Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

Technical White Paper LIGHTNING PROTECTION REQUIREMENTS AND SPECIFICATIONS

[For the source of the definitions please see the Bibliography] 1. ELECTRIC UTILITY REQUIREMENTS The protection of transmission lines naturally divides into two general methods. The first seeks to keep the stroke off the line conductors; and the second allows the line conductor to be struck but prevents the power follow current from creating an interruption to service. The first method makes use of overhead ground wires, while the second uses such devices as protector tubes, ground-fault neutralizers, or automatic reclosing breakers. (13a) [Authors note, lightning arrestors are now commonly used. The use of lightning arrestors allows the shunting of the lightning energy around the primary t r a n s f o r m e r s a n d c o n d u c t o r s . Combinations o f both methods are also commonly used.] Counterpoise A conductor buried to a depth of 1 to 3 feet of a material that is mechanically strong and resistant to corrosion. Experience seems to indicate that a size, which is suitable mechanically, will be sufficient from the point of view of conductivity. (13b) this definition of counterpoise is one of two recommended methods for tower grounding, 1) ground rods or 2) buried conductors. Overhead ground wire The principle of operation of an overhead ground wire is to intercept the stroke and to conduct its current to ground without sufficient potential developing either at the tower or in the span to cause a flashover between the ground wire or tower, and conductors. Overhead ground wires are placed over the line conductors in such a manner that lightning makes contact with them rather than with the line conductors. From the point of view of lightning, the ground wires can be made of any suitable material such as steel, copper, aluminum, or copper-covered steel. The conductor size will, in general, be determined by mechanical considerations if too small it might be burned seriously by the lightning current. The largest conductor definitely known to have been burned completely through, according to the authors records, is a No. 4 solid copper conductor. It is probable that in most cases the overhead ground wire should not be smaller than No. 1/0. (13a) Counterpoise Ground wires which are connected to tower footings to provide an adequate lightning current path to ground. (14a) Overhead ground wires Wires, which are used in transmission lines to protect the lines by providing a ground path for lightning. (14b) The ground wire is not part of any electrical circuit, however, but instead is connected to the earth at frequent intervals, at least every fifth pole, on pole lines. On steel towers it is grounded to each tower,

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

by means of the metal clamp with which it is fastened. The ground or earth potential is thereby virtually brought above the transmission line and, hence, the stress on the line and transformer insulation due to lightning is greatly reduced. A properly installed ground wire is highly effective, but its effectiveness depends on low ground resistance. (14c) Static wires The small wire at the top of the structure are so-called static wires or ground wires. They are not insulated and directly connect to the metal hardware on the structure and the ground. Their purpose is to shield the line conductors from lightning. (14d) [Authors note, the structure referred to is a structure supporting overhead electrical distribution lines.]

PHOTO OF 15 KV OVERHEAD DISTRIBUTION LINE WITH OVERHEAD GUARD WIRE. (AKA OVERHEAD GROUND OR STATIC WIRE)

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

2. FAA OWNED FACILITY REQUIREMENTS Counterpoise A #6 solid bare soft drawn copper counterpoise wire shall be installed above cable in accordance with the details shown in Section 3.6. The #6 bare soft drawn copper (BSDC) cable counterpoise shall be installed above direct earth buried (DEB) cables to provide 450 cone-of-protection for all cables installed in the trench. (15) [Authors note, Section 3.6 typically shows the counterpoise centered over the cables/ducts to be protected except when the bare copper would be installed in concrete backfill. Detail 3/1 shows a concrete encased duct with the encasement filling the entire duct trench. The #6 BSDC counterpoise is shown off center outside the concrete encasement.]

FAA-SO-STD-71, PART 3.6 CABLE TRENCH AND DUCT DETAILS DETAIL 1/1 (15)

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

FAA-SO-STD-71, PART 3.6 CABLE TRENCH AND DUCT DETAILS DETAIL 4/1 (15) Use of guard wires Overhead guard wires to protect overhead incoming AC service conductors and buried guard wires to protect buried cables runs not enclosed in rigid galvanized steel conduits have proven effective in protecting against lightning induced surges on the conductors. (16a) Buried guard wire [commonly referred to as counterpoise] .. For other AC conductors to exterior equipment where the use of rigid galvanized steel conduit is not feasible, the use of a guard wire is required. Bare No. 6 AWG solid copper conductor has provided effective protection during experimental use. To be effective the guard wire must be embedded in the soil a minimum of 10 inches (25 cm) above and parallel to the protected cable run or duct. The guard wire must be effectively bonded to the ground rod at the service transformer and to the earth electrode system of the facility housing the service disconnect means. Exothermic welds shall be used to provide the bonding. Lengths of guard wires exceeding 300 feet (90 m) shall have an additional connection to earth ground. For each 300 feet (90 m) or portion thereof in excess of 300 feet, an earth ground connection shall be made utilizing inch by 10 foot ground

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

rods located not less than six (6) feet from the guard wire. These connections to earth should be located at approximately equal spacings between the ground connections at each end of the guard wire installation. (16b) buried guard wire Use of a buried #6 AWG solid copper guard wire (counterpoise) embedded in soil above and parallel to buried cable runs not enclosed in rigid galvanized steel conduits, including armored cable, has provided effective attenuation of lightning-induced transients. To be effective, the guard wire must be embedded in the soil a minimum of 10 inches (25 cm) above and parallel to the protected cable run or duct. When the width of the cable run or duct bank does not exceed 3 feet (1 m), one guard wire, centered over the cable run or duct bank, provides adequate protection. When the cable run or duct bank is more than 3 feet (1 m) wide, two guard wires shall be installed. The guard wires should be at least 12 inches (30 cm) apart and be not less than 12 inches (30 cm) nor more than 18 inches (45 cm) inside the outermost wires or the edges of the duct bank. The guard wires must be bonded to the earth electrode system at each terminating facility. Exothermic welds or FAA approved pressure connectors provide effective bonding. Guard wires exceeding 300 feet (90 m) in length shall also be connected to a ground rod every 300 feet (90 m) or portion thereof in excess of 300 feet (90 m). (16c)

EXAMPLE OF FAA-6950.19A, REQUIREMENTS (16)

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

Earth Electrode System (EES) 1.1 An earth electrode system shall be installed capable of dissipating the energy of direct lightning strikes, dissipating DC, AC, and RF currents, and conducting power system fault currents to earth. (16d) Cable guard wires Where indicated on the drawings, the contractor shall install cable guard wires to protect underground conductors from the effects of lightning discharges. Guard wires may be direct earth buried or installed in nonmetallic ducts. Each guard wire shall be a bare solid No. 6 AWG copper conductor installed not less than 10 inches above the buried conductors or ducts. (17) Buried guard wires Buried lines, not completely enclosed in ferrous metal conduit, shall be protected by a bare N0. 6 AWG, solid copper guard wire. The guard wire shall be embedded in the soil, a minimum of 10 in. directly above and parallel to the lines or cables being protected. The guard wire shall be bonded to the earth electrode system at each end and to ground rods at intervals not exceeding 300 feet using exothermic welds or FAA approved pressure connectors. (18) Buried guard wires Buried lines including armored cable, not completely enclosed in ferrous conduit, shall be protected by a bare #1/0 AWG copper guard wire. The guard wire shall be embedded in the soil, a minimum of 10 in. (25 cm) directly above and parallel to the lines or cables being protected. When the width of the cable run or duct does not exceed 3 ft (90 cm), one guard wire, centered over the cable run or duct, provides adequate protection. When the cable run or duct is more than 3 ft (90 cm) in width, 2 guard wires shall be installed. The guard wires should be at least 12 in. (30 cm) apart and be not less than 12 in. (30 cm) nor more than 18 in. (45 cm) inside the outermost wires or the edges of the duct. The guard wire shall be bonded to the EES [earth electrode system] at each end and to ground rods at approximately 90 ft intervals using exothermic welds. Where cables are run parallel to the edge of a runway an additional guard wire located between the runway edge and the cable run has been shown to provide significant reduction in lightning related incidents. The spacing between ground rods must vary by 10 20% to prevent resonance. Install the ground rods at approximately 6 feet (2 m) to either side of the trench. (19a) Lightning Protection System Requirements The intended purpose of the lightning protection system is to provide preferred paths for lightning discharges to enter or leave the earth without causing facility damage or injury to personnel or equipment. (19b) Down Conductor Terminations Down conductors (see paragraph 3.7.3) used to ground air terminals and roof conductors, shall be exothermically welded to a 4/0 AWG copper conductor prior to entering the ground. The 4/0 copper conductor shall enter the ground and be welded to a ground rod that is exothermically welded to the EES. (19c)

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

EXAMPLE OF FAA-STD-019d, REQUIREMENTS (19)

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

3. NON-FAA OWNED FACILITY REQUIREMENTS 150/5370-10A L-108-3.9 Bare Counterpoise Wire Installation And Grounding For Lightning Protection. If shown in the plans or specified in job specifications, a stranded bare copper wire, No. 8 AWG minimum size, shall be installed for lightning protection of the underground cables. The bare counterpoise wire shall be installed in the same trench for the entire length of the insulated cables it is designed to protect, and shall be placed at a distance of approximately 4 inches (100 mm) from the insulated cable. The counterpoise wire shall be securely attached to each light fixture base, or mounting stake. The counterpoise wire shall also be securely attached to copper or copper-clad ground rods installed not more than 1,000 feet (300 m) apart around the entire circuit. The ground rods shall be of the length and diameter specified in the plans, but in no case shall they be less than 8-feet (240 cm) long nor less than 5/8 inch (15 mm) in diameter. The counterpoise system shall terminate at the transformer vault or at the power source. It shall be securely attached to the vault or equipment grounding system. The connections shall be made as shown in the project plans and specifications. (21)

EXAMPLE OF L-108-3.9 REQUIREMENTS

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

EXAMPLE OF L-108-3.9 REQUIREMENTS

150/5340-24-7.k Counterpoise. If required, install counterpoise wire for lightning protection in the same trench 4 inches above the installed cable it is to protect as specified in paragraph 108-3.9 of AC 150/5370-10. (29) 150/5340-30-12.5 Counterpoise (Lightning Protection) - The counterpoise system is installed on airfields to provide some degree of protection from lightning strikes to underground power and control cables. The counterpoise conductor is a bare solid copper wire, #6 AWG. The conductor is connected to ground rods spaced a maximum of 500 feet apart. Connection to the ground rod is made using exothermic welds. Where cable and/or conduit runs are adjacent to pavement, such as along runway or taxiway edges, the counterpoise is installed 8 below grade, located half the distance from edge of pavement to the cable and/or conduit runs. The counterpoise is not connected to the light fixture base can or mounting stake. Where cable and/or conduit runs are not adjacent to pavements, the counterpoise is installed 4 minimum above the cable and/or conduit. The height above the cable and/or conduit is calculated to ensure the cables and/or conduits to be protected are within a 45 zone of protection below the counterpoise. The counterpoise will be terminated at ground rods located on each side of a duct crossing. Where conduit or duct runs continue beneath pavement (i.e., apron areas, etc.), install the counterpoise a minimum of 4 inches above conduits or ducts along the entire run. Counterpoise connections are made to the exterior ground lug on fixture bases of runway touchdown zone lights, runway centerline lights, and taxiway centerline lights installed in rigid pavement. The counterpoise is bonded to the rebar cage around the fixture base. Where installed in materials that accelerate the corrosion of the proper conductor, the counterpoise must be type TW insulated. Coat any exposed copper/brass at connections to the base can with a 6-mil layer of 3M ScotchKote e l e c t r i c a l c o a t i n g o r a p p r o v e d e q u i v a l e n t . Ensure all

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

counterpoise connections are UL listed for direct earth burial and/or installation in concrete is applicable. Refer to Figure 108 for counterpoise installation details. (23) 150/5340-30-12.6 Safety (Equipment) Ground - A safety ground must be installed at each light fixture. The purpose of the safety ground is to protect personnel from possible contact with an energized light base or mounting stake as the result of a shorted cable or isolation transformer. The safety ground may be a #6 AWG bare jumper connected to the ground lug at the fixture base or stake to a 5/8 by 8 foot minimum ground rod installed beside the fixture. A safety ground circuit may also be installed and connected to the ground bus at the airfield lighting vault. The safety ground circuit may be a #6 AWG insulated wire for 600 volts (XHHW). Insulation should be colored green. Attach the safety ground circuit to the ground lug at each light base or mounting stake, and secure the entire lighting circuit to the ground bus at the vault. The safety ground circuit must be installed in the same duct or conduit as the lighting power conductors. (23)

EXAMPLE OF AC 150/5340-30 REQUIREMENTS (23)

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

EXAMPLE OF AC 150/5340-30 REQUIREMENTS (23)

EXAMPLE OF AC 150/5340-30 REQUIREMENTS (23)

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

Typical Installation Drawings for Airport Lighting Equipment, dated July 1988 issued by the FAA Great Lakes Region drawing GL-600-1 matches the requirements of AC 150/5340-30. (30) 150/5370-10B 108-3.6 Bare Counterpoise Wire Installation for Lightning Protection and Grounding. If shown on the plans or included in the job specifications, bare counterpoise copper wire shall be installed for lightning protection of the underground cables. Counterpoise wire shall be installed in the same trench for the entire length of buried cable, conduits and duct banks, which are installed to contain airfield cables. Where the cable or duct/conduit trench runs parallel to the edge of pavement, the counterpoise shall be installed in a separate trench located half the distance between the pavement edge and the cable or duct/conduit trench. In trenches not parallel to pavement edges, counterpoise wire shall be installed continuously a minimum of 4 inches above the cable, conduit or duct bank, or as shown on the plans if greater. Additionally, counterpoise wire shall be installed at least 8 inches below the top of sub grade in paved areas or 10 inches below finished grade in un-paved areas. This dimension may be less than 4 inches where conduit is to be embedded in existing pavement. Counterpoise wire shall not be installed in conduit. The counterpoise wire shall be routed around to each light fixture base, mounting stake, or junction/access structures. The counterpoise wire shall also be exothermically welded to ground rods installed as shown on the plans but not more than 500 feet (150 m) apart around the entire circuit. The counterpoise system shall be continuous and terminate at the transformer vault or at the power source. It shall be securely attached to the vault or equipment external ground ring or other made electrode grounding system. The connections shall be made as shown on the plans and in the specifications. If shown on the plans or in the specifications, a separate equipment (safety) ground system shall be provided in addition to the counterpoise wire using one of the following methods: 1. A ground rod installed at and securely attached to each light fixture base, mounting stake if painted, and to all metal surfaces at junction/access structures. 2. Install an insulated equipment ground conductor internal to the conduit system and securely attach it to each light fixture base and to all metal surfaces at junction/access structures. This equipment ground conductor shall also be exothermically welded to ground rods installed not more than 500 feet (150 m) apart around the circuit. a. Counterpoise Installation Above Multiple Conduits and Duct Banks. Counterpoise wires shall be installed above multiple conduits/duct banks for airfield lighting cables, with the intent being to provide a complete cone of protection over the airfield lighting cables. When multiple conduits and/or duct banks for airfield cable are installed in the same

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

trench, the number and location of counterpoise wires above the conduits shall be adequate to provide a complete cone of protection measured 22 [NFPA 780 states 450] degrees each side of vertical. Where new duct banks pass under existing pavement, the counterpoise shall be run through an uppermost empty conduit and also be bonded exothermically at ground rods, furnished and installed by the Contractor, at each end of the duct bank. Where duct banks pass under pavement to be constructed in the project, the counterpoise shall be placed above the duct bank. Reference details on the construction plans. b. C o u n t e r p o i s e Installation at Existing Duct Banks. When airfield lighting cables are indicated on the plans to be routed through existing duct banks, the new counterpoise wiring shall be terminated at ground rods at each end of the existing duct bank where the cables being protected enter and exit the duct bank. Where approved by the Engineer, the ground rod installation will not be required if the new counterpoise wiring is connected to the existing duct bank counterpoise wiring system. (22) 150/5370-10B 108-3.7 Exothermic Bonding. Bonding of counterpoise wire shall be by the exothermic welding process. Only personnel experienced in and regularly engaged in this type of work shall make these connections. Contractor shall demonstrate to the satisfaction of the Engineer, the welding kits, materials and procedures to be used for welded connections prior to any installations in the field. The installations shall comply with the manufacturer's recommendations and the following: All slag shall be removed from welds. For welds at light fixture base cans, all galvanized coated surface areas and "melt" areas, both inside and outside of base cans, damaged by exothermic bond process shall be restored by coating with a liquid cold-galvanizing compound conforming to U.S. Navy galvanized repair coating meeting Mil. Spec. MIL-P-21035. Surfaces to be coated shall be prepared and compound applied in accordance with manufacturer's recommendations. All buried copper and weld material at weld connections shall be thoroughly coated with heat shrinkable tubing or coated with coal tar bitumastic material to prevent surface exposure to corrosive soil or moisture." (22) The DRAFT 150/5370-10B description of counterpoise for the individual airfield lighting circuits complies with the 150/5340-30 Advisory Circular. The DRAFT 150/5370-10B description of counterpoise for the airfield lighting duct banks generally complies with the existing 150/5370-10A Advisory Circular.

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

4. MILITARY FACILITY REQUIREMENTS TM 5-690 Completely enclose buried lines in ferrous metal, electrically continuous, watertight conduit. Protect against direct lightning strikes to buried cable by installing a guard wire above the cables or cable duct. A 1/0 AWG bare copper cable laid directly over the protected cables is recommended. At least 25.4 cm (10 inches) should be maintained between the protected cables and the guard wire. For a relatively narrow spread of cables, 0.9 meters (3 feet) or less, or for a duct less than 0.9 meters (3 feet) wide, only one guard wire cable is necessary. For wider cable spreads or wider ducts, at least two 1/0 AWG cables should be provided. The guard wires should be spaced at least 30 cm (12 inches) apart and be not less than 30 cm (12 inches) nor more than 45 cm (18 inches) inside the outermost wires or the edges of the duct. To be effective, the guard wires must be bonded to the earth electrode subsystem at each terminating facility. Exothermic welds provide the most effective bonding. Since the guard wire and protected cables are embedded in the earth, the applicable zone of protection is not known. (31) UFC 3-535-01 12.1.5 Equipment Grounding System. Install #6 copper AWG green-jacketed wires identified as an equipment ground, in ducts with primary circuit and connect all light bases. Note, if used for approach lights without a light base, connect ground to each light fixture and to the vault lighting system. 12.1.5.1 Ground Criteria. The ground wire serves as a safety ground, protecting against high voltages that could be brought to the light base. As an alternative, each aviation light base will be grounded with a ground rod. System safety ground wires are to be bonded only at the vault, manholes, hand holes, light bases and cans. See the following paragraphs for providing a counterpoise system for lightning protection. 12.1.6 Counterpoise Lightning Protection System. Provide a continuous counterpoise of number 4 (minimum) AWG bare, stranded copper wire over the entire length of all primary circuits supplying airfield lighting: outside pavements, with a minimum 2.4 meter (8 foot) ground rod installed at least every 300 meters (1,000 feet). Do not connect counterpoise system to the light bases. 12.1.6.1 Counterpoise Criteria. Along runway/taxiway or apron shoulders, install the counterpoise halfway between the pavement and at approximately half the depth of the duct (or cable, if direct buried) if at all possible. If this is not practical, install counterpoise 10-15 centimeters (4-6 inches) above the duct or direct buried cable. Route the counterpoise around each light base or unit, at a distance of about 0.6 meters (2 feet) from the unit; do not connect to the unit. For duct not along a shoulder or for duct bank, lay the counterpoise 10-15 centimeters (4-6 inches) above the uppermost layer of direct buried ducts, or on the top of the concrete envelope of an encased duct bank. Provide only one counterpoise wire for cables for the same duct bank. Connect all counterpoise wires leading to a duct bank to the single counterpoise wire for the duct

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

bank. Lay the counterpoise at least 0.3 meters (12 inches) from any light cans or in routing counterpoise around manholes or hand holes. Do not connect the counterpoise to the lighting vault power grounding system. Use brazing or thermoweld for all connections. The counterpoise resistance to ground must not exceed 25 ohms at any point using the drop of potential method. (32) AFMAN(I) 32-1187/TM 811-5, FINAL DRAFT, Design Standards for Visual Air Navigation Facilities is very similar in its description of counterpoise and grounding to UFC 3-535-01 mentioned above. Details from the AFMAN manual follow. (33)

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

AFMAN(I) 32-1187/TM 8111-5 FINAL DRAFT (33) FIGURE 1. DIRECT BURIED DUCT/CONDUIT DETAIL

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

AFMAN(I) 32-1187/TM 8111-5 FINAL DRAFT (33) FIGURE 2. DIRECT BURIED CABLE TRENCH DETAILS

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

AFMAN(I) 32-1187/TM 8111-5 FINAL DRAFT (33) FIGURE 3. COUNTERPOISE & GROUND ROD INSTALLATION DETAIL

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

5. INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION (ICAO) REQUIREMENTS ICAO Aerodrome Design Manual Part 5 Electrical Systems, First Edition 1983, defines the requirements for grounding and counterpoise installation. The requirements are similar to the FAA requirements except for the bonding of the isolation transformer secondary. Chapter 3.6.2.4, Designing for Integrity and Reliability states ., providing ground wire circuits throughout the system to reduce the effects of lightning and high voltage surges,. The ground wire circuit is basically a counterpoise conductor as previously defined in this document. (34a) Chapter 5.1.2.6 Ground Wires A ground wire or counterpoise wire should be installed to protect underground power and control cables from high ground current surges in areas where damage from lightning strikes may be expected. The ground wire should be installed between the earths surface and the underground cables. It is usually an un-insulated, stranded copper conductor. The size of this ground wire should not be less than the largest size conductors, which it protects. Cross-section area of the conductor may range from 8.4 mm2 to 21 mm2 or larger. [Converting the SI sizes to AWG the Chapter recommends a range from #8 AWG to #4 AWG copper wire.] It should be a continuous conductor and connected to each fixture, light base and ground rod or connection along its route. (34b) Chapter 4.2.3.h of the ICAO Aerodrome Design Manual Part 5, Separation between Cables states; Ground wire and counterpoises should be approximately 15 cm [ 6] above the uppermost level of cables. (34c)

6. NATIONAL FIRE PROTECTION ASSOCIATION (NFPA) REQUIREMENTS NFPA 70, National Electrical Code (25a) Bonding (bonded) - The permanent joining of metallic parts to form an electrically conductive path that ensures electrical continuity and the capacity to conduct safely any current likely to be imposed. (25a) Bonding jumper - A reliable conductor to ensure the required electrical conductivity between metal parts required to be electrically connected. (25a) Bonding jumper, equipment - The connection between two or more portions of the equipment grounding conductor. (25a) Bonding jumper, main - The connection between the grounded circuit conductor and the equipment grounding conductor at the service. (25a)

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

Ground - A conducting connection, whether intentional or accidental, between an electrical circuit or equipment and the earth or to some conducting body that serves in place of the earth. (25a) Grounded - Connected to earth or to some conducting body that serves in place of the earth. (25a) Grounded, effectively - Intentionally connected to earth through a ground connection or connections of sufficiently low impedance and having sufficient current-carrying capacity to prevent the buildup of voltages that may result in undue hazards to connected equipment or to persons. (25a) Grounded conductor grounded. (25a) A system or circuit conductor that is intentionally

Grounding conductor - A conductor used to connect equipment or the grounded circuit of a wiring system to a grounding electrode or electrodes. (25a) grounding conductor, equipment - The conductor used to connect the noncurrentcarrying metal parts of equipment, raceways, and other enclosures to the system grounded conductor, the grounding electrode conductor, or both, at the service equipment or at the source of a separately derived system. (25a) grounding electrode conductor - The conductor used to connect the grounding electrode(s) to the equipment grounding conductor, to the grounded conductor, or to both, at the service, at each building or structure where supplied from a common service, or at the source of a separately derived system. (25a) NFPA 780, Standard for the Installation of Lightning Protection Systems (24d) bonding An electrical connection between an electrically conductive object and a component of a lightning protection system that is intended to significantly reduce potential difference created by lightning currents. (24d) Bonding conductor A conductor used for potential equalization between grounded metal bodies and a lightning protection system. (24d) Ground terminal The portion of a lightning protection system, such as a ground rod, ground plate, or a ground conductor, that is installed for the purpose of providing electrical contact with the earth. (24d) Grounded Connected to earth or some conducting body that is connected to earth. (24d) Lightning protection system A lightning protection system is a complete system of strike termination devices, conductors, ground terminals, interconnecting conductors, surge suppression devices, and other connectors or fittings required to complete the system. (24d)

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

Loop conductor A conductor encircling a structure that is used to interconnect ground terminals, main conductors or other grounded bodies. (24d) side flash An electrical spark, caused by differences of potential, that occurs between conductive metal bodies or between conductive metal bodies and a component of a lightning protection system or ground. (24d) Strike termination device A component of a lightning protection system that intercepts lightning flashes and connects them to a path to ground. Strike termination devices include air terminals, metal masts, permanent metal parts of structures as described in Section 4.9, and overhead ground wires installed in catenary lightning protection systems. (24d) Zone of protection The space adjacent to a lightning protection system that is substantially immune to direct lightning flashes. (24d) Common grounding All grounding media in or on a structure shall be interconnected to provide a common ground potential. This shall include lightning protection, electric service, telephone and antenna system grounds, as well as underground metallic piping systems. Underground metallic piping systems shall include water service, well casings located within 25 feet (7.6 m) of the structure, gas piping, underground conduits, underground liquefied petroleum gas piping systems, and so on. Interconnection to a gas line shall be made on the customers side of the gas meter. Main-size lightning conductors shall be used for interconnecting these grounding systems to the lightning protection system. (24e) Ground level potential equalization All grounded media in and on a structure shall be connected to the lightning protection system within 12 feet (3.6 m) of the base of the structure in accordance with Section 4.14. (24f)

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

LIGHTNING PROTECTION DISCUSSION

7. WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED SO FAR 1. Lightning strikes originate 15,000 to 20,000 feet above sea level. The strike comes to earth in 50 yard steps. Within 30 to 50 yards of ground the lightning strike determines the attachment point. Lightning strikes include current levels approaching 400 kA. stokes current ranges from 25 kA to 40 kA. The average

2.

3.

Stroke currents will divide up among all parallel conductive paths between the attachment point(s) and earth. Division of t he current will be inversely proportional to the path impedance. Lightning is a current source; output current is independent of load impedance. If the return stroke is 50 kA, then that is the magnitude of the current that will flow, whether it flows through one ohm or 1000 ohms. Voltage transfers from an intended lightning conductor into electrical circuits can occur due to capacitive coupling, inductive coupling, and/or resistance coupling. Radial horizontal arcing in excess of 65 feet from the base of the lightning flash extends the hazardous environment. Lightning is a capricious, random and unpredictable event. Many lives have been lost due to lightning. Lightning results in about $4 to $5 billion in damages each year. Each facility should undergo a lightning risk assessment. Lightning strikes cannot be prevented. Lightning can only be intercepted or diverted to a path that, if well designed and constructed, will not result in damage. Cone-of-Protection 450 each side of vertical and 150 sphere models. A low impedance connection to earth is key in a properly designed lightning protection system. The NEC 25 ohm maximum earth resistance requirement may not be adequate.

4.

5.

6.

7. 8.

9. 10.

11. 12.

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

8. AIRFIELD LIGHTING SYSTEM LIGHTNING PROTECTION METHODS There are currently two widely accepted airfield lighting system lightning protection methods. Method 1 - The first method centers about the interconnection of all metallic components via the counterpoise. The counterpoise system is connected to the earth electrode system (EES) at the airfield lighting vault. For simplicity of discussion we will refer to this method as the old method since this method is described in the current editions of FAA-STD-019d and AC 150/5370-10A. Method 2 - The second method recommends not connecting the counterpoise to the base can or fixture stake and includes the installation of a safety ground. The safety ground consists of a or b below: a. b. A bonding conductor installed between the base can or fixture stake and an electrode installed adjacent to the fixture. A conductor within the duct system, bonded to each base can or mounting stake. The safety ground conductor is connected to the EES at the airfield lighting vault.

The counterpoise, when installed for conductors adjacent to pavement (edge light circuits), is installed midway between the edge of pavement and the cable/duct run. The counterpoise is connected to the base can when installed with centerline or touchdown zone lights. We will refer to this method as the new method since this method is described in AC 150/5340-30 and DRAFT AC 150/5370-10B.

9. BASIS OF LIGHTNING STRIKE SCENARIOS DESCRIBED BELOW The following scenarios will address the advantages and disadvantages of the old and new methods. The behavior of lightning cannot be predicted with absolute accuracy. Earth impedance and the variation in lightning frequencies (kHz to MHz range) make it difficult to characterize lightnings behavior on the ground. (35) Site unique conditions will also impact the lightnings behavior. We are also assuming that the counterpoise conductors installed for either method have low impedance and will divert the lightning energy from the components to be protected. All base cans and mounting stakes considered in this discussion are galvanized steel. A non-metallic base can or painted mounting stake would present a very high impedance to a lightning strike. The base cans or mounting stakes are grounded by virtue of their being installed in the earth. However the base cans or mounting stakes without supplemental ground connections would present a higher than desired impedance to a lightning strike.

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

In each scenario we will be assuming an average lightning strike between 25 kA and 40 kA; we can expect radial arcing up to 65 feet from the strike attachment point. It is estimated that less than 15% of a lightning strikes current penetrates the earth. (6) The following three figures may be used to follow each of the lightning strike scenarios.

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

10. SCENARIO # 1 LIGHTNING STRIKES ADJACENT TO EDGE LIGHT CIRCUIT EDGE LIGHT IS OUTSIDE AREA OF RADIAL ARCING Old method The counterpoise wire and grounded base can should divert the strike current that penetrates the earth away from the airfield lighting system. The counterpoise conductor being buried in the earth will bleed off the strike current throughout its length. The average current decay rate is approximately 1% per meter. (36a) The base can should act as a Faraday Cage and should normally protect the isolation transformer and airfield lighting system cables. Minimal damage to the one fixture could occur. New method, with safety ground rod - The counterpoise wire and grounded base can (including safety ground rod) should divert the strike current that penetrates the earth away from the airfield lighting system. The base can should act as a Faraday Cage and should normally protect the isolation transformer and airfield lighting system cables. Minimal damage to the one fixture could occur. However, a base can in concrete (40 ohms) and a single ground rod (50 ohms) in Florida will have an earth resistance of approximately 26 ohms (parallel resistance formula X multiplier 1.16). An average lightning strike of 25 kA (15% penetrates the earth) and a 60/40 strike current split between counterpoise and base can, respectively, could result in a 39 kV drop over the base can earth connection for several microseconds. This could couple a high voltage on the airfield lighting circuit conductors resulting in a strain on the airfield lighting conductor insulation. New method, with safety ground conductor - The counterpoise wire should divert some of the strike current that penetrates the earth away from the airfield lighting system. Some of the strike current that penetrates the earth will see the base can. There will be a potential difference developed between the counterpoise and the base can. This potential difference could result in arcing and the boiling away of the moisture in the soil. The impedance of the lightning circuit will determine the current split between the counterpoise and the base can. We will assume an average strike current of 25 kA, 15% (3.75 kA) of which penetrates the earth. For discussion purposes lets assume the counterpoise carries 90% of the current and the base can carries the balance. The #6 AWG copper safety ground conductor will be asked to carry 375 A for the duration of the strike. The #6 copper conductor should be able to safely carry the 375 A for the short duration of the strike. However, a voltage will be coupled into the airfield lighting circuit, which could strain the airfield lighting circuit conductor insulation. Damage to the one fixture could occur. A 60/40 counterpoise/base can current split as used in the previous scenario would result in a 1500 A current in the safety ground.

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

11. SCENARIO # 2 LIGHTNING STRIKES ADJACENT TO EDGE LIGHT CIRCUIT EDGE LIGHT IS WITHIN AREA OF RADIAL ARCING Old method The surface arcing will travel across the earth in all directions from the point of strike attachment. The impedance of the strike attachment will determine the amount of current that each branch carries. Assume one of the radial arcs finds the edge light base plate. The counterpoise wire and grounded base can should divert the strike current away from the airfield lighting system. The base can should act as a Faraday Cage and should normally protect the isolation transformer and airfield lighting system cables. The counterpoise conductor could be asked to carry the strike current for a short time. The counterpoise conductor being buried in the earth will bleed off the strike current throughout its length. Minimal damage to the one fixture could occur. New method, with safety ground rod - The surface arcing will travel across the earth in all directions from the point of strike attachment. The impedance of the strike attachment will determine the amount of current that each branch carries. Assume one of the radial arcs finds the edge light base plate. The earth electrode and grounded base can should divert the strike current away from the airfield lighting system. The base can should act as a Faraday Cage and should normally protect the isolation transformer and airfield lighting system cables. However, because of the 26 ohm earth resistance there could be a significant voltage drop across the base can to earth interface. This could induce a strain on the airfield lighting circuit conductor insulation. Minimal damage to the one fixture and system cabling could occur. New method, with safety ground conductor - The surface arcing will travel across the earth in all directions from the point of strike attachment. The impedance of the strike attachment will determine the amount of current that each branch carries. Assume one of the radial arcs finds the edge light base plate. The counterpoise wire should divert some of the strike current that penetrates the earth away from the airfield lighting system. The base can is grounded by virtue of being buried in the earth and therefore will divert some of the strike current away from the airfield lighting system conductors. The surface arcing that has connected to the edge light base plate will be conducted to the safety ground conductor, via the base can. The safety ground conductor is routed with the airfield lighting circuit conductors. The safety ground conductor has no way to bleed off the strike current until it reaches the next base can or the EES at the airfield lighting vault. Since the safety ground does not have a low impedance path to divert the strike current, the safety ground could be destroyed. The destruction of the safety ground could damage the airfield lighting circuit conductors. The current in the safety ground could also induce significant voltage into the airfield lighting circuit resulting in constant current regulator (CCR) damage. Damage to the one or more fixtures could be expected.

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

12. SCENARIO # 3 LIGHTNING DIRECTLY STRIKES TOP OF ELEVATED EDGE LIGHT Old method Strike current divides among all conductive paths. The impedance of the strike attachment will determine the amount of current that each branch carries. The counterpoise wire and grounded base can should divert the majority of the strike current away from the airfield lighting system. The counterpoise conductor could be asked to carry the strike current for a short time. The counterpoise conductor being buried in the earth will bleed off the strike current throughout its length. The average current decay rate is approximately 1% per meter. (36a) A portion of the strike current will probably enter the fixture and couple to the secondary L-830 wiring. This would in turn couple a voltage to the L-830 primary and airfield lighting circuit conductors. This scenario would probably result in the destruction of the fixture, L-830 transformer and require cable replacement to the next fixture. New method, with safety ground rod - Strike current divides among all conductive paths. The impedance of the strike attachment will determine the amount of current that each branch carries. The earth electrode and grounded base can should divert most of the strike current away from the airfield lighting system. However, because of the 26 ohm earth resistance there could be a significant increase in the amount of voltage coupled into the L-830 transformer and primary circuit, versus the old method, resulting in additional damage to the airfield lighting system. New method, with safety ground conductor - Strike current divides among all conductive paths. The impedance of the strike attachment will determine the amount of current that each branch carries. The counterpoise wire should divert some of the strike current that penetrates the earth away from the airfield lighting system. The base can is grounded by virtue of being buried in the earth and therefore will divert some of the strike current away from the airfield lighting system conductors. The strike current that has connected to the edge light will be conducted to the safety ground conductor, via the base can. The safety ground conductor is routed with the airfield lighting circuit conductors. The safety ground conductor has no way to bleed off the strike current until it reaches the next base can or the EES at the airfield lighting vault. Since the safety ground does not have a low impedance path to divert the strike current, the safety ground could be destroyed. The destruction of the safety ground could damage the airfield lighting circuit conductors. The current in the safety ground could also induce significant voltage into the airfield lighting circuit resulting in constant current regulator (CCR) damage. A portion of the strike current will probably enter the fixture and couple to the secondary L-830 wiring. This would in turn couple a voltage to the L-830 primary and airfield lighting circuit conductors. This scenario would probably result in the destruction of the fixture, all L-830 transformers and cables within the limits of the safety ground wires ability to bleed off the strike current.

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

13. SCENARIO # 4 LIGHTNING DIRECTLY STRIKES TOP OF SEMIFLUSH CENTERLINE FIXTURE, COUNTERPOISE IS CONNECTED TO BASE CANS AS REQUIRED BY OLD AND NEW METHODS Old method Strike current divides among all conductive paths. The impedance of the strike attachment will determine the amount of current that each branch carries. The counterpoise wire and grounded base can should divert the majority of the strike current away from the airfield lighting system. The counterpoise conductor could be asked to carry the strike current for a short time. The counterpoise conductor being buried in the earth will bleed off the strike current throughout its length. The average current decay rate is approximately 1% per meter. (36a) A portion of the strike current will probably enter the fixture and couple to the secondary L-830 wiring. This would in turn couple a voltage to the L-830 primary and airfield lighting circuit conductors. This scenario would probably result in the destruction of the fixture, L-830 transformer and require cable replacement to the next fixture. New method, with safety ground rod - The new method for the centerline fixtures also has the counterpoise connected to each base can. The outcome should be similar to the old method discussed above. New method, with safety ground conductor The new method for the centerline fixtures also has the counterpoise connected to each base can. However the safety ground will also carry some of the strike current. A portion of the strike current that has connected to the base can will be conducted to the safety ground conductor, via the base can. The safety ground conductor is routed with the airfield lighting circuit conductors. The safety ground conductor has no way to bleed off the strike current until it reaches the next base can or the EES at the airfield lighting vault. Since the safety ground does not have a low impedance path to divert the strike current, the safety ground could be damaged. The damage to the safety ground could damage the airfield lighting circuit conductors. The current in the safety ground could also induce significant voltage into the airfield lighting circuit resulting in cable insulation stresses and possible CCR damage.

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

SAFETY GROUNDS
The safety ground implemented in AC 150/5340-30 has its roots in NFPA 70, The National Electrical Code (NEC). While the principle is sound, there are several flaws with the method of implementation. The NEC requires the grounding conductor to be installed in the same raceway or cable with the ungrounded conductors. An explanatory note in the NEC Handbook states; One of the functions of an equipment grounding conductor is to provide a lowimpedance ground-fault path between a ground fault and the electrical source. This path allows the over-current protective device to actuate, interrupting the current. To keep the impedance at a minimum, it is necessary to run the equipment grounding conductor within the same raceway or cable as the circuit conductor(s). This practice allows the magnetic field developed by the circuit conductor and the equipment grounding conductor to cancel, reducing their impedance. Magnetic flux strength is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between two conductors. By placing an equipment grounding conductor away from the conductor delivering the fault current, the magnetic flux cancellation decreases. This increases the impedance of the fault path and delays operation of the protective device. AC 150/5345-10E, Specification for Constant Current Regulators and Regulator Monitors, October 16, 1984, requires CCRs 10 kW and larger to have over-current protection. The over-current protective device is required to open the primary switch within 5 seconds for a 5% over-current and within 1 second of a 25% overcurrent. This over-current protection is not dependant upon a grounding conductor enclosed in the same conduit as the airfield lighting circuit conductors. The NEC is based upon a voltage source system. Airfield lighting circuits powered by a CCR are a current source system. The requirement for the grounding conductor to be routed in the same raceway with the ungrounded conductors is not applicable. As shown in the previous scenarios the inclusion of the safety ground with the series circuit conductors can actually increase damage to the system. The counterpoise routed over the duct and bonded to each base can provides the same electrical grounding function as the safety ground without increasing the possibility of damage from lightning. The term safety ground as described in 150/5340-30 may also be a placebo. The specified GE RTV-118 self-leveling sealant used to seal between components is an insulator. On a newly installed L-868 base can at Orlando International airport the resistance between base can components was measured and recorded. The base can sections are installed in accordance with the applicable FAA Advisory Circulars.

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

a. b.

Resistance between L-868B bottom base can section and top base can section. Zero ohms. This connection is bolted. Resistance between top can section and top of the third spacer ring. Greater than 1000 ohms! This connection is bolted only when the fixture is installed. It is expected that the resistance between the bolted fixture and top can section would be zero ohms.

A 1000 k ohm resistance with a 6.6 A current results in a 6,600 volt drop! Many of us have heard the statement You should have seen the sparks fly when I removed the last bolt.

PHOTO OF NEWLY INSTALLED TAXIWAY CENTERLINE LIGHT ON TAXIWAY F AT ORLANDO INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

CASE STUDY
Pinecastle Army Airfield was founded in 1942. The site was transferred to the City of Orlando in 1947. In 1951, the United States Government reacquired Pinecastle Army Airfield. In April 1952, Pinecastle Air Force Base was reactivated. In 1957, an aircraft accident took the life of Colonel Michael N. McCoy and three others. Colonel McCoy is credited with saving the lives of many on the ground during the accident. The base was renamed McCoy Air Force Base on May 7, 1958 in Colonel McCoys honor. In 1970 McCoy Air Force Base started scheduled commercial air carrier service. The initial air carriers were Delta Airlines, Eastern Airlines, National Airlines and Southern Airlines. In 1974 McCoy Air Force Base (MCO) was closed and the deed was transferred to the City of Orlando. In 1975 The Greater Orlando Aviation Authority (GOAA) is created by a special legislative act. In 1976 the airport is renamed Orlando International Airport. GOAA inherited a 1950s vintage airfield lighting system. Lightning damage at MCO was a significant maintenance problem. Orlando is located in the lightning capital of the United States. In 1987, the design of the New Third Runway (R/W 17-35), GOAA personnel and the design team researched FAA design standards and utility design standards to implement the best lightning protection system available. The design included a #6 AWG copper counterpoise routed over the center of each underground duct/conduit. The counterpoise was bonded to each base can and ground rods were installed at 500 foot maximum intervals. The counterpoise was also bonded to the base can rebar cages, manholes and all metallic elements within the airfield lighting system. Each ground rod was designed to have an earth resistance not to exceed 5 ohms. In addition a 4/0 AWG copper ground grid was installed under the pavement. The 4/0 grid consisted of roughly 500 foot interconnected squares with a ground rod at each corner. The counterpoise was bonded to the 4/0 grid at every crossing. The counterpoise and ground grid were both connected to the airfield lighting vault EES. The airfield lighting vaults lightning protection was designed in accordance with NFPA 780. Each CCR was specified with input and output lightning protection. Transient voltage surge suppression (TVSS) was provided for all sensitive or critical loads. The goal was to achieve minimum earth impedance to a lightning strike and to provide maximum reliability for the airfield lighting system. The Runway 17-35 was opened in 1989. While exact quantities of items damaged by lightning were not kept, GOAA Maintenance soon noticed the Third Runway was not suffering the severity of lightning damage of either of the other two runways.

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

In the 1990s the two existing military runways were rehabilitated. Experience dictated that the rehabilitation of the two runways include the same lightning protection measures incorporated for the Third Runway. Again GOAA Maintenance noticed a significant drop in the amount of damage caused by lightning. In 2000 design of the Fourth Runway was started. proven lightning protection measures. Again the design included the

In 2001 the local electric utility company referenced a study, which is quoted as stating that a #4 AWG copper wire is the smallest copper conductor that typically will not vaporize when struck by a direct high intensity lightning stroke. The #6 copper counterpoise does not vaporize in all strikes but is dependent on voltage level, impedance, etc. The study determined that #4 AWG copper wire is the minimum size that will survive the intense heat generated by the high voltage and current in a lighting strike. Although attempts have been made to obtain a copy of the study, we have not been able to locate the paper. Independently we have been able to verify the recommendation for using a #4 AWG copper counterpoise. The Standard Handbook For Electrical Engineers, Tenth Edition, states in part 26-14 Physical Requirements: The largest conductor definitely known to have been burned completely through, according to the authors records, is a No. 4 solid copper conductor. This reference is for an overhead ground wire (used for lightning protection) on overhead electrical distribution/transmission lines. The counterpoise size for the 4th Runway was changed from a #6 AWG copper to a #4 AWG copper based upon the utilitys information. The 4th Runway was opened to air carrier traffic on December 25, 2003. The following photos are an overview of the 4th Runway lightning protection.

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

4th RUNWAY SITE WITH AIRFIELD LIGHTING VAULT LIGHTNING PROTECTION

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

4th RUNWAY SITE WITH 4/0 AWG COPPER GROUND GRID

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

4th RUNWAY SITE WITH #4 AWG COPPER COUNTERPOISE AND 4/0 COPPER GROUND GRID

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

RECOMMENDATIONS
1. 2. Perform a Lightning Risk Assessment for each airfield lighting system. Implement lightning protection measures in according with the results of the lightning risk assessment. Delete r e q u i r e m e n t f o r safety g r o u n d w i t h i n c o n d u i t w i t h s e r i e s c i r c u i t conductors. Require counterpoise (safety groun d) to be routed above duct/conduit and bonded to each base can, rebar and all metallic items making up the airfield lighting system. Route counterpoise to airfield lighting vault and bond to vault EES. Install ground rods at 500 maximum intervals along series circuits. Bond ground rod to counterpoise. Minimum size of copper counterpoise - #4 AWG. Recommend maximum earth resistance of 10 ohms. NEC maximum earth resistance of 25 ohms is too high. Install lightning protection on airfield lighting vault in accordance with NFPA 780. Incorporate input and output lightning protection on CCRs and TVSS for critical loads. Explore addition of bonding jumper between fixture and bolted base can section. Explore requirement for all frangible couplings to be conductive or require bonding jumper.

3.

4.

5. 6.

7. 8.

9.

10. 11.

SUMMARY
The design and installation of a quality lightning protection system is critical to todays airport lighting systems. The lightning protection system is as important to the airfield lighting system as the actual lighting circuit wiring. Without proper lightning protection the airfield lighting systems can incur frequent and substantial outages. The cost of a well designed and installed lightning protection system is minimal when compared with component repair and replacement, runway or taxiway closures or aircraft being rerouted to another airport.

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1 Frequently Asked Questions About Lightning, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA) National Severe Storms Laboratory, Web site, http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/researchitems/lightning.shtml 2 A lightning Primer, National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA) Global Hydrology and Climate Center (GHCC), Web site, http://thunder.msfc.nasa.gov/ 3 Contemporary Lightning Safety for Environments Containing Sensitive Electronics, Explosives and Volatile Substances, By Richard Kithil, President & CEO, National Lightning Safety Institute. 4 IEEE Recommended Practice for Grounding of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems, IEEE Std 142-1991, IEEE Green Book. (4a) Page 110 Par 3.3.1.1; (4b) Page 112 Par 3.3.1.2; (4c) Page 116, Par 3.3.3.1; (4d) Page 117 Par 3.3.3.1 last two paragraphs; (4e) Page 126, Par 4; (4f) Page 127, Figure 61 & Table 9; (4g) Page 132, Table 14; (4h) Page 132, Par 4.1.5; (4i) Page 133, Par 4.1.6; (4J) Page 129, Par 4.1.3; (4k) Page 118, Par 3.3.3.2; (4l) Page 128, Par 4.1.2; 5 An Examination of Lightning-Strike-Grounding Physics, C. B. Moore, G.D. Aulich and William Rison Langmuir Laboratory for Atmospheric Research, New Mexico Tech, Socorro, NM 87801 with photo from December 1943 National Geographic Magazine, Page 662. 6 21st Century Lightning Safety for Explosives Facilities, By Richard Kithil, President & CEO, National Lightning Safety Institute. 7 Lightning Fatalities, Injuries and Damage Reports in the United States, National Lightning Safety Institute, web site http://www.lightningsafety.com/nlsi_lls/fatalities_us.html 8 Metal Objects Do Not Attract Lightning, White paper by Jack McKay, Ph.D. Physics, M.S.E.E. 9 Frequently Asked Questions About Lightning, VAISALA Group, web site http://www.lightningstorm.com/tux/jsp/faq/index.jsp 10 Email response to questions by Carl Johnson from Dr. Vladimir A. Rakov, M.S., Ph.D. Professor of the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville.

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

11 Electrical Protection Fundamentals, United States Department of Agriculture, Rural Utilities Service (RUS); RUS Bulletin 1751F-801. (11a) Page 11, Part 3.1.4.4 & 3.1.4.5; (11b) Page 39, Figure 2; (11c) Page 38, Figure 1; 12 Electrical Protection Grounding Fundamentals, United States Department of Agriculture, Rural Utilities Service (RUS); RUS Bulletin 1751F-802. (12a) Page 59, Figure 2; 13 Standard Handbook For Electrical Engineers, Tenth Edition, Donald G. Fink, Editor-in-Chief, John M. Carroll, Associate Editor, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Copyright 1969. (13a) Page 26-12; (13b) Page 26-19 14 The Linemans and Cablemans Handbook, Fifth Edition, Edwin B. Kurtz and Thomas M. Shoemaker, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Copyright 1976. (14a) Page 42-3; (14b) Page 42-8; (14c) Page 6-3; (14d) Page 2-7. 15 FAA-SO-STD-71, Specifications For Installation and Splicing Of Underground Cables, July 2, 1984. (15) Pages 16 through20; 16 FAA Order 6950.19A, Practices and Procedures for Lightning Protection, Grounding, Bonding and Shield Implementation, July 1, 1996. (16a) Page 136; (16b) Page 137; (16c) Page 159; (16d) Appendix 3 Page 12; 17 FAA-C-1391b, Installation and Splicing Of Underground Cables, January 1, 1991. (17) Page 12; 18 FAA-STD-19b, Lightning and Surge Protection, Grounding, Bonding and Shielding Requirements for Facilities and Electronic Equipment. (18) Paragraph 3.2.4; 19 FAA-STD-19d, Lightning and Surge Protection, Grounding, Bonding and Shielding Requirements for Facilities and Electronic Equipment, August 9, 2002. (19a) Page 9, Par 3.2.4; (19b) Page 20, Par 3.7.1; (19c) Page 22, Par 3.7.8; (19d) Page 32, Par 3.8.3; 20 Lightning Protection of Structures and Personal Safety, Dr. Vladimir A. Rakov, M.S., Ph.D. Professor of the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville. (20a) Page 8,Par 6; (20b) Page 1, Par 2; 21 AC 150/5370-10A, Standards for specifying the Construction of Airports, Item L108, Installation of Underground Cable for Airports, 2/17/89 22 AC 150/5370-10B, Standards for specifying the Construction of Airports, Item L108, Installation of Underground Cable for Airports, DRAFT

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

23 AC 150/5340-30, Design and Installation Details for Airport Visual Aids, 4/30/04 24 NFPA 780, Standard for the Installation of Lighting Protection Systems, 2004 Edition, Copyright 2001 and 2002 National Fire Protection Association, Inc.(24a) Annex L, Page 780-42; (24b) Page 780-9, Par 4.7.3.1; (24c) Page 780-10, Figure 4.7.3.1(B); (24d) Page 780-4, Chapter 3; (24e) Page 780-16, Par 4.14; (24f) Page 780-19, Par 4.21, (24g); Page 780-17, Par 4.18 (24h); 25 NFPA 70, National Electrical Code Handbook, 2002 Edition, Copyright 2001 and 2002 National Fire Protection Association, Inc. (25a) Article 100; (25b) Article 250; 26 Getting Down to Earth A Manual on Earth Resistance Testing for the Practical Man, Fifth Edition, February 1998, Copyright 1998, Distributor: MeterCenter (800) 230-6008, http://www.biddlemegger.com/biddleug/GettingDownToEarth.pdf (26a) Page 12, Figure 4; (26b) Page 24, How To Improve Earth Resistance; (26c) Page 12, Nature of an Earth Electrode; 27 Lightning Fatalities from 1990 through 2003, by Holle Meteorology and Photography, 22 May 2004. 28 The Lightning Attachment Process and Risk Management of the Hazard, By Richard Kithil, President & CEO, National Lightning Safety Institute. 29 AC 150/5340-24 Change 1, Runway and Taxiway Edge Lighting System, March 14, 1978, SUPERSEDED BY 150/5340-30, Page 12, Par 7.k; 30 Typical Installation Drawings for Airport Lighting Equipment, July 1988, FAA Great Lakes Region, Drawing GL-600-1. 31 TM 5-690, Grounding and Bonding in Command, Control, Communications, Computer, Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (C41SR) Facilities (Headquarters, Department of the Army, 15 February 2002) 32 UFC 3-535-01, Design Standards for Visual Air Navigation Facilities, November 2002, Part 2 System Information, Chapter 12, Page 128. 33 AFMAN(I) 32-1187/TM 811-5, FINAL DRAFT, Design Standards for Visual Air Navagation Facilities, 27 July 2000. Chapter 12 pages 126 & 127; 34 AERODROME DESIGN MANUAL, Part 5 Electrical Systems, First Edition 1993, International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO); (34a) Page 5-50, Par 3.6.2.4; (34b) Page 5-80, Par 5.1.2.6; (34c) Page 5-64, Par 4.2.3;

Written By: James Mark Long 19 January 2005

35 Email response to questions by Carl Johnson from Richard Kithil, President & CEO, National Lightning Safety Institute. 36 Triggered Lightning Testing of an Airport Runway Lighting System, Mirela Bejleri, Vladimir A. Rakov, Fellow, IEEE, Martin A. Uman, Fellow, IEEE, Keith J. Rambo, Carlos T. Mata, Member, IEEE, and Mark I. Fernandez, February 2002. (36a) Par IIIB; 37 AC 150/5345-10E, Specification for Constant Current Regulators and Regulator Monitors, October 16, 1984, (37a) Page 4, Par 3.3.9.2;