11th U.S.

/North American Mine Ventilation Symposium 2006 Mutmansky & Ramani (eds) 2006 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 0-415-40148-8

Underground mine ventilation planning, heat loads, and diesel equipment

C.A. Rawlins
School of Mining Engineering, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa

ABSTRACT: The use of diesel equipment underground is a factor to take cognizance of when the heat load and other environmental issues form part of the overall planning methodology. Trackless equipment or diesel powered machinery is an important aspect especially in massive mining operations. Increasing efficiency and their specific application into deep level mines are of great importance. Trackless equipment re-directs the emphasis on the surrounding environment and the ambient condition thereof. Remote control of diesel equipment underground can be done, however the surrounding environment should not be neglected with regards to the ambient temperature in those areas. Ventilation and the cooling of deep underground mines is a necessity and on the list of current mine design strategies. The usage of diesel equipment, i.e. LHDs, trucks, etc., or in some instances hybrid type systems (combinations of conventional and trackless equipment) could place an additional burden on such mines. When planning and designing an underground mine, heat loads are included and the long term implications in the selection of the correct trackless equipment to be used in a mine cannot be overemphasized. This paper will discuss the implications, design issues, and ventilation aspects including an overall design philosophy.

INTRODUCTION

Mining in South Africa takes place over a large part of the land and the different areas each have geologically different rock properties and geothermal gradients. The international mining community is aware that various different mineral deposits are mined in S.A. Deposits such as, Gold, Coal, Diamonds, Platinum, Chrome, and Base Metal mining, i.e. Copper, Zink, etc., are included in the variety. As anywhere in the world, mining operations are only viable in relation to the economic extraction of the mineral/s intended. Mining at depth is an environmental challenge because of the need to control firstly the heat flow into the mine and secondly man made/induced conditions, such as equipment (Trackless and other machinery) use, blasting, etc. In general, conditions in the ambient enclosed tunnels and production areas of a mine, is greatly affected by the rock properties of the surrounding strata, i.e. VRT (Virgin Rock Temperature). The mining method, i.e. trackless systems, further dictates the ventilation strategy that needs to be applied to counter this additional heat load contribution. This paper intends to show a ventilation planning methodology followed to determine a real mines requirements. Planning of a mines ventilation and cooling requirements are certainly not new to the fraternity and are

sometimes based on historical and or measured data gathered from local and surrounding mines. The planning methodology described herein takes a systematic approach in determining the overall ventilation requirements for a mine over a 20-year project period. 2 MINE DESCRIPTION

The mine extracts diamonds as its primary mineral. It is an existing mine.The mine uses the Block Cave mining method on its current mining horizon. The intention of this planning strategy followed was to determine the ventilation requirements for a new mining block which will be deeper and using diesel machinery to assist in the extraction of the orebody. Figure 1 shows the current mine layout. The current mining depth is 650 mbc (metres below shaft collar). The mining block (Block C) consists of the following levels: Conveyor and ventilation collector level (650 mbc) Extraction level (630 mbc) Undercut level (610 mbc) In the evaluation of the new mining block there were several mining methods (Block cave, Incline cave, Front cave, sub-level cave, etc.) studied to determine each ventilation system requirements. This paper discusses the block cave mining method to reflect on the

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Figure 1. Schematic view of the current mine.

operational level (Conveyor level) of Block D will be at a depth of 930 mbc. Figure 2 shows the inclusion of the new block into the current mine. Due to the fact that the mine had to change from a surface to an underground mining operation, the mine inherited some challenges that had to be over come. One such a challenge was, that as the block of ground gradually sunk deeper into the pit due to the extraction of the orebody, so did upper levels daylight. The orebody forms cracks from the open pit (surface) through to the drift loading positions meaning that upper levels, as they retreated to the orebody limits, were connected directly to the open pit. This posed a problem as fresh air would intake from these points and less from the main intake shaft. To counter this problem, pressurisation fans were installed at strategic places within the mine. The mine is thus over-pressurised by some 15% thereby pushing air out into the open pit rather that intake fresh air from the pit. In other deep mines such as gold mines, pressurisation or booster fans are used underground purely to overcome the increased pressure drop over the system and thus reduce leakage.

3 VENTILATION PLANNING SYSTEM A planning methodology would include the following steps: Determine the mining method and rate of production. Define acceptable environmental conditions. Calculate the heat load and other contaminants such as gas emissions, dust and fumes. Calculate the air and cooling requirements. Select the planning methodology or strategy applicable. There were three planning phases that the project adopted namely, (a) the conceptual planning phase, (b) the pre-feasibility phase, and (c) the feasibility phase. All mining methods mentioned previously were taken through the conceptual planning phase where after two mining methods (Block cave and Incline cave) were selected for the pre-feasibility stage. Figure 3 shows the planning phases. For this new mining block, the levels were defined as: Conveyor level (930 mbc) Ventilation collector level (900 mbc) Extraction level (880 mbc) Undercut level (860 mbc)

Figure 2. Schematic view of the mine extension.

ventilation planning methodology followed which was similar for the other mining methods analysed. The mine was initially an opencast mine whereafter underground mining commenced for economic mining reasons. There was a Block A and Block B which was mined with a sub-level cave mining method. For the initial underground mine, the fresh air intake facility is the Main Shaft (9 m - lined) with two upcast shafts (3 m each) to return air to surface via exhaust fans positioned on top of the upcast shafts. A new mining block, Block C, was designed below Block B and included a Block Cave mining method application. This is the current mining operation from where 4 million tones per annum (at full production) will be extracted. The Block cave mining method of the following block, Block D, is below Block C and includes a vertical length of about 250 m block height. The lowest

The design and planning of this new mining block was somewhat different due to the fact that this new block was below the existing mining horizon and current infrastructure/facilities were to be shared as far

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A systematic approach to planning

Determine the method & rate of production Define acceptable environmental conditions Calculate heat increases, gas emissions, dust & fumes Calculate air & cooling requirements Optimise alternatives (Ventilation and Refrigeration)
OPTIIMUM PT MUM UM
Conceptual Pre-feasibility Feasibility

Select the planning methodology/strategy

Figure 3. Planning phase layout. Table 1. Mine design parameters. Value and units Block cave 4 Mtpa 44m 56m 4 Mtpa 27.5 C 187 kW 224 kW

Figure 4. Geothermal Gradient for the mine area.

Description Mining method Production rate Drift tunnel dimensions Lateral level intake dimensions Production rate Reject temperature LHD machinery Loading trucks

Africa. The data at a vertical depth of 850 mbs indicated a maximum temperature of about 26.5 C. A best fit curve equation was constructed for the appropriate data and the result is: Y = A + Bx + C/x where A = 20.3 (Constant or surface VRT), B = 0.0077 (Constant) C = 4.184 107 (Constant), x = Variable Depth below surface (m), and Y = indicative VRT temperature ( C) Thus, for the 930 level (Conveyor belt level), the VRT was calculated to be 27.46 C. The VRT is relatively low in comparison to a mine for example in the Pilansberg geological area which would be at around 44.4 C at the same elevation. The VRT gradient was determined and the in-mine heat load determined to be 6944 kW. This heat load included heat from LHDs, trucks, strata, conveyor belt, people working, electric reticulation and components, secondary blasting, etc.

as possible. To refer to the planning system shown in Figure 3, the following is given. After the conceptual planning phase, the prefeasibility phase was conducted which focused on defined and more detailed information and calculations, together with simulations and what if studies. 4 HEAT LOADS AND VENTILATION PARAMETERS

As mentioned, a mines heat load comes from different sources where the surrounding rock in a deep mine would be the primary heat source. Some significant heat load sources are: Auto-compression Fissure water Surrounding rock, and Machinery use.

5 TRACKLESS EQUIPMENT PARAMETERS AND QUANTITY REQUIREMENTS For the trackless LHDs and loading trucks there are three values to determine. Firstly the quantity of air required to dilute diesel fumes adequately, the heat load from an LHD vehicle, and the temperature required before the LHD vehicle thereby not to exceed the reject temperature of the mine. The calculations and procedures followed were shows in previous publication (Rawlins CA, Phillips HR, 2005). The results were: LHD (187 kW) quantity (10.92 m3 /s) LHD heat load (325.48 kW) Temperature before LHD (23.7 C)

For this mine design the surrounding rock strata heat load had to be determined. The VRT was measured and Figure 4 shows the results. The thermal conductivity of the dolomite rock (country rock) is 5 W/m C and multiplying this by the average thermal gradient yields a value of 37 mW/m2 for the geothermal heat flux, which is consistent with reported measurements from this region in South

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The LHD is equipped with a 187 kW Detroit S50 engine. As mentioned in the publication there are five parameter to be evaluated and shown again for clarity purposes. The diesel unit exhaust outlet pipe dilution factor quoted as 0.06 m3 /s/kW (general mean value dependant on the fuel type and vehicle engine type used) of diesel rated power at the point of operation. The amount of air required satisfying a mining related re-entry period (10 minutes for secondary blasting). for secondary blasting in massive mining production areas, etc. Sufficient air to dilute (1 m/s drift velocity) any flammable gas encountered or to dilute dust, gases, fibres or diesel particulates that could be created during normal mining operations, i.e. drilling, loading, tramming, etc. To satisfy the cooling requirements of workers, a minimum air velocity of 0.5 m/s is advocated. Heat load of the mine, which generally relates to the mining depth, equipment used, etc.
Table 2. Summary of quantity requirements. Quantity (m3 /s) 12.8 16 18.1 10.92 11.22

Description Re-entry period Air velocity quantity LHD heat load Diesel fume contaminants General fume dilution

Air quantity requirements were determined using the following parameters: Re-entry period after a secondary blast (10 minutes). Minimum air velocity in drifts (1 m/s). Heat load quantity required (27.5 C reject temperature). Diesel tailpipe air dilution (0.0584 m3 /s/kW) General diesel fume dilution (0.06 m3 /s/kW) The above air quantity requirements were calculated and the results were: Table 2 shows that the heat load quantity calculated from the LHD vehicles are the greatest, namely 18.1 m3 /s. Allowing for 15% pressurisation and 10% leakage the total quantity required per drift would be (18.1 + 15% = 20.15 10%) 22.9 m3 /s. In the quantity allocation from a LHD heat load perspective, it is important to note that the return air passes (RAPs) are in the centre of the drifts (double sided intake system) and only one LHD is allowed to operate on one side of the RAP and another on the opposite side. Figure 5 shows a typical production level layout with double intake drifts and the centre RAP in each drift. In summary the air quantity required for the underground facility was: For the quantity allocation per level it was given that there would be thirteen productive drifts on the extraction level and nine on the undercut level. There would be a further five non productive drifts on the production level and nine non productive drifts on the undercut level. For the non productive drifts an air velocity of 0.5 m/s was allocated and the quantity per drift amounted to (4 4 0.5 + leakage and pressurisation) 10.1 m3 /s. 6 PRODUCTION BUILD-UP, AIR REQUIREMENTS, AND INFRASTRUCTURE REQUIRED

Figure 5. Double sided intake drift system.

Table 3.

Summary of underground mine quantity. Quantity (m3 /s) 348.7 296.1 60 704.8, say 705 m3 /s

Description Undercut area Extraction/production area Workshops, diesel bays, etc. Total quantity required

The air quantity for the new Block D has been determined (705 m3 /s) and illustrates the requirement when the mine is at full production. Block D would however go through a build-up phase to reach the required production. The build-up phase entails two specific stages the Block has to pass in order to establish the mine at maximum production. The build-up phases were named the following: Development phase Pre-production phase Full production phase Production decline phase. Overall there were four phases identified over the life of the project. The development phase is the stage when the declines, intake shafts, lateral intake, upcast

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shafts, undercut level, production level, conveyor level, RAPs, FAPs (fresh air passes) are established. Naturally, all the infrastructure is not fully established before production starts, although a great deal thereof is completed (primary development phase).
BLOCK C & BLOCK D AIR REQUIREMENTS
1400 1300 INTAKE FACILITY 1200 1100 1000 900
QUANTITY (m3/s)
Old # (Rock hoisting intake)

Old # INTAKE ONLY BLOCK C & D AIR REQUIREMENTS

BLOCK C AIR REQUIREMENTS

800 700 600

MRAP 2

RETURN FACILITY to upper level

500 400 300 200 100 0

Development phase Pre-production phase Full production phase Production decline

MAIN # & Ramp

MRAP 1

BLOCK D AIR REQUIREMENTS

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 YEAR

Figure 6. Air build-up and facility requirements over time.

YEAR 2003 2004 2004 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Full production Phase 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022

Here after the pre-production phase is entered where secondary development together with a production build-up is initiated. More and more draw bells are established and the amount of LHDs increase to cater for production requirements. After the full production stage the production decline phase follows. If a mine has no further reserves will the mine closure phase be entered. If there are however more reserves will the same process repeat as described before. When the infrastructure for the new block is established and another block is still in operation above the new block, problems can occur. The challenge is to provide sufficient air for the development phase in conjunction with supplying the required air to the block above. Figure 6 shows a typical build-up process where one block is fully established and the other is in the build-up phase to establish the new block. Figure 7 illustrates the different phases of a project. It further shows the phases when two and more blocks are planned. The different phase periods can vary depending on a variety of parameters such as the size of vehicles used, decline length development, Downand-upcast shaft development rates, etc. 7 OTHER PARAMETERS

Block C

Pre-Production Phase

Production decline Phase Pre-Production Phase Full production Phase

Block worked-out

Block D

Main Development Phase

Production decline Phase Pre-Production Phase

Block E

Block not existing at the moment

Main Development Phase

Figure 7. Phases with different block to be developed. Table 4. Ventilation parameters. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Parameters

In South Africa different diesel fuel types are available. The different fuel type are generally referred to as low

Value 36 PushPull(1)

Unit Mtpa

Production rate Ventilation system Intake air velocity (Shaft; Men & Material) Intake air velocity (Dedicated intake shaft) Intake air velocity (Lateral haulage; men & material movement) Intake air velocity (Dedicated intake haulage) Intake air velocity (Conveyor belt ore transport) Return air velocity (Upcast/downcast shaft/s) Return air velocity (Return lateral haulage/s) Shaft resistance (K-value; men & material system; Lined) Shaft resistance (K-value; lined/Raise bored) Intake haulage resistance (K-value; blast tunnel) Diesel vehicles Diesel LHD size (Production level) Diesel LHD size (Undercut level) Minimum air velocity in drifts where diesel vehicles operate Minimum air velocity in drifts where other work is done (No LHDs) Re-entry periods (Secondary blasting) Ground passes (2 on either side of the pit) Tipping/crusher/apron feeder operations Workshops/Diesel bays (60 m3 /s) Crusher rock blasting (20 m3 /s)

1012 m/s m/s 1215(2) 46 m/s 1015 m/s 13 m/s 1322 m/s 1015 m/s 0.02 Nm2 /m4 0.01 Nm2 /m4 0.0158 Nm2 /m4 0,06 m3 /s/kW 187 kW 187(3) kW m/s 1.0(4) 0.5 m/s 10 Minutes 2 South side & 2 North side Air/dust filtration & reuse of air Air into RAP or back into workings Air directly into RAP as required

(1) Ventilation system operates on pressurisation/booster intake fans and main exhaust fans situated on the return side of the mine. (2) Velocities could be higher although pressure drop would increase (P = RQ2 ; R = resistance, Q = quantity, P = pressure drop over a system). (3) Loading of Swell at the rim tunnel positions on undercut level. (4) Velocity requirement for dust/fume dilution purposes.

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emission and high emission diesel. This in turn refers to the sulphur content of the diesel fuel. High sulphur fuel would refer to a sulphur content of about 5000 ppm (parts per million). Low sulphur fuel would indicate a sulphur content of around 500 ppm and less. Most mines in South Africa used high sulphur fuel due to reasoning that it is less expensive than the low sulphur fuel. This is true although more air per vehicle would be required to adequately dilute the exhaust gases. In an economic study done in 2005 (Rawlins, 2005), the results indicated that fuel price is relatively insensitive in determining a cost per m3 /s. From January 2006 is a maximum of 500 ppm sulphur diesel fuel content available in South Africa, thereby striving towards a low emission diesel requirement. Some fuel providing companies can provide 100 ppm sulphur fuel, although at an increased cost. Furthermore, the ventilation parameters in general and applicable to this Block D is summarised in Table 4. The parameters shown in Table 4 were used in the ventilation design methodology and network simulation models. 8 CONCLUSIONS

In summary, the planning phases were: a) Conceptual phase b) Pre-feasibility phase and c) Feasibility phase (not complete) The planning phases are further related to a build-up strategy namely: a) b) c) d) Development phase, Pre-production phase, Full production phase, and Production decline phase

As a project progresses from conceptual through to feasibility study so is there an increase in the detail information and design required. The application of all relevant parameters in a mine design is important thus the need for planning to be done by team members to ultimately achieve the most suitable system. The most suitable system is not always the most economic due to the geology of the underground orebody, the heat load of the mine, etc. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors wish to acknowledge with gratitude the support of team members at Anglo American plc and the mine in the design. REFERENCES
Anglo Technical Division, Anglo American plc. 2003. Ventilation Design and Simulation Studies (Block Cave & Incline Cave mining methods). Mine Environmental Engineering in South African Mines 1989. Handbook of the Mine Ventilation Society of South Africa (MVSSA). Rawlins, C.A. 2004. Ventilation Design Strategy For Trackless Deep Underground Mines. 10thAnnual Mining Diesel Emissions Conference (MDEC). Canada. Rawlins, C.A. 2005. Diesel powered vehicles, pollution, and an economic balance thereof. 11th Annual Mining Diesel Emissions Conference (MDEC). Canada. Rawlins C.A., Phillips, H.R. 2005. Underground mine ventilation planning & design with regards to heat load and cooling mechanisms. Eight International Mine Ventilation Conference (IMVS): Chapter 50, p381189. Brisbane, Australia.

The ventilation practitioner requires knowledge of the mining method in the design and planning of existing and new mines. The mining method is one parameter in a range of variables in a mine ventilation planning philosophy. This paper aimed to illustrate the planning strategy followed for a diamond mine ventilation system. Diesel vehicles are an important parameter to recon with in such a design, especially due to a total trackless environment. The evaluation of a hybrid system, i.e. diesel and electric combination, should also form part of such a design, although due to the planning time allowed for in this project, it was excluded as an option. The ventilation planning and design of Palabora Copper mine included such a hybrid system and ultimately operates as such today. It is important to audit ventilation planning design system/s. It is further recommended that an external independent audit be done whereby all aspects of the design can be evaluated. The design team was fortunate to have an external international and independent audit done on the project ventilation design including the mine design whereby important information surfaced indicating alternative and other components to improve the system.

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