop
P = 18.93 (G
m
D
r
/)
-0.316
(P
t
/D
r
)
-0.927
(P
t
/P
l
)
0.515
(Gm
2
n/g
c
)
Where,
G
m
= mass velocity at minimum cross section through the rows of the tube
normal to the flow
D
r
= root diameter of tube
g
c
= acceleration of gravity 4.18x10
8
ft/hr hr
= density of gas
P
l
= longitudinal pitch between adjacent tubes in different rows measured on
the diagonal, in
P = 18.93(4836 x 0.0729/0.018 x 2.42) (2.375/0.875)
-0.927
(2.375/2)
0.515
(4836x4/4.18x10
8
x0.063)
= 0.17lbf/ft
2
= 0.00471psi
= 0.129in H
2
0
P static for 4 rows = 0.516 in H
2
0
P dynamic for 650 ft/min and 4 rows
From graph 0.4 in H
2
0
Total P = 0.916 in
Fans
As fan area is 40 to 50% of bundle face area, fan must be 6in apart from the bundle wall
So,
6 fans of diameter 3ft will be suitable
For a bundle of 4 x 24 ft
2

Total fan area = /4x 3
2x
6
= 42.41 ft
2

Motor Hp = actual ft3 /min (at fan) total pressure drop /6356
-fan (system efficiency)- (speed reducer efficiency)
= 650 x 42.41-0.916/6356 80 - 95
= 4.46Hp for 6 fans = 0.743 Hp for one fan
AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGER SPECIFICATION SHEET
PERFORMANCE DATA
TUBE SIDE AIR SIDE
MASS FLOW RATE Kg/hr 21460 AIR VELOCITY m/min 198.12
INLET TEMPERATURE
0
C 93.33 MASS VELOCITY Kg/m
2
hr 23635
OUTLET TEMPERATURE
0
C 60 INLET TEMPERATURE
0
C 32.2
PRESSURE atm 26.4 OUTLET TEMPERATURE
0
C 50.7
HEAT CAPACITY KJ/Kg
0
C 0.0035 PRESSURE DROP atm 0.0306
VISCOSITY Kg/m hr 0.72
HEAT LOAD KJ/hr 2.0910
6
ALLOWABLE PRESSURE
DROP atm
0.916in
H2O
DESIGN PRESSURE DROP atm
CONSTRUCTION
TUBE FIN
MATERIAL
Killed
steel MATERIAL ALUMINUM
OUTER DIA m 0.0254 TYPE CIRCULAR
INNER DIA m 0.0211 HEIGHT m 0.0158
NO. OF TUBES 90 NO. OF FIN /m 315
PITCH m 0.06 THICKNESS m 0.0004
NO. OF PASSES 2
NO. OF ROW 4
MECHANICAL
EQUIPMENT
FAN
NO. OF UNIT 6
DIAMETER OF FAN m 0.9146
NO. OF BLADE 4
BLADE MATERIAL PLASTIC
FAN MATERIAL
CAST
IRON
POWER KW 1

4.5 DESIGN OF SEPARATOR
The separator used in that process is actually three phase separator in which we are adding
water to remove solid particles from naphtha stream .so we have here
Separated gaseous stream
Liquid stream
Water
Here the vessel used is horizontal because
Handling high capacity
Water has to be separated from the stream
DATA:
Gas:
In soluble phase = 1275 lbs/hr
In gaseous phase = 1257.2 lbs/hr
Liquid:
Liquid Naphtha = 42987 lb/hr
Total liquid flow rate = 42987 + 1750 + 2475.52 - 1257.2
= 45955.32 lbs/hr
Total gas flow rate = 1257.2 lbs/hr
= 0.349 lb/sec
Moles of gas
= 1257.2/6.4
= 196.43 lbmoles / hr
Volume of gas:
Pressurjre of gas = 370psi
Temperature of gas = 110F = 570R
Number of moles of gas = 196.43 lbmoles / hr
Gas constant = R = 10.72psi.ft
3
/ lbmole.
o
F
Volume of gas = ?
PV = nRT
V = nRT / P
= 196.43 x 10.72 x 570/370
= 3245.8 ft
3
Density of gas (v)
= 1257.2 / 3245.8
= 0.387 lb/ ft
3
Density of liquid (l)
= 46.9 lbs/hr
Selection of Lv/Dv
The most economical length to diameter ratio depends upon operating
pressure here from 290 to 507.64 psi we use Lv / Dv = 4 and the operating pressure of that
process is 370psi
Selection of liquid height h
v
h
v
= Dv / 2
Fraction of total area occupied by the vapor f
v
F
v
= 0.5
Settling velocity of liquid droplets
U
t
= 0.07 [(
L

v
) /
v
]
1/2
= 0.767 ft / sec
Here the separator without demister pad is tried so for that
U
a
= 0.15 x Ut
= 0.115 ft / sec
Vapor volumetric flow rate Q
v
= mass flow rate / density

= 0.349 / 0.387
= 0.901 ft
3
/sec
Cross sectional area for vapor flow A
v

= D
v
2
/ 4 x 0.5
= 0.392 D
v
2
Vapor velocity U
v
= Q
v
/ A
v
= 0.901 / 0.392 D
v
2
= 2.3 D
v
-2
Vapor residence time required for the liquid droplets to settle on the liquid surface:
= h
v
/ U
a
= 0.5 D
v
/ 0.115
= 4.347 D
v
Actual residence time:
= vessel length /vapor velocity
= L
v
/ U
v
= 4 D
v
/ U
v
= 4 D
v
/ 2.3 D
v
-2
= 1.74 D
v
3
For satisfactory separation:
Required residence time = actual residence time
4.347 Dv = 1.74 D
v
3
D
v
= 1.6ft
Liquid hold up time:
Liquid volumetric flow rate = 45955.32 lbs / hr
= 12.76 lbs / sec
= 12.76 / 46.9
= 0.272 ft
3
/ sec
Liquid cross-sectional area = D
v
2
/ 4 x 0.5
= (1.6)
2
/4 x 0.5
= 1 ft
2
Length L
v
Lv = 4 D
v
= 4x1.6
= 6.4 ft
Hold up volume = area x length
= 1 x 6.4
= 6.4 ft
3
Hold up time = liquid volume / liquid flow rate
= 6.4/0.272
= 23.52 sec
= 0.392 min
This is unsatisfactory, 3 minutes minimum required. Need to increase the liquid volume
this is best done by increasing vessel diameter the diameter must be increased by the factor
of roughly (3/0.392)
1/2
= 2.76
New D
v
= 1.6 x 2.76
= 4.42 ft
New L
v
= 4 x Dv
= 16 ft
New liquid volume = cross-sectional area x Length
= ( (4)
2
/ 4 x 0.5) x (4x 4)
= 100.5 ft
3
Liquid residence time = volume/flow rate
= 100.5 / 0.272
= 369.5 sec
= 6.15 min
B BOOT OOT D DESIGN ESIGN: :
Residence time = 6.15 min
Water flow rate = 1750 ft
3
/ hr
Keeping interphase on 50% level of leg
Amount of water = 1750 x 6.15 / 60
= 179.4 lbs
Volume of water hold up in leg = 179.4 / (2.2 x 0.987)
= 82.6 L
= 2.92 ft
3
L
v
/D
v
= 5
As interphase is on 50%,
Total volume of leg = area x length
= D
2
/ 4 x 5 x D
D
v
= 1.23 ft
L
v
= 1.23 x 5
= 6.2 ft
4.6 DESIGN OF DISTILLATION COLUMN 4.6 DESIGN OF DISTILLATION COLUMN
In industry it is common practice to separate a liquid mixture by distillating the
components, which have lower boiling points when they are in pure condition from those
having higher boiling points. This process is accomplished by partial vaporization and
subsequent condensation.
CHOICE BETWEEN PLATE AND PACKED COLUMN
Vapour liquid mass transfer operation may be carried either in plate column or packed
column. These two types of operations are quite different. A selection scheme considering
the factors under four headings.
i) Factors that depend on the system i.e. scale, foaming, fouling factors, corrosive
systems, heat evolution, pressure drop, liquid holdup.
ii) Factors that depend on the fluid flow moment.
iii) Factors that depends upon the physical characteristics of the column and its
internals i.e. maintenance, weight, side stream, size and cost.
iv) Factors that depend upon mode of operation i.e. batch distillation, continuous
distillation, turndown, intermittent distillation.
The relative merits of plate over packed column are as follows:
i) Plate column are designed to handle wide range of liquid flow rates without
flooding.
ii) If a system contains solid contents, it will be handled in plate column, because
solid will accumulate in the voids, coating the packing materials and making it
ineffective.
iii) Dispersion difficulties are handled in plate column when flow rate of liquid are
low as compared to gases.
iv) For large column heights, weight of the packed column is more than plate
column.
v) If periodic cleaning is required, man holes will be provided for cleaning. In
packed columns packing must be removed before cleaning.
vi) For non-foaming systems the plate column is preferred.
vii) Design information for plate column are more readily available and more
reliable than that for packed column.
viii) Inter stage cooling can be provide to remove heat of reaction or solution in plate
column.
ix) When temperature change is involved, packing may be damaged.
For this particular process, Acetaldehyde, ethyl alcohol and water system, I have selected
plate column because:
i) System is non-foaming.
ii) Temperature is high (91
o
C).
CHOICE OF PLATE TYPE
There are four main tray types, the bubble cap, sieve tray, ballast or valve trays and the
counter flow trays. I have selected sieve tray because:
i) They are lighter in weight and less expensive. It is easier and cheaper to install.
ii) Pressure drop is low as compared to bubble cap trays.
iii) Peak efficiency is generally high.
iv) Maintenance cost is reduced due to the ease of cleaning.
DESIGNING STEPS OF DISTILLATION COLUMN
Calculation of Minimum Reflux Ratio R
m
.
Calculation of optimum reflux ratio.
Calculation of theoretical number of stages.
Calculation of actual number of stages.
Calculation of diameter of the column.
Calculation of weeping point.
Calculation of pressure drop.
Calculation of thickness of the shell.
Calculation of the height of the column.
Colburns Method for Minimum Reflux R
m
) HHG
NJKU
' LVWLOODWH
NJKU
'
%RWWRP 3URGXFW
NJKU
4
R
f
= ratio of key components in the liquid part of feed.
V
f
= X
fB
/ X
fA
= 0.4345 / 0.0693 = 6.26
X
nl
= Pinch composition of light key component.
( )( )
fh i f
f
nl
x r
r
X
+ +
1 1
( )( )
738 . 0
195 . 0 1 26 . 6 1
26 . 6
+ +
r
X
nl
= Pinch composition of heavy key component.
= X
nl
/ r
f
= 0.738 / 0.26 = 0.118
1
]
1
,
_
nH
dB
LH
nl
dA
LH
m
X
X
X
X
R
1
1
1
]
1
,
_
738 . 0
0078 . 0
776 . 1
118 . 0
02448 . 0
1 776 . 0
1
m
R
= 0.31
Fenske equation
AB
B
a
b
D
b
a
m
X
X
X
X
N
log
log
1

'
,
_
,
_
+
N
m
+ 1 =1.298/0.249 = 5.16
N
m
= 4.16
1 1 +
R
R R
N
N N
m m
1 8
3 . 0 8
1
16 . 4
+
N
N
85 . 0 85 . 0 16 . 4 + N N
N = 33.4
Viscosity 355 . 0 , 776 . 1 , 24 . 0
LH LH

From figure 11.57 Coulson and Richardson, vol.2
75 . 0
So,
Actual no. of plates = 33.4 / 0.75 = 44.5 = 44 plates
Maximum vapor flow rate in rectifying section = V
n
= 25710 lbs
Maximum liquid flow rate in rectifying section = L
n
= 24434 lbs
Maximum vapor flow rate in stripping section = V
m
= 47193 lbs
Maximum liquid flow rate in stripping section = L
m
= 90132 lbs
Plate spacing initial estimate = 0.5m = 18in
Calculation of column diameter based on flooding velocity
Calculate F
LV
= liquid vapor flow factor
L
V
W
W
W
V
L
F
L
W
= liquid mass flow rate kg/s
V
W
= vapor mass flow rate, kg/s
4 . 700
9
25710
24434
WTop
F
= 0.1076
4 . 742
26 . 10
47193
90132
Bottom LV
F
= 0.22
From figure 11.27 Coulson and Richardson vol.6
t
1
= a constant obtained from fig 11.27
K
1 Top
= 0.08 K
2 Bottom
= 0.07
U
f
= flooding velocity
V
V L
f
K U
1
9
9 4 . 700
08 . 0

Top f
U
= 0.700 m/s
2 . 10
2 . 10 4 . 742
07 . 0

Bottom f
U
= 0.6 m/s
Based on 80% flooding velocity
Superficial Vapor Velocity
48 . 0 8 . 0 6 . 0

base
U m/s
56 . 0 8 . 0 700 . 0
,

top v
U m/s
Maximum volumetric flow rate
Top 36 . 0
3600 9 2 . 2
25710

m
3
/sec
Bottom 58 . 0
3600 26 . 10 2 . 2
47193

Net Area Required
Top = 0.36/0.56 = 0.643
Bottom = 0.58/0.48 = 1.2
As first trial take downcomer area as 12% of the total.
Column cross sectional area
Base = 0.643/0.88 = 0.73
Top = 1.2/0.86 = 1.36
Column Diameter
Top
4 73 . 0
, Bottom
4 36 . 1
= 0.96 m = 1.31 m
Maximum liquid rate (kg/sec)
Top = 11.38
Bottom = 3.08
For bottom column diameter = 1.31m
Column Area A
c

2
4
d
A
c
= 1.33 m
2

Downcomer area A
d
33 . 1 12 . 0
= 0.159 m
2
Net area A
n
= A
c
A
d

= 1.33 0.159
= 1.171 m
2
active area A
a
= A
c
2A
d
= 1.33 2(0.159)
= 1.012
Hole area A
h
take 10% A
a
as first trial = 0.1012 m
2
Weir length (from figure 11.31) 76 . 0 3 . 1
= 0.988 m
Take weir height = 50 mm
Hole diameter = 5 mm
Plate thickness = 5 mm
Check Weeping
Maximum liquid rate = 11.38 kg/sec
Minimum liquid rate at 70% turn down 38 . 11 7 . 0
= 7.966 kg/sec
h
ow
= weir crust
Maximum
4 / 5
159 . 0 4 . 742
38 . 11
750

,
_
ow
h
= 40.29 mm liquid
Minimum
3 / 2
98 . 0 4 . 742
966 . 7
750

,
_
ow
h
= 37.86 mm liquid
at minimum h
w
+ h
ow
= 50 + 37.86
= 87.86 mm liquid
from fig 11.30, Coulson and Richardson Vol.6
K
2
= 30.8
( )
( )
( )
2 / 1
2
min
26 . 10
4 . 25 9 . 0
n
a K
U

( )
( )
( )
2 / 1
min
26 . 10
5 4 . 25 9 . 0 8 . 30
U
= 3.883 m/s
Actual minimum vapour velocity
h
A
rate vapour minimum

1012 . 0
0.58 0.7
= 4.01 m/s
So minimum vapor rate will be well above the weep point.
Plate Pressure Drop
Dry Plate Drop
Max. vapour velocity through holes
73 . 5
1012 . 0
0.58

h
U m/s
from fig. 11.34 for plate thickness/hole dia = 1
and
1 . 0
a
h
p
h
A
A
A
A
l
o
= 0.84
L
V
o
h
d
l
U
h
51
1
]
1
4 . 742
26 . 10
84 . 0
73 . 5
51
2
1
]
1
d
h
= 32.8 mm liquid
Residual Head
83 . 16
4 . 742
10 5 . 12
3
r
h
mm liquid
Total pressure drop = 32.8 + (50 + 40.20) + 16.83
h
t
= 139.92 mm liquid
Downcomer Liquid Backup
Take h
ap
= h
w
10 = 40 mm
Area under apion
3
10 40 988 . 0

= 0.03952 m
2
As this is less than A
d
use A
ap
in eq. 11.92 i.e,
2
166
1
]
1
n L
wd
dc
A
l
h
2
039 . 0 4 . 742
38 . 11
166
1
]
1
dc
h
= 25.64 mm ~ 26 mm
Backup in downcomer
h
b
= 139.92 + 40.29 + 25.64
= 205.85 mm
= 0.20585 m
0.205 < (Tray spacing + weir height)
So tray spacing is acceptable
Check Residence Time
966 . 71
4 . 742 205 . 0 159 . 0
r
t
= 3.03 sec
> 3 sec satisfactory
Check Entrainment
U
V
= 0.58 / 1.171 = 0.495 m/s
Percent flooding = 0.495/0.6 = 0.082%
F
LV
= 0.22 from fig. 11.29 = 0.018 well below 0.1
Satisfactory
Trial Lay Out
Use cartridge type construction. Allow 50 mm imperforated strip round plate edge; 50 mm
wide calming zeros.
From fig. 11.32
L
w
/D
c
= 0.76
Q
L
= 99
Angle subtended at plate edge by imperforated strip = 180 99 = 81
o
Mean length, unpeeforoted edge strip ( ) 76 . 1
180
81
10 50 3 . 1
3

r
t
Area of unpeeforated edge strip 088 . 0 76 . 1 50 m
2
Mean length of calming zone ( ) 95 . 0 sin 10 50 3 . 1
2
99
3

m
Area of calming zone
( ) 095 . 0 10 50 95 . 0 2
3

Total area of peeforations, A
p
= 1.012 0.095 = 0.917 m
2
11 . 0
917 . 0
1012 . 0

p
h
A
A
From fig. 11.33 l
p
/d
h
= 2.6, satisfactory within 2.5 = 4.0
No of Holes
Area of one hole
5
10 964 . 1

No. of holes
5
10 964 . 1
1012 . 0
= 5152.74
TOP DIAMETER
Max. volume liquid flow rate = 24434 kg/hr
Max. vapor liquid flow rate = 25710 kg/hr
9
V
4 . 700
L
Liquid flow rate = 6.787 kg/sec

Vapour flow rate = 7.141 kg/sec
For above feed plate
Column dia = 0.96 m
A
c
= Column Area = 72 . 0
4
2
d
m
2

0864 . 0 72 . 0 12 . 0
d
A
0864 . 0 72 . 0
d c n
A A A m
2
= 0.6336 m
2
A
a
= A
c
2A
d
= 0.5472 m
2
Hole area Ah take 10% A
a
= 0.05472 m
2
Weir length 12 100
72 . 0
0864 . 0

76 . 0
c
w
D
l
7296 . 0 96 . 0 76 . 0
w
l
Take weir height = 50 mm
Hole diameter = 5 mm
Plate thickness = 5 mm
Check Weeping
Maximum liquid flow rte = 6.78 kg/sec
Minimum liquid. Rate at 70% turn down 76 . 4 78 . 6 7 . 0 kg/sec
Maximum
4 / 5
0864 . 0 700
78 . 6
750

,
_
ow
h
= 48.65 mm liquid
Minimum
3 / 2
729 . 0 700
76 . 4
750

,
_
ow
h
= 33.24 mm liq.
At min. rate = 50 + 33.24
= 83.24 mm liq.
From fig. 11.30
K
2
= 30.8
( )
146 . 4
9
5 4 . 25 9 . 0 8 . 30
2 / 1
(min)

h
U m/s
Actual min. vapor velocity
h
A
rate vap. . min
054 . 0
36 . 0 7 . 0
= 4.66
So well above weep point
Plate Pressure Drop
Dry Plate Drop
Max. vap. Velocity strength holes
95 . 13
054 . 0
9 / 78 . 6

h
U
m/sec
From fig. 11.34 for plate thickness/hole diameter = 1
and A
h
/ A
p
= 0.1
700
9
84 . 0
95 . 13
51
2
,
_
d
A
= 21.5 mm liq.
Residual Head
h
t
= 21.5 + 50 + 48.65 + 17.85
= 138 mm liq.
Down comer liquid back up
Take h
ap
= h
w
10 = 40 mm
Area under apron
3
10 40 729 . 0

ap
A
= 0.0291 m
2
2
029 . 0 700
78 . 6
166

,
_
dc
h
= 18.51 mm liq.
Backup in down comer
h
b
= 50 + 48.65 + 138 + 18.51
= 255.16 mm
= 0.255 m
0.255 < (Tray spacing + weir height) So, tray spacing is acceptable.
Check Residence Time
76 . 4
700 255 . 0 0864 . 0
r
t
= 3.24 sec
> 3 is Satisfactory
Check Entrainment
56 . 0
6336 . 0
36 . 0 36 . 0

h
v
A
U m/sec
Percent flooding 81 . 0
7 . 0
56 . 0
%
F
LV
= 0.107, = 0.05 well below 0.1
From fig. 11.29
Trial Layout
Use cartridge type construction. Allow 50mm upperforated strip vannd plate edge; 50mm
wide calming zone.
From fig. 11.32
76 . 0
c
w
D
l
Q
C
= 99
o
Angle subtended at plate edge by unperforated strip = 180 99 = 81
o
Mean length, unperforated edge strip
( ) 28 . 1 180 / 8 10 50 96 . 0
3

m
Area of unperforted edge strip ( ) 692 . 0 sin 10 50 96 . 0
2
99
3

m
Area of calming zone
( ) 0692 . 0 10 50 692 . 0 2
3

m
2
Total area of perforations, A
p
= 0.5472 0.0692 = 0.478 m
2
11 . 0
478 . 0
0547 . 0

p
h
A
A
From fig. 11.33 l
p
/d
h
= 2.6 satisfactory
No. of Holes
Area of one hole
5
10 964 . 1

m
2
No. of holes 13 . 2785
10 764 . 1
0547 . 0
5


SPECIFICATION SHEET
Identification:
Unit Distillation Column
Item No. D-180
Type Sieve Tray Column
Function: Seperation of Light Components
Type of Operation Continuous
DESIGN DATA
Trays design Hole design
No of Trays : 43 Weir Height: 1in
Tray Spacing: 0.4m Weir Length: 0.988m
Diameter: 1.3m Hole area: 0.1012m
2
Efficiency: 75% Area of one hole: 0.0000196m
2
Pressure drop per plate: 139.92mm liq Hole diameter: 0.00635in
No. of holes: 5152
Down comer area: 0.159 m
2
Fraction entrainment: 0.018
Chapter #5 Mechanical Design
M MECHANICAL ECHANICAL D DESIGN ESIGN
5.1 Shell & Tube heat exchanger:
Shell side:
Material carbon steel
Working pressure 0.1N / mm
2
Design pressure 0.11N / mm
2
Permissible stress for carbon steel 95 N / mm
2
Dia of shell = 673mm
Tube side:
Working pressure = 0.5N / mm
2
Design pressure = 0.55N / mm
2
Shell thickness:
ts = PD/2f J+P = (0.11x 673) / {(2 x 95 x 0.85) + 0.11}
= 0.45mm
Minimum thickness of shell must be 6.3 mm
Including corrosion allowance, t
s
= 8mm.
Head thickness:
Shallow dished & torispherical head
t
h
= PRcW / 2 fJ
R
c
crown radius
W stress intensification factor
W= 1/4 [Rc / Rk]
0.5
R
k
= 6% R
c
W= 1 / 4 [3+ (1 / 6)
0.5
]
J= 1
t
h
= (0.11 x 1.77 x 673) / 2 x 95
= 0.689 mm.
Use thickness as it for shell i.e. 8 mm
Segmental baffles:
Baffle spacing = 0.4 x 673 = 269.2 mm
Thickness of baffles = 6 mm
Tie rods and spaces:
Diameter of tie rod = 10 mm
Number of tie rods = 6
Flanges:
Shell thickness = g
o
= 8 mm
Flange material IS: 2004 1962 class 2
Gasket material asbestos composition
Bolting steel = 5% Cr Mo steel
Allowable stress of flange material 100 MN / m
2
Allowable stress of bolting material, Sg 138 MN/m
2
Outside diameter = B = 673 + (2 x 8)
= 689 mm
Gasket width:
do / di = [(y- pm)/ (y- p{m+1})]
0.5
m gasket factor 2.75
y min design seating stress 25.5 MN / m
2
Gasket thickness = 1.6 mm
Thus,
do / di = 1.002
Let di of the gasket equal 683 mm [10 mm greater than shell dia]
d
o
= 0.683 x 1.002.= 0.684m
Mean gasket width = (0.684 0.683) /2
= 6.83 x 10
-4
Taking gasket width of 12 mm,
d
o
= 0.696 m
Basic gasket seating width, b
o
= 5mm
Diameter of location of gasket load reaction is,
G = di + N
= 0.683 + 0.012
= 0.695m
5.2 Estimation of bolt loads:
Load due to design pressure:
H = G
2
P / 4 = (3.14 x 0.695 x 0.11) / 4
= 0.06004 MN
Load to keep joint tight under operation:
Hp = G(26)mp
=3.14 x0.695 x 2 x 5 x 10 -3 x 2.75 x 0.11
= 6.6 x10
-3
MN
Total operating load:
Wo = H + H
p
= 0.066MN
Load to seat gasket under bolting up condition:
Wg = Gby
= x 0.695 x 0.005 x 25.5
= 0.2783 MN
Controlling load = 0.2783 MN
Minimum bolting area = Am = W
g
/S
g
= 0.2783/138
= 2.02 x 10
-3
m
2
Take Bolt size M 18 x 2
Actual number of bolts 44
R = 0.027m
g
1
= g
o
/0.707 = 1.415 go for weld leg
g
o
= 8mm
Bolt circle diameter, C = B +2(g
1
+R)
= 0.689 + 2 (1.415 x 0.008 + 0.027)
= 0.76564 m
Using 66 mm bolt spacing,
C = 44 x 0.066 /
= 0.9243 m
Bolt circle diameter, C = 0.93 m
Flange outside diameter
A = C + bolt diameter + 0.02 m (minimum)
= 0.93 + 0.018 + 0.02
= 0.968 = 0.97m
Check of gasket width
A
b
S
g
/ GN = ( 1.56 x 10
-4
x 44 x 138) / x 0.012 x 0.4 x 0.475
= 50.43 < 2y.It is satisfied
Flange moment computation:
For operating condition:
Wo = W1 + W2 + W3
W1 = (B
2
/ 4) P
/ 4 (0.689)
2
0.11
= 0.0410
W2 = H-W1
= 0.06004 0.0410
= 1.9 x 10
-3
W3 = Wo-H = Hp (gasket load)
= 6.6 x 10 -3 MN
Total flange moment, Mo = W
1
a
1
+ W
2
a
2
+ W
3
a
3
a1 = (C-B) / 2 = 0.93-0.689/2 = 0.241
a3 = (C-B) / 2 = 0.93-0.689 / 2 = 0.241
a2 = (a1+a2) /2 = 0.241
Mo = 1.1 x 10
-2
For bolting up condition
Mg = W. a3
W = (Am +Ab)/(2). Sg
Ab = area of bolt
= 44 x 1.56 x 10
-4
= 6.76 x 10
-3
m
2
Am = Minimum bolt area. =1.38 x 10
-3
m
2
S
g
= 138N/mm
2
W = 0.562 MN
a
3
= 0.241
Mg = 0.135 MN-m
Mg is controlling moment
Flange thickness:
t 2 = (MCfY)/(BSt) = (MCfY/BSfo)
K= (A/B)
= (0.97/0.689)
= 1.407
Assume, Cf =1
From the graph, Y = 3
M = 0.1275MN-m
St = Allowable stress
=100MN / m
2
t
2
=(0.1275 x 3) / (0.689 x 100)
= 0.0055
t = 0.074m
Tube sheet thickness:
tts. = F x G [0.025 x P / 95]
1/2
= 1 x 0.695 [0.025 x 0.55 / 95]
1/2
= 8.36 mm
tts = 11.3 mm including corrosion allowance
Channel and channel cover:
th = Gc [KP/95]
1/2
= 0.695 [1.407x0.55/95]
1/2
= 6.27mm
th =10mm including corrosion allowance.
Nozzle:
Thickness of nozzle = PD/2fJ-P
Inlet & outlet dia 100 mm
Vent 50 mm
Drain 50 mm
Opening for relief value 75 mm
tn = 0.55 x 100/2 x 95 x (1-0.55)
= 0.293
Corrosion allowance 3 mm
tn = 4 mm
Considering the size of the nozzle & the pressure rating, it is necessary to provide for a
reinforcing pad on the channel cover.
Area required to be compensated for each nozzle
A = d x th = 100 x 10 = 1000 mm
2
.
Saddle Support:
Material- low carbon steel
Diameter = 454 mm
Length of the shell, L = 3.8 m
Knuckle radius = 6% of diameter
= 27.24 mm
Total depth of head = [Dx r /2]
1/2
= [454x27.4 / 2 ]
1/2

H= 78.63mm
Weight of vessel & contents, W = 11943 kg.
Distance of saddle centerline from shell end,
A = 0.5 x R = 113.5 mm
Longitudianl bending moments:
M1 = QA [ {1- ( 1- A/L + {R
2
H
2
}/2AL)}/ 1+ 4L/ 3L]
Q = Load carried by each symmetrical support
= W/2 ( L + 4H/3)
= 11943/2 ( 3.05 +4x0.078 /3)
=18834.1 Kg
M2 = QL/4 [{{ 1+2 {(R
2
H
2
) / L
2
}/ {1+ 4H / 3L}} 4A / L]
So, M1 = 12.778 Kg.m
M2 = 10218 Kg.m
Stresses in shell at the saddle
1.At the topmost fibre of the cross section.
F1= M1 / k1 R
2
t
K1 = 1
t = thickness of the shell
f
1
= 12.778 / ( 3.14 x 0.008 x 0.227
2
)
= 0.9865 Kg / cm
2
2.At the bottom most fibre of the cross section
F
2
= M1 / k2 R
2
t
K
2
= 1
F
2
= 0.9865 Kg/cm
2
Stresses are well within the permissible values.
Stresses in the shell at mid span:
The stress at the span is,
F
3
= M2 / R
2
t
= 789.46Kg / cm
2
Axial stress is the shell due to internal pressure :
Fd = P Di / 4 t
= 1.12 x 673 / 4 x 8 = 23.55 Kg / cm
2
f
3
+ fp = 813.015 kg / cm
2
Stresses are well within the permissible values.
P PUMP UMP S SELECTION ELECTION
6.1 FACTORS AFFECTING CHOICE OF A PUMP
1) Many different factors can influence the final choice of a pump for a particular
operation. The following list indicates the major factors that govern pump selection.
2) The amount of fluid that must be pumped. This factor determines the size of pump
(or pumps) necessary.
3) The properties of the fluid. The density and the viscosity; of the fluid influence the
power requirement for a given set of operating conditions, corrosive properties of
the fluid determine the acceptable materials of construction. If solid particles are
suspended in the fluid, this factor dictates the amount of clearance necessary and
may eliminate the possibility of using certain types of pumps.
4) The increase in pressure of the fluid due to the work input of the pumps. The head
change across the pump is influenced by the inlet and downstream reservoir
pressures, the change in vertical height of the delivery line, and frictional effects.
This factor is a major item in determining the power requirements.
5) Type of flow distribution. If nonpulsating flow is required, certain types of pumps,
such as simplex reciprocating pumps, may be unsatisfactory. Similarly, if operation
is intermittent, a self-priming pump may be desirable, and corrosion difficulties
may be increased.
6) Type of power supply. Rotary positive-displacement pumps and centrifugal pumps
are readily adaptable for use with electric-motor or internal-combustion-engine
drives; reciprocating pumps can be used with steam or gas drives.
7) Cost and mechanical efficiency of the pump.
6.2 PUMP SELECTION OF P-111
Flow rate = 4000 bbl / std
= 4000 bbl / std * 1std / 24hr * 1hr / 60min * 42 U.S . gallons / bbl
= 116.6 gallons / min
Inlet Pressure = 15 Psi
Outlet Pressure = 461Psi
Density = 46.25 Lb/ft
3
Developed Pressure = 446 Psi = 64224 Psf
Developed Head = 1388.62 ft
Eff = 80 0.2855 F + 3.78 x 10
- 4
FG 2.38 x 10
-7
FG
2
+ 5.39 x 10
4
F
2
-6.39 x 10
-7
F
2
G + 4 x 10
-10
F
2
G
2
Where
Eff = Pump % age efficiency
F = Developed Head, ft
G = Flow rate, GPM
So putting values in the equation we get
Eff = 76.5%
H.P = GPM (P) / 1715* eff
Where
GPM = flow rate in Gallon Per min.
P = Developed pressure, Psi
eff = Efficiency in fraction
Pump Horsepower = H.P = 35.67 h.
I INSTRUMENTATION NSTRUMENTATION A AND ND C CONTROL ONTROL
The important feature common to all process is that a process in never in a state of static
equilibrium except for a very short period of time and process is a dynamic entity subject to
continual upset or disturbance which' tend to drive it away from the desired state of
equilibrium the process must then be manipulated upon or corrected to derive some
disturbance bring about only transient effect in the process behavior. These passes away
and the never occur again. Others may apply periodic or cycle forces which may make the
process respond in a cyclic or periodic fashion. Most disturbances are completely random
with respect to time a show no repetitive pattern. Thus their occurrence may be expected
hut cannot be predicated at any particular time. If a process is to operate efficiently,
disturbances in the process must be controlled.
A process is designed for a particular objective or output and is then found. Sometimes by
trail and error and sometimes by referring from the previous, experience that control of a
particular variable associated with some stages of the process is necessary to achieve the
desired efficiency.
Each process will have associated with it number of variables which are independent of the
process and/ or its operation and which are likely to change at random. Each such change
will lead to changes in the dependent variables of the process one of which is selected as
bring indicative of successfully operation. One of the input variable will be manipulated to
cause further changes in the output variable will be manipulated to cause further changes in
the output variable the original conditions, Process may controlled more precisely to give
more uniform and higher quality products by the application of automatic control, often
leading to higher profits additionally, process which response too rapidly to be controlled
by human operators can be controlled automatically. Automatic control is also beneficial in
certain remote, hazardous or routine operations. After a period of experimentation,
computers are now being used to operate automatically control processing systems, which
may too large and too complex for effective direct human control.
Since process profit is usually the most important benefit to obtained by applying
automatic control. The quality of control and its cost should be compared with the
economic return expected and the process technical objective. The economic return
includes reduced operating costs, maintenance and of the specification product along with
improved process operability and increased throughout.
7.1 COMPONENTS OF THE CONTROL SYSTEM
Process
Any operation of series of operations that produce a desired final result is a process. In this
discussion the process is the purification of natural
Measuring Means
As all the parts of the control system, measuring element, is perhaps the most important. If
the measurements are not made properly the remainder of the system cannot operate
satisfactorily. The measured variable is chosen to represent the desired condition in the
process.
7.2 ANALYSIS OF MEASUREMENT
Variables to he Measured
a. Pressure Measurement
b. Temperature Measurement
c. Flow Rate Measurement
d. Level Measurement
Variables to be Recorded
Indicated temperature, composition, pressure etc.
7.3 CONTROLLER
The controller is the mechanism that responds to any error indicated by the error detecting
mechanism. The output of the controller is some predetermined function of the error. There
arc three types of controllers.
1. Proportion action which moves the control valve indirect proportion to the
magnitude of the error.
2. Integral action (reset) which moves the control valve based on the time integral of the
error and the purpose of integral actions is to drive the process back to .its set point when it
has been disturbed.
3. Ideal derivative action and its purpose are to anticipate where the process is heading
by cooking at the time a rate of change of error. The final control element receives the
signal from the controller and by some predetermined relationship changes the energy input
to the process.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTROLLER
In general the process controllers can be classified as
a. Pneumatic controllers
b. Electronic controllers
c. Hydraulic controllers
While dealing with the gases, the controller and the final control element may be
pneumatically operated due to the following reasons.
i. The pneumatic controller is very rugged and almost free of maintenance.
The maintenance men have not had sufficient training and background in electronics, so
pneumatic equipment is simple.
ii. pneumatic controller appears to be safer in a potentially explosive atmosphere which is
often present in the industry.
iii. Transmissions distances are short pneumatic and electronic
transmissions system are generally equal up to about 200 to 300 feet. Above this distance
electronic system beings to offer savings.
MODES OF CONTROL
The various types of control are called modes, and they determine type of response
obtained. In other words these describe the action of controller that is the relationship of
output of output signal to the input or error signal. It must be noted that is error that achieve
the controller. The four basic mode of control are:
1. On-off control
2. Integral control
3. Proportional control
4. Rate or derivative control
In industry purely integral, proportional or derivative modes seldom occur alone in the
control system. The on-off controller is the controller with very high gain. In this case the
error signal at once off the valve or any other parameter upon which it sites or completely
sets system.
7.4 ALARMS AND SAFETY TRIPS
Alarms are used to alert operators of serious and potentially hazardous, deviations in
process conditions, key instruments are fitted with switches and relays to operate audible
and visual alarms on the control panels.
The basic components of an automatic trip system are
1. A sensor to monitor the control variable and provide and output signal when a preset
value is exceeded (the instrument).
2. A link to transfer the signal to the activator, usually consisting of a system of pneumatic
or electric relays.
3. An activator to carry out the required action close or open a valve, switch off a motor.
7.5 CONTROL LOOPS
For instrumentation and control of different sections and equipments of plants, following
control loops are most often used.
1. Feed backward control loop
2. Feed forward control loop
3. Ratio control loop
4. Auctioneering control loop
5. Split range control loop
6. Cascade control loop
Here is given a short outline of these control schemes, so that to justify our selection of a
control loop for specified equipment.
FEED BACK CONTROL LOOP
A method of control in which a measured value of a process variable is compared with the
desired value of the process variable and any necessary action is taken. Feed back control is
considered as the basic control loops system. Its disadvantage lies in its operational
procedure. For example if a certain quantity is entering in a process, then a monitor will be
there at the process to note its value. Any changes from the set point will be sent to the
final control element through the controller so that to adjust the incoming quantity
according to desired value (set point). But in fact change has already occurred and only
corrective action can be taken while using feed back-control system.
FEED FORWARD CONTROL LOOP
A method of control in which the value of a disturbance is measured, and action is taken to
prevent the disturbance by changing the value of a process variable. This is a control
method designed to prevent errors from occurring in a process variable. This control
system is better than feed back control because it anticipates the change in the process
variable before it enters the process takes the preventive action. While in feed back enter
system action is taken after the chanee has occurred.
RATIO CONTROL
A control loop in which, the controlling element maintains a predetermined ratio of one
variable to another. Usually this control loop is attached to such as system where two
different streams enter a vessel for reaction that may be of any kind. To maintain the
stoichiometic quantities of different streams this loop is used so that to ensure proper
process going on in the process vessel.
AUCTIONEERING CONTROL LOOP
This type of control loop is normally used for a huge vessel where, readings of a single
variable may be different at different locations. This type of control loop ensures safe
operation because it employs all the readings of different locations simultaneously, and
compares them with the set point, if any of those readings is deviating from the set point
then the controller sends appropriate signal to final control element.
SPLIT RANGE LOOP
In this loop controller is per set with different values corresponding to different action to be
take at different conditions. The advantage of this loop is to maintain the proper conditions
and avoid abnormalities at very differential levels.
CASCADE CONTROL LOOP
This is a control in which two or more control loops are arranged so that the output of, one
controlling element adjusts the set point of another controlling element. This control loop
is used where proper and quick control is difficult by simple feed forward or feed backward
control. Normally first loop is a feed back control loop. We have selected a cascade control
loop for our heat exchanger in order to get quick on proper control.
7.6 INTERLOCKS
Where it is necessary to follow a fixed sequence of operations for example, during a plant
start-up and shut-down, or in batch operations. Interlocks are includes to prevent operators
departing from the required sequence. They may be incorporated in the control system
design, as pneumatic or electric relays or may be mechanical interlocks.
CONTROL OF HEAT EXCHANGER
The Normal Way
The normal method of controlling a heat exchanger is to measure exit temperature of
process fluid and adjust input of heating or cooling medium to hold the desired
temperature.
To stabilize this feed back control, in almost all cases the control must have a wide
proportional band (i.e, wide range of exit temperature change operates the control valve
through full stroke). The proportional band is determined by gain of other components in
the control loop by process considerations. It is an cxccniion when the usual combination
of conventional control elements permits use of narrow band control mechanism. .
Since heat-exchanger control require a wide proportional band for stabilization, reset
response (rate of change of heating medium How proportional to exit temperature.
deviation from controller set point is normally required to correct for off set in the
controlled variable (temperature). It there are process load change and reset response can
be eliminated in cases where disturbance such as heating fluid header pressure, product
flow rate or inlet temperature changes have small effects relative to desired tolerance on the
controlled variable.
When throughout to a heat exchanger is changed rapidly a short-term error in control
temperature results. The magnitude and duration of this error can normally be reduced by a
factor of two by adding derivative response to the control mechanism and adjusting it
properly. In derivative responses, heating fluid flow rate is proportional to rate or change of
temperature derivation from the set point.
A Pressure Cascade Control
A pressure cascade control system cascades output of a standard three action temperature
controller into the set point of a pressure controller. It achieves a more rapid recovery to
process load disturbances in a shell-and-tube exchanger than can be obtained without the
pressure controller. Heating fluid to the heater is regulated by the pressure controller which
is normally provided with proportional and reset responses. Load change is rapidly sensed
by a change is shell pressure which is compensated for by the pressure controller. The
temperature control system senses the residual error and resets the pressure control set
point.
Bypass Improves Control of Slow-Response Exchanger
In certain cascade, the time response characteristic of heat exchanger is too slow to hold
temperature deviations resulting from load changes within desired tolerances. In some of
these cases, the transient characteristic of the heat exchanger can be circumvented by by-
passing the heater with a parallel line and bledding cold process fluid with hot fluid from
the heater. In the by-pass system care must be taken in sizing valves to obtain the-desired
flow sprit with adequate flow versus steam travel characteristics. Thermal elements
response time is particularly important since this tie constant is a major factor influencing
performance of the system.
Flow Controllers
These are used to control tin- feed rate into a process unit Orifice plates are by far the most
type of How-rate sensor. Normally orifice plates arc designed to give pressure drops in the
range of 20 to 200 inch of water Venture tubes amand turbine meter are also used.
Temperature controller
Thermocouples are the most commonly used temperature sensing device. The two
dissimilar wires produce a millivolt emf that varies with the hot-functions temperature.
Iron constant to thermocouples are commonly used over the 0 to 1300 F. temperature
range.
Pressure Controller
Bourdon tubes, bellows and diaphragms are used to sense pressure
and differential pressure. For example, in mechanical system the process pressure force is
balanced by the movement of a spring. The spring positing can be related to process
pressure.
Level Indicator
Liquid levels are detected in a variety of ways. The three common are
1 . The following the position of a float that is lighter than the fluid.
2. Measuring one apparent-weight of a heavy cylinder as it is buoyed up more or less
by the liquid (they are called displacement meters).
3. Measuring the difference in static pressure between two fixed elevations, one in the
vapour above the liquid and the other under the liquid surface. The differential pressure
between the two level taps is directly related to the liquid level in the vessel.
Transmitter
The transmitter is the interface between the process and its control system.The Job of the
transmitter is to convert the sensor signal (millivolts, mechanical movement, pressure
difference etc.) into a control signal 3 to 15 psig air pressure signal, 1 to 5 10 to 50 milli
ampere electrical signal etc.
Control Valves
The interface with the process at the other end of the control loop is made by the final
control element in an automatic control valves control the flow of heating. fluid the open or
close and orifice opening as the system is raised or lowered.
7.7 FEED BACK CONTROL LOOP OF HEAT EXCHANGER E-150
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C COST OST E ESTIMATION STIMATION A AND ND E ECONOMICS CONOMICS O OF F P PLANT LANT LOCATION LOCATION
8.1 PLANT COST ESTIMATION
As the final process-design stage is Complete, it becomes possible to make accurate cost
estimation because detailed equipment specification and definite plant facility information
are available. Direct price quotation based on detailed specification can then be obtained
from various manufacturers. However o design project should proceed to the final stages
before costs are considered and cost estimate should be made through out all the early
stages of the design when complete specifications are not available. Evaluation of costs in
the preliminary design is said predesign cost estimation. Such estimation should be capable
of providing a basis for company management to decide if further capital should be
invested in the project.
Evaluation of costs in the preliminary design phase is some time called guess estimations.
A plant design obviously must present a process that is capable of operating under
condition which will yield a profit.
A capital investments is required to any industrial process, and determination of the
necessary investment is an important part of a plant design project. The total investment for
any process consists of the physical . equipment and facilities in the plant plus the working
capital for money which must be available to pay salaries keep raw materials and products
on hand and handle other special items requiring a direct cast out lay.
8.2 CAPITAL INVESTMENTS
Before an industrial plant can be put into operation, large amount of -money must be
supplied to purchase and install the necessary machinery and equipment, land and service
facilities must be obtained and the plant-must be erected. Complete with all pipe controls
inn services. In addition it is necessary to have money available for payment of expenses
involved in the plant operation.
The capital needed to supply the necessary manufacturing and plant facilities is called the
fixed capital investment while the necessary for the operation of the plant is termed as the
working capital investment.
1. Working Capital Investment
The capital which is necessary lor the operation of the plant is called working capital
investment.
2. Fixed Capital Investment
The capital needed to supply flu- necessary maMiif'acttirini
1
and plant facilities is called
fixed capital investment.
The fixed capital investment classified in to two sub divisions,
i. Direct Cost
ii. Indirect Cost
DIRECT COST
The direct cost items arc incurred in the construction of the plant in addition to the cost of
equipment.
1. Purchased Equipment
2. Purchased Equipment Installation
3. Instrumentation and Control
4. Piping
5. Electrical Equipment and Materials
6. Building (Including Services)
7. Yard Improvement
8. Services Facilities
9. Land
INDIRECT COST
1. Design and Engineering
2. Contractor's Expenses
3. Contractor's Fee
4. Contingency
8.3 METHODS OF CAPITAL INVESTMENT
Various methods are employed for estimating capital investment. The choice of any
method depends on the foil owing-factors,
a. Amount of detailed information available
b. Accuracy Desired
Seven methods of estimating capital investments are outlined, estimate
1. Detailed item estimate
2. Unit estimate
3. Percentage of delivered equipment cost
4. Lang factor approximation of capacity ratio
5. Investment cost per capacity
The accuracy of an estimate depends on the amount of design detail available; and the
accuracy of the cost data available; and the time spent on preparing the estimate. In the
early stages of a project only an approximate estimate will be required an justified by the
amount of information by then developed.
PERCENTAGE DELIVERED EQUIPMENT
This method for estimating total investment requires the determination
of the delivered equipment cost. The cost of purchased equipment is the basis of several pre
design methods for estimating capital investment.The most accurate methods for
determining process equipment costs is to obtain firm bids from fabricators or suppliers.
Percentage of delivered equipment cost is the method used for estimating the fixed or total
capital investment requires determination of the delivered equipment cost. The other items
included in the total direct plant cost are then estimated as percentage of the delivered
equipment The addition components of the capital investment are based on average
percentage of total direct plant cost total direct and indirect plant costs or total capital
investment.
Estimating by percentage of delivered equipment cost is commonly used for preliminary
and study estimates. It yield most accurate results when applied to a project similar in
configuration to recently constructed plants.
Chapter #8 Cost Estimation and Economics of Plant
Location
DIRECT COST
PURCHASED Equipment Cost =E
COMPONENTS % AGES OF E COST ($)
Purchased equipment installation 47% E a
Instrumentation (installed) 12%E b
Piping (installed) 66% E c
Electrical (installed) 11 % E d
Building (including Service) 18% E e
Yard improvement 10% E f
Service facilities 70%. E g
Land 6% E h
Total direct cost D
Total direct cost = D
INDIRECT COST
Engineering and supervision 33%E
Construction Expenses 41%E
Total indirect Cost I
Total direct and indirect cost D+I
Contractor's fee 5%(D+I)=y
Contigency 10%(D+I)= x
E/fixed Capital investment D+I+x+y
Location
Working Capital investment W.C.I
W.C.I 15% total capital
Location
8.4 COST ESTIMATION OF OUR PLANT
EQUIPMENT PURCHASE COST
Heat exchanger train E-110 = 68, 40, 000 Rs
Furnace E-120 = 1710000 Rs
Reactor R-130 = 5700000 Rs
ACHE E-140 = 1180000Rs
Trim cooler E-150 = 1220000 Rs
Three phases Separator H-160 = 1300000 Rs
Column Feed/Effluent exchanger = 2230000 Rs
Distillation column D-180 = 5759280 Rs
CHE-187 = 2145454 Rs
Trim cooler E-183 = 770000Rs Rs
Phase Separator H-184 = 860000 Rs
Total Purchase = 3, 74, 54734 Rs
Direct Cost (Rs)
Purchased equipment cost = 3, 74, 54734 Rs
Purchased equipment installation = 0.47 3, 74, 54734 = Rs.17603709
Instrumentation & Process Control = 0.12 3, 74, 54734 = Rs. 4494564
Piping (installed) = 0.66 3, 74, 54734 = Rs. 24720100
Location
Building (Including Services) = 0.18 3, 74, 54734 = Rs.6741846
Yard improvements = 0.1 3, 74, 54734 = Rs. 3745473
Service facilities (installed) = 0.7 3, 74, 54734 = Rs. 26218290
Land = 0.06 x 3, 74, 54734 = Rs. 2247282
Total direct plant cost = Rs. 123225961
INDIRECT COST
Engg & Supervision = 0.33 3, 74, 54734 = Rs.12360051
Construction expenses = 0.41 3, 74, 54734 = Rs.15356427
Total Indirect Cost = Rs. 27716478
Total Direct & Indirect Cost = Rs150942439
Contractors fee = 0.05 150942439 = Rs. 7547121.95
Contingency = 0.1 150942439 = Rs. 15094243.9
FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMEN
Fixed Capital Investment = Total direct + indirect cost + contingency +
Contractors fee
= Rs. 173583804.9
Location
Total capital investment = F.C.I + W.C
Now
W.C = 0.15 (T.C.I)
= 0.15 (173583804.9 + WC)
=
85 . 0
74 . 26037570
= 30632436.15 Rs
Total Capital Investment = T.C.I = 20,42,16,241 Rs.
(Twenty caroor Fourty two lakes sixteen thousands ,two hundred and fourty one rupees
only)
8.5 ECONOMICS OF PLANT LOCATION
The final choice of the plant site usually involves a, presentation ol/the economic factors
for several equally attractive sites. He exact type of economic study of plant locations will
vary with each company making a study. It should include the following.
INVESTMENT
Plant
New Money
Existing facilities
Working capital
Annual sales
Cost
Location
Manufacturing
Distributing
Selling
Research
Annual Earnings
Operative
Net after taxes
Net annual return
On total investment
The limitations of preliminary plan! location cost studies should be recognized pointed out
a management. No matter how carefully a survey is prepared, future trends such as
population and marketing shifts, development of competitive processes and the advent of
new industries. Services and transportation facilities cannot be reliably predicated.
PLANT LOCATION AND SITE SELECTION
The location of plant has a crucial effect on the profitability of project and the scope
for future expansion. Many factors are considered when selecting a suitable site.
A brief explanation of each factor is given below.
i. Raw Materials Supply
Probably the location of the raw materials of an industry contributes more towards the
choice of a plant site than any other factor. This is especially noticeable in those industries
in which the raw material is inexpensive and bulky and is made more compact and obtains
a high bulk value during the process of manufacturing.
Location
ii. Marketing Area
For materials that are produced in bulk quantities, such as cement, minerals acids and
fertilizers, where the cost of e product per ton is relatively low and cost of transportation
has a significant fraction of the sale price. The plant should be located closed to the
primary market. This consideration will be less important for low volume production, high
price product such as pharmaceuticals.
iii. Transportation Facilities
The Transport of material and products too and from the plant will be over riding
consideration in site selection.
If practicable, a site should be selected that is closed to at least two major forms of
transport, road, rail, water way (canal or river) or a sea port. Road transport is being
increasingly used and is suitable for local distribution from a central ware house. Rail
transportation will be cheaper for long distance transport of bulk chemicals.
Air transport is convenient and efficient for the movement of personnel and essential
equipment and supplies and the proximity of the site to a major airport should be
considered.
iv. Sources of Power
Power for chemical industry is primarily from coal, water and oil; these fuels supply (he
most flexible and economical sources, in as much as they provide for generation of steam
both for processing and for electricity production power can be economically developed as
a by-product in the most chemical plants. If the needs are great enough, since the process
requirements generally call for low-pressure steam. The'turbines of engines used to
generate electricity can be operated non-condensing and supply exhaust steam for
processing purposes.
Location
v. Availability of Labour
Labour will be needed for construction of the plant and its operation. Skilled construction
workers will usually be brought in from outside the site area, but here should be an
adequate pool of unskilled labour available locally; and labour suitable for training to
operate plant. Skilled tradesmen will be needed for plant maintenance. Local trade union
customs and restrictive practices will have to be considered when assessing the availability
and suitability of the local labour for recruitment and training.
vi. Water Supply
Water for industrial purpose can be obtained from one of two general sources: the plant's
own source or municipal supply. If the demand for water is larger, it is more economical
for the industry to supply its own water. Such a supply may be obtained from drilled wells,
rives, lakes, dammed streams or other impounded supplies. Before a company enters upon
any project, it must ensure itself of a sufficient supply of water for all industrial, sanitary
and fire demands, both present and future.
vii. Effluent Disposal
All industrial process produce waste products and full consideration must be given to the
difficulties and cost of their disposal. The disposal of toxic and harmful effluents will be
covered by local regulations and appropriate authorities must be consulted during the initial
site survey to determine the standards that must be met
viii. Local Community Considerations
The proposed plant must fit in with and be acceptable to the local community. Full
consideration must be given to the safe location of the plant so that it dies not impose a
significant additional risk to the community.
On a new site, the local community must be able to provide adequate facilities for, the plant
personnel: school, banks, housing and recreational and cultural facilities.
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ix. Land Considerations
Sufficient suitable land must be available for the proposed pant and for future expansion.
The land should ideally be flat, well drained and have suitable load bearing characteristics.
A full site evaluation should be made to determine the need for piling or other special
foundation.
x. Climate
Adverse climatic conditions at a site will increase costs. Abnormally low temperature will
require the provision of additional insulation and special heating for equipment and pipe
runs. Stronger structures will be need at locations subjected to strong winds (cyclone
hurricane areas) or earthquakes.
xi. Political and Strategic Considerations
Capital grants, tax concessions, and other inducements are often given by government's
direct new investment to preferred locations such as areas of high unemployment. The
availability of such grants can be over-riding consideration site selection.
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H HAZOP AZOP S STUDY TUDY
9.1 HYDROGEN SULFIDE POISONING
Hydrogen sulfide is an extremely poisonous gas. Hydrogen sul-fide poisoning results from
breathing hydrogen sulfide gas (2$), even in very low concentration. Two forms of
poisoning occur - acute and subacute.
1. Acute Hydrogen Sulfide Poisoning
Breathing air or gas containing as little as 0.10% (40-60 grains of H
2
S per 100 standard
cubic feet) for ONE MINUTE can cause acute poisoning.
Much sour natural or refinery gas contains more than 0.10% (60 grains per 100 cubic feet),
so care must always be taken to avoid breathing such sour gas. The naphtha hydrotreating
recycle gas and high pressure stripper gas contain from 0.5 to 5% H2$, while the low
pressure stripper gases contain from 10 to 50% H
2
S,
These gases must NEVER be breathed. One full breath of high concentration hydrogen
sulfide gas will cause unconsciousness, and may cause death, particularly if the victim falls
and remains in the presence of such gas.
The operation of any unit processing gases containing H
2
S is perfectly safe, provided
ordinary precautions are taken and the poisonous nature of the gas is .recognized. No work
should be undertaken on the unit where there is danger of breathing H2S, and one should
never enter or remain in an area' containing it without wearing a suitable fresh air mask.
2. Symptoms of Acute Hydrogen Sulfide Poisoning
Muscular spasms, irregular breathing, lowered pulse, odor to the breath, nausea. Loss of
consciousness and suspension of respiration quickly follow.
After apparent recovery, edema (dropsically swelling) of the air passages or lungs may
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cause severe illness or death in 8 to 48 hours.
3. First Aid Treatment of Acute Poisoning
Remove the victim at once to fresh air. If breathing has not stopped, keep the victim in
fresh air and keep him quiet. If possible, put him to bed. Secure a physician and keep the
patient quiet and under close observation for about 48 hours for possible edema of the air
passages or lungs.
In cases where the victim has become unconscious and breathing has stopped, artificial
respiration must be started at once. If a Pulmotor or other mechanical equipment is
available, it may be used by a trained person; if not, artificial respiration by mouth-mouth
method must be started as soon as possible. Speed in beginning the artificial respiration is
essential. Do not give up. Men have been revived after more than four hours of artificial
respiration.
If other persons are present, send one of them for a physician. Others should rub the
patient's arms and legs and apply hot water bottles, blankets or other sources of warmth
to keep him warm.
After the patient is revived, he should be kept quiet and warm, and remain under
observation for 48 hours 'for the appearance of edema of the air passages or lungs.
4. Subacute Hydrogen Sulfide Poisoning
Breathing air or gas containing 0.01 to 0.6% HS (6 to 40 grains per 100 cubic feet) for an
hour or more may cause subacute or chronic hydrogen sulfide poisoning.
5. Symptoms of Subacute Poisoning
Headache, inflammation of the eyes and throat, dizziness, indigestion, excessive saliva, and
weariness are all symptoms which follow continued exposure to H2$ in low
concentrations. Edema of the air passages and lungs may also occur.
6. Treatment of Subacute Poisoning
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Keep the patient in the dark to reduce eyestrain and^ have a physician treat the inflamed
eyes and throat. Watch for possible edema.
Where subacute poisoning has been suspected, the atmosphere should be checked
repeatedly for the presence of H
2
S by such methods as testing by odor, with moist lead
acetate paper, and by Tutweiler determination to make sure that the condition does not
continue.
7. Prevention of Hydrogen Sulfide Poisoning
The best method for prevention of H
2
O poisoning 1s to stay out of areas known or
suspected to contain it. The sense of smell is not an infallible guide as to its presence, for
although the compound has a distinct and unpleasant odor (rotten eggs), it will frequently
paralyze the olfactory nerves to the extent that the victim does not realize that he is
breathing it. This is particularly true of higher concentrations of the gas.
Fresh air masks or gas masks suitable for use with hydrogen sulfide must be used in all
work where exposure to it is likely to occur. Such masks must be checked frequently to
make sure' that they are not exhausted. Whenever work is done on or in equipment
containing appreciable concentrations of H
2
S, men must wear fresh air masks and should
work in pairs so that one may effect a rescue or call for help should-the other be overcome.
As mentioned above, , the atmosphere in which men work may be checked from time to
time for small concentrations such as would cause subacute poisoning.
REMEMBER - JUST BECAUSE YOUR NOSE SAYS IT'S NOT THERE, DOESN'T
MEAN THAT IT'S NOT 1
8. Further Information
A more detailed information booklet, The Chemical Safety Data Sheet SD36, may be
obtained by writing to:
Manufacturing Chemists Association 1825 Connecticut Avenue, NW Washington, DC
20009
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9.2 NICKEL CARBONYL FORMATION
Nickel carbonyl [Ni(CO)
4
] is known to be an extremely toxic gas. Its primary effect is to
cause lung damage with a lesser effect on the liver. The maximum average exposure to
nickel carbonyl recommended by NIOSH is a TLV of 0.001 ppm (1 ppb), and a maximum
spot exposure of 0.04 ppm (40 ppb).
In Naphtha Hydrotreating units, the potential for forming nickel carbonyl exists only with
catalysts containing nickel (S-6, S-7, S-15, S-16), and only during regeneration or during
the handling of unregenerated catalyst. Care must be used to ensure that the procedures
used will prevent the formation of nickel carbonyl. Data has been published showing the
equilibrium concentration of Ni (C0)4 versus temperature, pressure, 'and CO concentration
in a gas. The nickel carbonyl concentration drops rapidly with increasing temperature and
decreasing CO concentration. At 7 kg/cm2g (100 psig) with 0.5 mol-% CO in the gas, the
nickel carbonyl concentration is at the maximum recommended spot level of 0.04 ppm at
149C (300F), and 0.001 ppm at 182C (360F).
The following practices should be followed to prevent the formation of nickel carbonyl:
1. Once a reactor containing a nickel catalyst has been exposed to oxidizing conditions
(regeneration), a measurable concentration of oxygen must be maintained until the com-
bustion of all carbon ceases and all CO
2
has been purged from the system.
2. Once a reactor containing a nickel catalyst is in a reducing atmosphere and regeneration
is not desirable, maintain the system in a reducing or inert atmosphere until all the catalyst
has been cooled to at least 66C (150F). Unregenerated catalyst should be unloaded with
Ng purged before receiving used catalyst. Oxidation (burning) must be avoided.
There are many published techniques for determining the concentration of nickel carbonyl
in air (such as a vessel to be entered for maintenance), and several direct reading
instruments are available commercially. For further information, see:
American Industrial Hygiene Assoc. Journal May - June, 1968 Jan. - Feb., 1965
9.3 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS FOR ENTERING A CONTAMINATED
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ATMOSPHERE
Anyone entering a vessel which contains- an inert or contaminated atmosphere must follow
all prescribed standard safety precautions and regulations which apply. In particular, when
entering a reactor containing used catalyst, and which therefore can contain some
hydrocarbons and H
2
S along with possible pyrophoric iron sulfide deposits, there are a
number of additional precautions which apply and which should not be overlooked. For
this discussion, it is assumed that entry into a reactor containing used catalyst under a
nitrogen blanket is planned. In this case, the following precautions should be included in
the standard procedure:
1. The reactor should be isolated by positive action, such as blinding, to exclude all
sources of hydrocarbon, hydrogen, air, etc.
2. Just prior to entry, all purging of nitrogen through the catalyst bed should be
discontinued, and nitrogen purge lines should be inserted at points ABOVE the catalyst
bed.
This is to assure that there will be no forced flow of vapors passing upward through the
catalyst bed and into the working area.,
3. Install an air mover outside the reactor near the open man way nozzle to sweep away the
vapors leaving ,the reactor.
4. The man entering the reactor must be equipped with a fresh air mask in proper working
condition, with a proper air supply.
5. "There should be available and ready for immediate use and transfer to the man in the
reactor, a separate spare air supply which is independent of electrical power.
6. The man entering the reactor should wear a safety harness with a properly attached
safety line.
7. There should be a minimum of two backup men at the man way nozzle in continual
surveillance of the actions of the man in the reactor.
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8. There should be a spare fresh air mask complete with its own separate air supply to
allow a second man to enter the reactor quickly in case of an emergency. Therefore, this
spare equipment must be compact enough to allow the second man to enter through the
man way while wearing the equipment.
9. It is recommended that any man working in a. reactor which is under a nitrogen blanket
not be permitted to descend through any appurtenance, such as a tray or quench gas
distributor. The reason for this precaution is that should the man develop some difficulty
while below a tray, for example, to the point where he could not function properly or lost
consciousness, it would be extremely difficult for the surveillance team outside the reactor
to pull the man up through the small tray man way by use of the safety line.
10. As an added precaution, it is suggested that the man in the reactor have available to him
in the reactor, an emergency self-contained air supply and appropriate associated
equipment. Preferably, the emergency air supply could be connected to the fresh air mask
he is wearing. Such "reserve air supply" systems are available commercially.
E ENVIRONMENTAL NVIRONMENTAL I IMPACT MPACT
Petroleum refining is one of the largest industries in the United States and a vital part of the
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national economy. However, potential environmental hazards associated with refineries
have caused increased concern for communities in close proximity to them. This update
provides a general overview of the processes involved and some of the potential
environmental hazards associated with petroleum refineries.
10.1 DEFINITION OF A PETROLEUM REFINERY
Petroleum refineries separate crude oil into a wide array of petroleum products through a
series of physical and chemical separation techniques. These techniques include
fractionation, cracking, hydrotreating, combination/blending processes, and manufacturing
and transport. The refining industry supplies several widely used everyday products
including petroleum gas, kerosene, diesel fuel, motor oil, asphalt, and waxes.
10.2 BACKGROUND
The United States is one of largest producers and consumers of crude oil in the world.
Based on data from the U.S. Department of Energy (1998), in 1995 the United States was
responsible for about 23% of the worlds refinery production. With a record high of 324
refineries in the early 80s, the U.S. was able to produce about 18.6 million barrels per day.
However, because of changes in oil prices, a shift to alternate fuel use and an increasing
focus on conservation, by 1985 the industry lost several primarily small, inefficient
refineries that could not continue to compete. Over the last decade, the number of refineries
has continued to shrink from about 194 to the current 155. This decrease has been due in
part to increasing requirements placed on the facilities for producing cleaner fuels along
with a number of mandated federal and state clean air and water regulations.
10.3 PROCESSES INVOLVED IN REFINING CRUDE OIL
The process of oil refining involves a series of steps that includes separation and blending
of petroleum products. The five major processes are briefly described below:
1 Separation processes: These processes involve separating the different fractions/
hydrocarbon compounds that make up crude oil based on their boiling point differences.
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Crude oil generally is composed of the entire range of components that make up gasoline,
diesel, oils and waxes. Separation is commonly achieved by using atmospheric and vacuum
distillation. Additional processing of these fractions is usually needed to produce final
products to be sold within the market.
2 Conversion processes: Cracking, reforming, coking, and visbreaking are conversion
processes used to break down large longer chain molecules into smaller ones by heating or
using catalysts. These processes allow refineries to break down the heavier oil fractions
into other light fractions to increase the fraction of higher demand components such as
gasoline, diesel fuels or whatever may be more useful at the time.
3 Treating: Petroleum-treating processes are used to separate the undesirable
components and impurities such as sulfur, nitrogen and heavy metals from the products.
This involves processes such as hydrotreating, deasphalting, acid gas removal, desalting,
hydrodesulphurization, and sweetening.
4 Blending/combination processes: Refineries use blending/combination processes to
create mixtures with the various petroleum fractions to produce a desired final product. An
example of this step would be to combine different mixtures of hydrocarbon chains to
produce lubricating oils, asphalt, or gasoline with different octane ratings.
5 Auxiliary processes: Refineries also have other processes and units that are vital to
operations by providing power, waste treatment and other utility services. Products from
these facilities are usually recycled and used in other processes within the refinery and are
also important in regards to minimizing water and air pollution. A few of these units are
boilers, wastewater treatment, and cooling towers.
10.4 ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS OF PETROLEUM REFINERIES
Refineries are generally considered a major source of pollutants in areas where they are
located and are regulated by a number of environmental laws related to air, land and water.
Some of the regulations that affect the refining industry include the Clean Air Act, the
Clean Water Act, the Safe Drinking Water Act, CERCLA (i.e. Superfund: Comprehensive
Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act), Emergency Planning and
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Community Right-to-Know (EPCRA), OSHA (Occupational Safety & Health
Administration), TSCA (Toxic Substances Control Act), Oil Pollution Act and Spill
Prevention Control and Countermeasure Plans. Here is a breakdown of the air, water, and
soil hazards posed by refineries:
1 Air pollution hazards: Petroleum refineries are a major source of hazardous and
toxic air pollutants such as BTEX compounds (benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene, and
xylene). They are also a major source of criteria air pollutants: particulate matter (PM),
nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen sulfide (H
2
S), and sulfur dioxide
(SO
2
). Refineries also release less toxic hydrocarbons such as natural gas (methane) and
other light volatile fuels and oils. Some of the chemicals released are known or suspected
cancer-causing agents, responsible for developmental and reproductive problems. They
may also aggravate certain respiratory conditions such as childhood asthma. Along with the
possible health effects from exposure to these chemicals, these chemicals may cause worry
and fear among residents of surrounding communities. Air emissions can come from a
number of sources within a petroleum refinery including: equipment leaks (from valves or
other devices); high-temperature combustion processes in the actual burning of fuels for
electricity generation; the heating of steam and process fluids; and the transfer of products.
Many thousands of pounds of these pollutants are typically emitted into the environment
over the course of a year through normal emissions, fugitive releases, accidental releases,
or plant upsets. The combination of volatile hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen also
contribute to ozone formation, one of the most important air pollution problems in the
United States.
2 Water pollution hazards: Refineries are also potential major contributors to ground
water and surface water contamination. Some refineries use deep-injection wells to dispose
of wastewater generated inside the plants, and some of these wastes end up in aquifers and
groundwater. These wastes are then regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA).
Wastewater in refineries may be highly contaminated given the number of sources it can
come into contact with during the refinery process (such as equipment leaks and spills and
the desalting of crude oil). This contaminated water may be process wastewaters from
desalting, water from cooling towers, storm water, distillation, or cracking. It may contain
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oil residuals and many other hazardous wastes. This water is recycled through many stages
during the refining process and goes through several treatment processes, including a
wastewater treatment plant, before being released into surface waters. The wastes
discharged into surface waters are subject to state discharge regulations and are regulated
under the Clean Water Act (CWA). These discharge guidelines limit the amounts of
sulfides, ammonia, suspended solids and other compounds that may be present in the
wastewater. Although these guidelines are in place, sometimes significant contamination
from past discharges may remain in surface water bodies.
3 Soil pollution hazards: Contamination of soils from the refining processes is
generally a less significant problem when compared to contamination of air and water. Past
production practices may have led to spills on the refinery property that now need to be
cleaned up. Natural bacteria that may use the petroleum products as food are often effective
at cleaning up petroleum spills and leaks compared to many other pollutants. Many
residuals are produced during the refining processes, and some of them are recycled
through other stages in the process. Other residuals are collected and disposed of in
landfills, or they may be recovered by other facilities. Soil contamination including some
hazardous wastes, spent catalysts or coke dust, tank bottoms, and sludges from the
treatment processes can occur from leaks as well as accidents or spills on or off site during
the transport process.
MARKET AND ENVIRONMENTAL FORCES CHANGING THE FACE OF THE
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
The U.S. petroleum refining industry has come under considerable strain because of several
important factors and changes in the industry. Over the years, there has been an increased
demand for petroleum products and a decrease in U.S. production; however, there has been
no new major refinery construction in the United States in the last 25 years. This lack of
infrastructure growth has caused a tremendous strain on the industry in meeting existing
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demand, and the U.S. has had to increase the amounts of imports to meet these needs.
The Clean Air Act and stringent state regulations have also caused the industry to incur
extremely high costs for environmental compliance. These costs are accrued because
refineries must produce reformulated, cleaner-burning gasoline, which require companies
to replace or modify existing equipment with devices for controlling emissions. These costs
of compliance are having a detrimental effect on refineries trying to expand and to keep
pace with the countrys increasing demand.
The cost of meeting environmental regulations has led many petroleum companies to join
with the federal and state governments in reducing the amounts of hazardous air pollutants
being released. Consent decrees between the petroleum industry and EPA have been made
to reduce air emissions by refineries. One particular agreement was made between the state
of Delaware, Louisiana and the Northwest Air Pollution Authority to reduce air emissions
of nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide from nine refineries by more than 60,000 tons per year
(EPA, 2001). The settlements are an effort to reduce the amounts of illegal releases of
harmful air pollutants from these refineries by installing up-to-date pollution control
devices and reducing emissions from leaking valves, flares and process units within the
refinery. This type of collaboration between refineries and the state and federal
governments provides a cooperative effort towards addressing environmental concerns
within the industry.
R REFERENCE EFERENCE
1. Ludwig, E.E, Applied process design , 3
rd
ed, vol. 2, Gulf Professional
Publishers, 2002.
2. Ludwig, E.E, Applied Process Design, 3
rd
ed, vol. 3, Gulf Professional Publishers,
2002.
Location
3. McKetta, J.J., Encyclopedia of chemical Processing and Design, Executive ed,
vol. 1, Marcel Dekker Inc, New York, 1976.
4. Levenspiel, O., Chemical Reaction Engineering:, 3
rd
ed ,John Wily and Sons Inc.,
1999.
5. Peters, M.S. and Timmerhaus ,K.D., Plant Design and Economics for Chemical
Engineering , 5
th
ed, McGraw Hill, 1991.
6. Rase, H.F., Fixed Bed Reactor Design and Diagnostics, Butterworth Publishers,
1990.
7. Frank L., Evans Jr. Equipment Design Hand Book For Refineries & Chemical
Plants Vol 2, 2
nd
Ed., 1980,
8. peacock, D.G., Coulson & Richardson,s Chemical engineering,
3
rd
ed,vol,Butterworth Heinenann, 1994.
9. Kern D.Q., Process Heat Transfer, McGraw Hill Inc.,2000.
10. Mcabe, W.L, Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering ,5
th
ed, McGraw
Hill, Inc,1993.
11. Perry, R.H and D.W. Green (eds): Perrys Chemical Engineering Hand
Book, 7
th
ed. McGraw Hill New York, 1997.
12. Sinnot, R.K.,Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering, 2
nd
ed,
vol.6, Butterword Heinenann, 1993.
13. Rohsenow,Hartnett,Ganic Hand Book of Heat Transfer Application 2
nd
edition.
14. Fogler H.S. Elements of Chemical Reaction Engineering 2
nd
Edition.
15. W.L.Nelson. Petroleum Refinery Engineering4
th
Ed ,McGraw Hill.
Location
16. Kern, Donald Q: Process Heat Transfer , McGraw-Hill
International Edition ,New York
a. W.L. Nelson: Petroleumner Refiy Engineering Fourth Edition,
a. McGraw-Hill, New York.
17. Kirk: Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology John
Willey and Sons, New York
18. Macketta, John J: Encyclopedia of chemical Processing and
Design Marceer Dekker, INC., New York
19. Warren M. Rohenson: Hand book of Heat Transfer , McGrawHill,
New York
a. H. Etherington: Modern furnace technology , Third Edition,
a. Charles Griffin & Company Ltd. , London.
20. Robert d. Reid: Furnace Operation
21. W.Trinks, M.H Mawhinney:Industrial Furnaces , 5th edition, Volume 1,
i. John Wiley & Sons, INC., London.
22. www.Reforming.Pdf
23. http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FVP
24. http://www.hudsonproducts.com/Default.htm
25. http://www.processassociates.com/process/heat/fouling1.htm#ptr
26. http://www.processassociates.com/process/heat/uvalues1.htm#ptr
27. http://www.processassociates.com/process/tools.htm
Location
28. www.ISCR17.pdf
29. www.Radial-JM.pdf

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Chapter #1 Introduction

= mass flow rate / density

Chapter #4 Equipment Design

Liquid flow rate = 6.787 kg/sec

Chapter #4 Equipment Design

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