A REPORT ON HYDROGEN PRODUCTION USING NANO TECHNOLOGY & TECHNO ECONOMIC STUDIES

BY

SIRIGINA DEVESH SATYA SRI SAIRAM 2010A1PS422H

AT BHEL, Trichy Research and Development Centre A Practise School I station of

BIRLA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE, PILANI MAY-JULY, 2012

A REPORT ON HYDROGEN PRODUCTION USING NANO TECHNOLOGY & TECHNO ECONOMIC STUDIES

BY
S D S S SAIRAM 2010A1PS422H CHEMICAL ENGG.

Prepared in partial fulfilment of the Practise School I Course No. BITS C221/BITS C231/BITS C241

AT BHEL, Trichy Research and Development Centre A Practise School I station of

BIRLA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE, PILANI MAY-JULY, 2012

BIRLA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE PILANI (RAJASTHAN) Practise School Division
Station: BHEL, Trichy Centre: Research And Development Duration: From 21st May 2012 To 13th July 2012 Date of Submission: Title of the Project: Hydrogen Production using Nano Technology & Techno Economic Studies ID No. 2010A1PS422H S D S S SAIRAM CHEMICAL ENGG. Mr. T SRIHARSHA SENIOR Engineer Name of PS Faculty: Dr V Satya Narayana Murthy Key Words: Project Area(s):
Abstract: This project mainly deals with Hydrogen Production using Nano technology and various techno economic studies on hydrogen i.e. it deals with most economic ways to produce hydrogen industrially an R & D project that deals with effective and efficient way to produce H2.It even reports why hydrogen was the one only to be chosen and why suddenly R & D of each country have chosen hydrogen. These days Global warming has become one of the major concern to the environment due to the increase of the co2 pollution from industries and vehicles etc. so in order reduce the pollution we have use green have that will not release any greenhouse gases like co2 to the environment and Hydrogen stands first in that way. Combustion of hydrogen produces H20 thus two use. In near future Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are going replace normal vehicles that use Internal combustion engines.so the only way is to produce Hydrogen in more economic way in order to make better use of it. This report presents latest techniques to produce Hydrogen using nano catalysts that eventually provide more surface area and hence more efficiency thus making the production of hydrogen more cheaper which once was very high due to its storage difficulties and etc. and this reports presents the more economical ways to eventually produce greener Hydrogen so as to make our life greener.

Signature of Student Date Note:

Signature of PS Faculty Date

Name of the Department visited: Chemical engineering labs in NIT,Trichy Date of visit: 02nd June 2012

Name of the Department visited: Chemical Engineering Labs in NIT,TRICHY Date of visit: 02nd June 2012 Activities of the Learning Experience Scope of Department improvement B.H.E.L, Trichy has actual process Lack of study collaboration with The NIT doing their involved in the ultrasonic material even the research in NIT labs. intensification laboratory internet has Hence they directed Fluid Mechanics Heat retarded the me to NIT for short growth of the and Mass transfer visit of NIT labs project. Basics of Chemical Chemical Egg. Engineering including Choosing some of Research labs in the international Sono Chemistry. NIT,Trichy basically Ultrasonic intensification journals for the serves requirement project. and degradation of Some of research scholars better organic materials like Doing doing their PHD research on Sono Methyl violet thesis in NIT,Trichy Various chemistry. degradation The Process Control methods for organic lab, one of the best materials other than in the country, is ultrasonic intensification. equipped with the latest instruments for recording and analysis of data used for simulating plant conditions.

HYDROGEN PRODUCTION
R & D Literature survey
Research and Develop low cost high efficiency Hydrogen production technologies from diverse domestic sources including Natural gas & Renewable sources

S D S S SAIRAM In Assoc. with T SRIHARSHA R&D,B.H.E.L,TRICHY

CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION a. Discovery b. General properties c. Physical properties d. Chemical properties 2. Nuclear Spin Isomerism a. Ortho & Para Hydrogen 3. Hydrogen Fuel of the Future a. Renewable energy of the source b. Hydrocarbon Economy c. Good for developing countries d. New Energy Revolution 4. Global Warming Major environmental threat a. what is global warming.? b. What is greenhouse effect.? c. what are greenhouse gases.? d. what is global warming doing to the environment.? e. what causes global warming.? f. what is the soln?? 5. Advantages of H2 as an energy carrier 6. Producing Hydrogen 7. Hydrogen production technologies a. Hydrogen from Fossil fuels b. Hydrogen from Coal c. Hydrogen from splitting of water d. Hydrogen from alkaline electrolysis e. Polymer electrolyte membrane electrolysis ..3 .3 .3 .3 4 ..4 ..4 .5 .6 ..6 7 ..8 ..9 ..10 .. 10 11 12 .12 ..12 .14 ..16 .17 18 .20 ..21
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INTRODUCTION:First element in the periodic table HYDROGEN is a colorless, odorless and insipid gas, formed by diatomic molecules, H2.The hydrogen atom, symbol H, and is formed by a nucleus with one unit of positive charge and one electron. Its atomic number is 1 and its atomic weight 1.00797. Its one of the main compounds of water and of all organic matter, and its widely spread not only in The Earth but also in the entire Universe. There are three hydrogen isotopes: podium(also called as Hydrogen), mass 1, found in more than 99.985% of the natural element; deuterium, mass 2, found in nature in 0.015% approximately, and tritium, mass 3, which appears in small quantities in nature, but can be artificially produced by various nuclear reactions. Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, but is almost absent from the atmosphere as individual molecules in the upper atmosphere can gain high velocities during collisions with heavier molecules, and become ejected from the atmosphere. It is still quite abundant on Earth, but as part of compounds such as water (H2O).

Discovery:Hydrogen gas is first recognized as a distinct element by HENRY CAVENDISH in 1766 when he prepared it by reacting with Hydrochloric acid and Zinc. French chemist Antoine Lavoisier named hydrogen from the Greek words for "water former.

Properties:-

General:
Name: Hydrogen Symbol: H Atomic Number: 1 Atomic Mass: 1.00794 am Number of Protons/Electrons: 1 Number of Neutrons: 0 Classification: ON-METAL Crystal Structure: Hexagonal

Physical properties:

Colorless Highly In flammable Light in weight Density: 0.0899*10 -3 g.cm -3 at 20 C

Pure Hydrogen is a gas under normal conditions Hydrogen is Diatomic and much lighter than air It has such small mass that it can escape earths gravitational pull and escape into space The gas mixes well with air explosive mixtures are easily formed The gas is lighter than air

Chemical properties:

Electronegativity according to Pauling : 2.1 Bond energy of H-H bond is 431 kJ/mol Energy of first ionisation : 1311 kJ.mol -1 Hydrogen is slightly more soluble in organic solvents than in water. It does not usually react with other chemicals at room temperature. Two hydrogen molecules (H2) and one oxygen molecule (O2), combine to form two molecules of water, or H2O. This reaction releases energy. Hydrogen bonds form covalent bonds with each other and with other atoms. In some molecules containing hydrogen, the covalent bond between one of the hydrogen atoms and another atom is weak and breaks easily. Compounds made of these bonds are called acids. Hydrogen also forms ionic bonds with some metals, creating a compound called a hydride. Hydrogen can also form a unique bond known as a hydrogen bond. Hydrogen bonds only form between hydrogen and the elements oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), or fluorine (F). Water is a good example of hydrogen bonding. Many metals absorb hydrogen. Hydrogen absorption by steel can result in brittle steel, which leads to fails in the chemical process equipment. Atomic hydrogen reacts with organic compounds to form a complex mixture of products. Hydrogen reacts with oxygen to form water and this reaction is extraordinarily slow at ambient temperature. Under extreme pressure hydrogen can actually act like a metal. Heating may cause violent combustion or explosion. Reacts violently with air, oxygen, halogens and strong oxidants causing fire and explosion hazard. Hydrogen is widely used as a reducing agent.

NUCLEAR SPIN ISOMERISM

Molecular hydrogen occurs in two isomeric forms, one with its two proton spins aligned parallel (orthohydrogen), the other with its two proton spins aligned antiparallel (parahydrogen). At room temperature and thermal equilibrium,hydrogen consists of 25% parahydrogen and 75% orthohydrogen .

Ortho- AND ParaHYDROGEN

Molecular hydrogen consists of two hydrogen atoms connected by a single bond. The nucleus of each of these atoms possesses a spin and is therefore NMR active; this can be observed in a one dimensional proton spectrum as a singlet at around 4.55. There are four allowed spin configurations of the dihydrogen molecule. The first three, , and +, are the triply degenerate and symmetric with respect to the exchange of nuclei. These three comprise the orthohydrogen isomer. The remaining cofiguration, , is antisymmetric with respect to exchange of nuclei and known as parahydrogen. These spin configurations are extremely close together in energy, and therefore all four are populated essentially equally at room temperature. Orthohydrogen can be thought of as having the two spins aligned; therefore the overall molecule has a net magnetic moment and can be seen in an NMR experiment. In parahydrogen, however, the spins are essentially opposed and cancel, making it invisible to NMR unless the symmetry of the molecule is somehow broken. The ratio between the ortho and para forms is about 3:1 at STP- a reflection of the ratio of spin degeneracies. However if thermal equilibrium between the two forms is established, the para form dominates at low temperatures (approx. 99.8% at 20 K). Other molecules and functional groups containing two hydrogen atoms, such as water and methylene, also have ortho and para forms (e.g. orthowater and parawater), although their ratios differ from that of the dihydrogen.

References:www.wikipedia.org

HYDROGEN FUEL OF THE FUTURE..???

Petroleum reserves are being depleted and prices susceptible to foreign events beyond our control Bio fuels, including ethanol, cannot meet the growing demand of transportation fuels Hydrogen cannot be depleted Hydrogen has the ability to make societies completely energy-independent

Renewable Energy Source

Hydrogen is a renewable, versatile, simple sustainable domestic energy and there is no danger of running out of hydrogen because it is the most abundant element in the universe. Hydrogen can be produced through a thermal, electrolytic, or photolytic process from fossil fuels, biomass, or water. Renewable and nuclear systems can produce hydrogen from water using a thermal or electrolytic process. People can even produce it in their homes with relatively simple apparatus. The Hydrogen Economy is the term used to mark the shift from fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and gas to hydrogen. The vision of a Hydrogen Economy is one of an unlimited source of fuel that would be used to generate energy without releasing carbon and other pollutants into the air. Hydrogen has the potential to do for the energy revolution what the computer and the Internet have done for the information revolution. Fuel cells are considered the microchip of the hydrogen age, the key to abundant energy from secure, renewable resources.

Ultimately, fuel cells supplying homes, businesses, and industries could be linked to a national power grid allowing surplus power at one location to be transferred to areas experiencing power shortages

Hydrocarbon Economy
Today, we have a hydrocarbon economy but the transition toward a Hydrogen Economy has already begun. In the very near future we will have weaned ourselves from carbon and we will live in a Hydrogen Economy powered by hydrogen energy from renewable resources. You will have access to hydrogen energy to the same extent that they now have access to petroleum, natural gas, and electric power. Some cities, such as Chicago and Vancouver, already have buses powered by hydrogen fuel cells. Ford, GM, BMW, Toyota, and Honda have prototype cars powered by hydrogen. Ford chairman William Clay Ford Jr. has declared that the fuel cell will finally end the 100-year reign of the internal-combustion engine. Such efforts are leading the world toward the Hydrogen Economy. The present fossil fuel economy has created significant environmental problems worldwide. The Hydrogen Economy promises to eliminate all of the problems created by the fossil fuel economy. The advantages of the Hydrogen Economy include greater fuel efficiency, elimination of pollution caused by fossil fuels, elimination of greenhouse gases, and elimination of economic dependence on Middle East oil reserves.

Good for Developing Countries

Specifically, the Hydrogen Economy may be even more beneficial to developing countries because it will generate more economic opportunities, reduce poverty and offer a dramatically cleaner renewable resource to bypass at least part of the expense of building a fossil fuel infrastructure. The Hydrogen Economy could produce total decentralization of the global energy market controlled by giant oil companies and utilities, and result in vast

redistribution of wealth and power. In a Hydrogen Economy utility companies will become obsolete. The Hydrogen Economic revolution must overcome major challenges in regard to the safe production, storage and transportation of hydrogen, and in developing new sensor technology. World Hydrogen Energy Roadmap must be developed to address hydrogen production, delivery and transportation, storage, conversion, public-private partnerships, research, codes and standards, testing, public education, and end use products. This effort must include government, industry, universities, and research laboratories. Government subsidies and tax incentives could be used to encourage put the Hydrogen Economy on a fast track. The goal of the program should be to develop technologies to safely produce, store and transport hydrogen from water, natures abundant and virtually free source of hydrogen.

New Energy Revolution

Hydrogen has the potential to do for the energy revolution what the computer and the Internet have done for the information revolution. Global reliance on Middle East oil will come to an end and international trade balances will be realigned. Fuel cells are a critical technology that will bring a total revolution in the energy sector and change the course of history. Prime Minister Dr.Manmohan Singh referred to fuel cells as the wave of the future and called for a focused effort to bring fuel cells to market. The ultimate goal is to use the renewable energy of the sun to split water into its basic components of oxygen and hydrogen. The Hydrogen Economy would open the doors for fundamental changes in our economic, political, and social institutions, similar to the impact of steam power at the beginning of the Industrial Age. The giant oil companies are investing heavily in a hydrogen future to control the design, production, and sales of the devices that produce and consume hydrogen. Fuel companies like Shell, BP, and Texaco are forming hydrogen and fuel cell technology divisions. The Hydrogen Economy is a bright vision for the future of energy that will revolutionize the world by reducing our reliance for oil from Middle Eastern countries.

I envision hydrogen as the power generation fuel of the future that will wean the world away from oil, slow global warming, and lift billions out of poverty. If significant progress is desired, government and private partnerships must be established to concentrate development efforts.

GLOBAL WARMING MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL THREAT

What is Global Warming
Global warming is when the earth heats up (the temperature rises). It happens when greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, water vapor, nitrous oxide, and methane) trap heat and light from the sun in the earths atmosphere, which increases the temperature. This hurts many people, animals, and plants. Many cannot take the change, so they die. What is the greenhouse effect? The greenhouse effect is when the temperature rises because the suns heat and light is trapped in the earths atmosphere. This is like when heat is trapped in a car. On a very hot day, the car gets hotter when it is out in the parking lot. This is because the heat and light from the sun can get into the car, by going through the windows, but it cant get back out. This is what the greenhouse effect does to the earth. The heat and light can get through the atmosphere, but it cant get out. As a result, the temperature rises. The suns heat can get into the car through the windows but is then trapped. This makes whatever the place might be, a greenhouse, a car, a building, or the earths atmosphere, hotter. This diagram shows the heat coming into a car as visible light (light you can see) and infrared light (heat). Once the light is inside the car, it is trapped and the heat builds up, just like it does in the earths atmosphere.

The squiggle lines coming from the sun are visible light and the lines and arrows inside the car are infrared light.

Sometimes the temperature can change in a way that helps us. The greenhouse effect makes the earth appropriate for people to live on. Without it, the earth would be freezing, or on the other hand it would

be burning hot. It would be freezing at night because the sun would be down. We would not get the suns heat and light to make the night somewhat warm. During the day, especially during the summer, it would be burning because the sun would be up with no atmosphere to filter it, so people, plants, and animals would be exposed to all the light and heat. Although the greenhouse effect makes the earth able to have people living on it, if there gets to be too many gases, the earth can get unusually warmer, and many plants, animals, and people will die. They would die because there would be less food (plants like corn, wheat, and other vegetables and fruits). This would happen because the plants would not be able to take the heat. This would cause us to have less food to eat, but it would also limit the food that animals have. With less food, like grass, for the animals that we need to survive (like cows) we would even have less food. Gradually, people, plants, and animals would all die of hunger.

What are greenhouse gasses?

Greenhouse gasses are gasses are in the earths atmosphere that collects heat and light from the sun. With too many greenhouse gasses in the air, the earths atmosphere will trap too much heat and the earth will get too hot. As a result people, animals, and plants would die because the heat would be too strong.

What is global warming doing to the environment?

Global warming is affecting many parts of the world. Global warming makes the sea rise, and when the sea rises, the water covers many low land islands. This is a big problem for many of the plants, animals, and people on islands. The water covers the plants and causes some of them to die. When they die, the animals lose a source of food, along with their habitat. Although animals have a better ability to adapt to what happens than plants do, they may die also. When the plants and animals die, people lose two sources of food, plant food and animal food. They may also lose their homes. As a result, they would also have to leave the area or die. This would be called a break in the food chain, or a chain reaction, one thing happening that leads to another and so on. The oceans are affected by global warming in other ways, as well. Many things that are happening to the ocean are linked to global warming. One thing that is happening is warm water, caused

from global warming, is harming and killing algae in the ocean. Algae are a producer that you can see floating on the top of the water. (A producer is something that makes food for other animals through photosynthesis, like grass.) These floating green algae are food to many consumers in the ocean. (A consumer is something that eats the producers.) One kind of a consumer is small fish. There are many others like crabs, some whales, and many other animals. Fewer algae are a problem because there is less food for us and many animals in the sea. Global warming is doing many things to people as well as animals and plants. It is killing algae, but it is also destroying many huge forests. The pollution that causes global warming is linked to acid rain. Acid rain gradually destroys almost everything it touches. Global warming is also causing many more fires that wipe out whole forests. This happens because global warming can make the earth very hot. In forests, some plants and trees leaves can be so dry that they catch on fire.

What causes Global Warming.????

Major causes for global Warming includes pollution from vehicles, release of CFCs into the environment, and much more. The co2 which is released from combustion of petrol, gasoline as a result of their combustion from internal combustion engines will cause much more depletion of ozone layer and even raise the temperature of the earth causing global warming.

What is the solution..??

Usage of renewable sources of energy is one of the solutions for reducing global warming. REPLACING INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES WITH FUEL CELLS Hydrogen Fuel cells will increase the efficiency as well as release H20 in liquid form instead of co2 from combustion engines reducing the global warming

FUE L Cells with least em misi on oh H2

ADVANTAGES OF HYDROGEN AS CLEAN ENERGY CARRIER

Fossil fuels represent more than 80% of world consumption, and transport in particular depends95% on oil. While reserves are diminishing, worldwide demand is constantly increasing, due to the emergence of certain economies. Experts estimate that the global demand for energy could rise by more than 50% between 2009 and 2030 and that oil production will reach a peak around 2020/2030. Burning fossil fuels generates CO2, a greenhouse gas that is the primary cause of global warming. It is necessary to develop alternative sources of energy. To meet the specific needs of transport, these energies must be easy to store. Hydrogen, produced independently of oil and combined with the fuel cell, is one of these alternatives. It can be produced using a variety of sources: natural gas, biomass, water and electricity, and be easily stored in various liquid or gaseous forms. It is easy to store, and refill containers. In a fuel cell, hydrogen combines with the oxygen in the air to produce electricity and only discharge water. It is the ideal fuel to power cars fitted with an electric engine which produce their own electricity on board and do not pollute. For more than 40 years, Air Liquid has controlled the whole industrial hydrogen chain and today it is participating in the development of hydrogen energy in two areas: innovation and real-scale demonstration programmes. In the field of innovation, the Group is developing solutions for the production, storage, distribution and use of hydrogen. Air Liquid is participating in various real-scale demonstration projects.

Hydrogen offers sustainable solutions to our nations energy and climate challenges.
Energy security
Hydrogen powered vehicles could significantly reduce imports on foreign oil

Sustainability
Hydrogen production technologies can potentially take advantage of abundant renewable energy resources (e.g., solar, wind, geothermal, hydroelectric).

Climate change
Vehicles produce near-zero carbon emissions when operating on hydrogen produced from renewable resources, nuclear energy, or fossil energy with carbon capture and storage.

Urban Air Quality

Hydrogen can reduce or eliminate regulated tailpipe emissions (e.g., hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides).

Producing Hydrogen
Delivering the potential for clean, safe, affordable, and secure energy from abundant domestic resources

Potential for clean, low-cost hydrogen from a range of domestic resources

HYDROGEN PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES

Hydrogen can be produced from a variety of feedstocks. These include fossil resources, such as natural gas and coal, as well as renewable resources, such as biomass and water with input from renewable energy sources (e.g. sunlight, wind, wave or hydropower). A variety of process technologies can be used, including chemical, biological, electrolytic, photolytic and thermo-chemical. Each technology is in a different stage of development, and each offers unique opportunities, benefit and challenges. Local availability of feedstock, the maturity of the technology, market applications And demand, policy issues, and costs will all influence the choice and timing of the various options for hydrogen production. An overview of the various feedstocks and process technologies is presented in Figure 1.

Several technologies are already available in the marketplace for the industrial production of Hydrogen. The first commercial technology, dating from the late 1920s, was the electrolysis of water To produce pure hydrogen. In the 1960s, the industrial production of hydrogen shifted slowly towards A fossil-based feedstock, which is the main source for hydrogen production today. In Figure 2, a future hydrogen pathway is illustrated. Large-scale hydrogen production is probable only In the longer term. In the short and medium term, the production options for hydrogen are first based On distributed hydrogen production from the electrolysis of water and on the reforming of natural gas And coal. Larger centralized hydrogen production plants are more likely to be introduced at a later Stage. These plants will probably be based on biomass or fossil fuels with CO2 capture and storage.

Currently I will focus from below sources: H2 from fossil energy sources. Large scale, with CO2 capture and storage (in collaboration with the IEA Green House Gas Implementing Agreement programmed GHG) Small scale, with distributed generation H2 from biomass. Photo-electrolysis (photolysis). Photo-biological hydrogen production (biophotolysis).

HYDROGEN FROM FOSSIL FUELS

Hydrogen can be produced from most fossil fuels. The complexity of the processes varies, and in this chapter hydrogen production from natural gas and coal is briefly discussed. Since carbon dioxide is produced as a by-product, the CO2 should be captured to ensure a sustainable (zero-emission) process. The feasibility of the processes will vary with respect to a centralized or distributed production Plant.

Production from natural gas

Hydrogen can currently be produced from natural gas by means of three different chemical processes: Steam reforming (steam methane reforming SMR). Partial oxidation (POX). Auto thermal reforming (ATR). Although several new production concepts have been developed, none of them is close to commercialization. Steam reforming involves the endothermic conversion of methane and water vapor into hydrogen And carbon monoxide (2.1). The heat is often supplied from the combustion of some of the methane feed-gas. The process typically occurs at temperatures of 700 to 850 C and pressures of 3 to 25 bars. The product gas contains approximately 12 % CO, which can be further converted to CO2 and H2 through the water-gas shift reaction (2.2). CH4 + H2O + heat - CO + 3H2 (2.1) CO + H2O - CO2 + H2 + heat (2.2) Partial oxidation of natural gas is the process whereby hydrogen is produced through the partial combustion of methane with oxygen gas to yield carbon monoxide and hydrogen (2.3). In this process, heat is produced in an exothermic reaction, and hence a more compact design is possible as there is no need for any external heating of the reactor. The CO produced is further converted to H2 as described in equation (2.2). CH4 + 1/2O2 --CO + 2H2 + heat (2.3) Auto thermal reforming is a combination of both steam reforming (2.1) and partial oxidation (2.3). The total reaction is exothermic, and so it releases heat. The outlet temperature from the reactor is in the range of 950 to 1100 C, and the gas pressure can be as high as 100 bar. Again, the CO produced is converted to H2 through the water-gas shift reaction (2.2). The need to purify the output gases adds significantly to plant costs and reduces the total efficiency.

PRODUCTION FROM COAL

Hydrogen can be produced from coal through a variety of gasification processes (e.g. fixed bed fluidised bed or entrained flow). In practice, high-temperature entrained flow processes are favored to maximize carbon conversion to gas, thus avoiding the formation of significant amounts of char, tars and phenols. A typical reaction for the process is given in equation (2.4), in which carbon is converted to carbon monoxide and hydrogen. C(s) + H2O + heat _ CO + H2 (2.4) Since this reaction is endothermic, additional heat is required, as with methane reforming. The CO is further converted to CO2 and H2 through the water-gas shift reaction, described in equation (2.2). Hydrogen production from coal is commercially mature, but it is more complex than the production of hydrogen from natural gas. The cost of the resulting hydrogen is also higher. But since coal is plentiful in many parts of the world and will probably be used as an energy source regardless, it is worthwhile to explore the development of clean technologies for its use.

Capture and storage of CO2

Carbon dioxide is a major exhaust in all production of hydrogen from fossil fuels. The amount of CO2 will vary with respect to the hydrogen content of the feedstock. To obtain a sustainable (zero emission) production of hydrogen, the CO2 should be captured and stored. This process is known as de-carbonization. There are three different options to capture CO2 in a combustion process: Post-combustion. The CO2 can be removed from the exhaust gas of the combustion process in a conventional steam turbine or CCGT (combined cycle gas turbine) power plant. This can be done via the amine process, for example. The exhaust gas will contain large amounts of nitrogen and some amounts of nitrogen oxides in addition to water vapor, CO2 and CO. Pre-combustion. CO2 is captured when producing hydrogen through any of the processes discussed above. Ox fuel-combustion. The fossil fuel is converted to heat in a combustion process in a conventional steam turbine or CCGT power plant. This is done with pure oxygen as an oxidizer. Mostly CO2 and water vapor are produced in the exhaust or flue gases, and CO2 can be easily separated by condensing the water vapor. In post-combustion and ox fuel-combustion systems, electricity is produced in nearconventional steam and CCGT power plants. The electricity produced could then be used for water electrolysis. If the capture and storage of CO2 is applied to an energy conversion process of relatively low efficiency, and the electricity is used to electrolyze water, then the overall efficiency of fuel to hydrogen would not exceed 30%. The captured CO2 can be stored in geological formations like oil and gas fields, as well as in aquifers, 4 but the feasibility and proof of permanent CO2 storage are critical to the success of de-carbonization. The choice of the transportation system for the CO2 (pipeline, ship or combined) will largely depend on the site chosen for the production plant and the site chosen for storage.

HYDROGEN FROM SPLITTING OF WATER

Hydrogen can be produced from the splitting of water through various processes. This paper briefly discusses water electrolysis, photo-electrolysis, photo-biological production and high-temperature water decomposition.

Water electrolysis
Water electrolysis is the process whereby water is split into hydrogen and oxygen through the application of electrical energy, as in equation (3.1). The total energy that is needed for water. Electrolysis is increasing slightly with temperature, while the required electrical energy decreases. A high-temperature electrolysis process might, therefore, be preferable when high-temperature heat is available as waste heat from other processes. This is especially important globally, as most of the electricity produced is based on fossil energy sources with relatively low efficiencies. Future potential costs for electrolytic hydrogen are presented in Figure 3, where the possibilities to considerably reduce the production cost are evident. H2O + electricity H2 + 1/2O2

Alkaline electrolysis
Alkaline electrolyses use an aqueous KOH solution (caustic) as an electrolyte that usually circulates through the electrolytic cells. Alkaline electrolyses are suited for stationary applications and are available at operating pressures up to 25 bar. Alkaline electrolysis is a mature technology, with a significant operating record in industrial applications that allows remote operation. The following reactions take place inside the alkaline electrolysis cell: Electrolyte: 4H2O 4H+ + 4OH (3.1) Cathode: 4 H+ + 4e 2H2 (3.2) Anode: 4OH O2 + 2H2O + 4e (3.3) Sum: 2H2O O2 + 2H2 (3.4) Commercial electrolysers usually consist of a number of electrolytic cells arranged in a cell stack. Alkaline electrolysers typically contain the main components shown in Figure 4. The major R&D challenge for the future is to design and manufacture electrolyser equipment at lower costs with higher energy efficiency and larger turn-down ratios.

Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolysis

The principle of PEM electrolysis is presented in equations (3.6) and (3.7). PEM electrolysers require no liquid electrolyte, which simplifies the design significantly. The electrolyte is an acidic polymer membrane. PEM electrolysers can potentially be

designed for operating pressures up to several hundred bar, and are suited for both stationary and mobile applications. The main drawback of this technology is the limited lifetime of the membranes. The major advantages of PEM over alkaline electrolysers are the higher turndown ratio5, the increased safety due to the absence of KOH electrolytes, a more compact design due to higher densities, and higher operating pressures. Anode: H2O 1/2O2 + 2 H+ + 2e ------(3.6) Cathode: 2H+ + 2e H2 ------- (3.7) With relatively high cost, low capacity, poor efficiency and short lifetimes, the PEM electrolysers currently available are not as mature as alkaline electrolysers. It is expected that the performance of PEM electrolysers can be improved significantly by additional work in materials development and Cell stacks design.