II.

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1.

Image Classification The overall objective of image classification procedures is to automatically

categorize all pixels in an image into land cover classes or themes. Normally, multispectral image are used to perform the classification and, indeed, the spectral pattern present within the data for each pixel is used as the numerical basis for categorization. That is, different feature type manifest different combinations of Digital Numbers (DN) based on their inherent spectral reflectance and emittance properties. Rather, the terms pattern refers to set of radiance measurements obtained in the various wavelength bands for each pixel (Thomas et al., 2004) Spatial pattern recognition involves the categorization of image pixel on the basis of their spatial relationship with the pixel surrounding them. Spatial classifier might consider such aspects as image texture, pixel proximity, feature size, shape, directionally, repetition, and context. These types of classifiers attempt to replicate the kind of spatial synthesis done by human analyst during the visual interpretation processes. A large number of classification methods are exist which are generally grouped into two major classification methods; supervised and unsupervised classification. The classification may either by supervised or unsupervised classification method. In supervised classification method the pixel categorized process by specifying, to the computer algorithm, numerical descriptors of the various land cover types present in a image scene. To do this, representative sample site of known cover type are used to compile a numerical interpretation

key that describes the spectral attributes of each feature type of interest. Each pixel in the dataset is then compared numerically to each category in the interpretation key and labeled with the name of category looks most like. In unsupervised classification method, the images are first classifying by aggregating them into the natural spectral groupings present in the image scene. Then the image analyst determines the land cover identity of these spectral groups by comparing the classified image data to the ground reference data. To assess the accuracy, the knowledge required to manage territory is increasingly based on information and maps created from remote sensing images (Campbell 2007; Jensen 2005). The accuracy assessment of classification results is an important feature of land cover and mapping that helps to determining the quality and reliability of information derived from remote sensed data. Many factors can be use to assessing the accuracy of image classification results such as classification error matrix and sampling consideration. Classification error matrices compare, on a category bay category basis, the relationship between known reference data and the corresponding results of an automated classification. Sampling consideration is area of representative, uniform land cover that is different from and considerably more extensive than training area. 2.2. Change Detection Change detection involves the use of multi temporal data sets to discriminate area of land cover change between dates of imaging. The types of changes that might be of interest can range from short term phenomena to long terms phenomena. Ideally, change detection procedures should involve data acquired by the same (or similar) sensor and be recorded using the same spatial

resolution, viewing geometry, spectral bands, radiometric solution and time of day. The reliability of the change detection process may also be strongly influenced by various environmental factors that might change between image dates. Change detection is a process to identifying difference in the state of a feature by observing it at different moment of time. There are large numbers of change detection algorithm or technique developed and used over the years to estimate the changes using remote sensing data. The techniques are based on various mathematical or statistical relationship, principles, and assumption (Singh, 1989). Change detection include image overlay, image digitizing, image differencing, image regression, image rationing, vegetation index differencing, principal component analysis, spectral/temporal classification, post classification comparison, change vector analysis, and background subtraction (Singh, 1989; Coppin & Bauer, 1996; Sunar, 1998). Although these methods have been successful applied in monitoring changes for several application, there is no consensus as to a best change detection approach. The types of change detection method employed largely depend on data availability, the geographic area of study, time and computing constraint, and type of application. One way of discriminating change between two dates of imaging is used post classification comparison. In this approach, two dates of imagery are independently classified and registered (Thomas et al., 2004). Then an algorithm can be used to determine these pixels with a change in classification between dates. In addition, statistics can be compiled to express the specific nature of changes between the dates of imagery.

Another approach to change detection using spectral pattern recognition is simply the classification of multitemporal data sets. Single classification is performed on a combined data set or the two date interest. Supervised and unsupervised classification is used to categorize the land cover classes in the combined image. Principal component analysis is sometimes used to analyze multidate image composites for change detection purposes. In this approach, two or more images are registered to form a new multiband image containing various bands from each date. Several of the uncorrelated principal components computed from the combined data set can often be related to area of change. Temporal image differencing is the approach where the image differencing procedure, digital numbers from one date are simply subtracted from those of the other. The difference in area of no change will be very small, and area of change will manifest larger negative or positive value (Thomas et al., 2004). Temporal image rationing involves computing the ratio n of the data from two dates of imaging. Ratios for areas of no change tend toward 1 and area of change will have higher or lower ratio value. Change vector analysis is a change detection procedure that is a conceptual extension of image differencing. Two spectral variables are plotted at dates 1 and 2 for a given pixels. The vector connecting these two datasets describes both the magnitude and direction of spectral change between dates.

2.3.

Remote Sensing Application Remote sensing usually refers to the technology of acquiring information

about the earths surface (land and ocean) and atmosphere, using sensors onboard airborne (aircraft, balloons) or space-borne (satellites, space shuttles) platforms (Ranganath et al, 2007). The electromagnetic radiation is normally used as an information carrier in RS. Remote sensing employs passive and/or active sensors. Passive sensors are those which sense natural radiations, either reflected or emitted from the earth. On the other hand, the sensors which produce their own electromagnetic radiation are called active sensors. Remote sensing can also be broadly classified as optical and microwave. In optical remote sensing, sensors detect solar radiation in the visible, near, middle, and thermal-infrared wavelength regions, reflected/scattered or emitted from the earth, forming images resembling photographs taken by a camera/sensor located high up in space. Different land cover features, such as water, soil, vegetation, cloud and snow reflect visible and infrared light in different ways. Interpretation of optical images requires the knowledge of the spectral reflectance patterns of various materials (natural or man-made) covering the surface of the earth. It is essential to understand the effects of atmosphere on the electromagnetic radiation travelling from the Sun to the Earth and back to the sensor through the atmosphere. The atmospheric constituents cause wavelength-dependent absorption and scattering of radiation. These effects degrade the quality of images. Some of the atmospheric effects can be corrected before the images are subjected to further analysis and interpretation. A consequence of atmospheric absorption is that certain wavelength bands in the electromagnetic spectrum are strongly absorbed

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and effectively blocked by the atmosphere. The wavelength regions in electromagnetic spectrum, weather usable for remote sensing, are determined by their ability to penetrate the atmosphere. These regions are known as atmospheric transmission windows. Atmospheric windows used for remote sensing are 0.4-1.3, 1.5-1.8, 2.2-2.6, 3.0-3.6, 4.2-5.0, 7.0-15.0 m and 10 mm to 10 cm wavelength regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. There are also infrared sensors, which measure the thermal infrared radiation emitted from the earth, from which, the land or sea surface temperatures and thermal inertia properties can be derived. It is observed that all bodies at temperatures above zero degrees absolute emit electromagnetic radiation at different wavelengths, as per Plancks law, which relates the spectral radiant emittance E (, T) with the temperature, T of the object. 1 2 2 (, ) = 5 1

Where h = 6.625 x 1027 erg s (Plancks constant); k = 1.38 x 1016 erg/K (Boltzmann constant); c = 3 x 108 cm/s (speed of light). In remote sensing application, the emitted of spectral radiant is recorded by the remote sensing sensors to an image. The values of spectral radiant are stored as digital number in the image bands. Remote sensing instrument storing the digital number of spectral radiant reflectance of an object in earth surface from different range of wavelength; where each object have different wavelength characteristic. Remote sensing application to land cover changes monitoring is related to detection process the changes of image in different time period. The land cover 11

changes from rural to urban condition and the mapping process to land cover change establishes the baseline to predict to plan water resources, to monitor adjacent environmentally sensitive areas, and to evaluate development, resource management, industrial activity, and/or reclamation efforts. The vital component of mapping is to show the land cover changes in the watershed area and to divide land use in the various classes of land use. At this stage, remotely sensed imagery is of great help for obtaining information on temporal trends and spatial distribution of watershed areas and possible changes over the time dimension for projecting land cover changes but also to support changes impact assessment. Furthermore, multitemporal remotely sensed images are widely considered effective data sources that can be used to monitor the rapid changes of land cover, to classify types of land cover, and to obtain a timely regional overview of land cover information in a practical and economical manner over large areas. 2.4. Hydrology Cycles Hydrological cycles are related to the movement of the water from above, below, and on the earth surfaces. The water on the Earths surface; surface water occurs as streams, lakes, and wetlands, as well as bays and oceans. Surface water also includes the solid forms of water; snow and ice. The water below the surface of the Earth primarily is ground water, but it also includes soil water (Thomas C. et al., 1998). The hydrologic cycle commonly is portrayed by a very simplified diagram that shows only major transfers of water between continents and oceans. The hydrological cycles consist of precipitation, evaporation, transpiration, infiltration, percolation, and runoff. Precipitation, which is the source of virtually all freshwater in the hydrologic cycle, falls nearly everywhere, but the water

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distribution, is highly variable. Similarly, evaporation and transpiration return water to the atmosphere nearly everywhere, but evaporation and transpiration rates vary considerably according to climatic conditions. As a result, much of the precipitation never reaches the oceans as surface and subsurface runoff before the water is returned to the atmosphere. The relative magnitudes of the individual components of the hydrologic cycle, such as evapotranspiration, may differ significantly even at small scales, as between an agricultural field and a nearby woodland (Thomas C. et al., 1998).

Figure 1: Hydrological cycles on the earth surface. Water is evaporated from water bodies such as lakes, ponds, reservoirs, oceans and rivers, as well as wet land surfaces or transpired trough the plants as vapor to the atmosphere and is transported in the atmosphere to a location where the vapor water are condensed and falls as precipitation on the surface of the earth (Singh, 1992). The evaporation water from the oceans, lakes, and other free water surfaces throughout the world occurs due to the energy from the sun, thereby providing a supply of vapor to the atmosphere. The water vapor is transported by

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the atmosphere to various part of the world, where it is eventually condensed and precipitated. 2.6. Watershed System A watershed can be defined as the area of land that drains to a particular point along a stream. Each stream has its own watershed. Topography is the key element affecting this area of land. The boundary of a watershed is defined by the highest elevations surrounding the stream. Geographically catchment area of watershed system is the extent of land where water from rain and melting snow or ice drains downhill into a body of water, such as a river, lake, reservoir, estuary, wetland, sea or ocean. The drainage basin includes both the streams and rivers that convey the water as well as the land surfaces from which water drains into those channels, and is separated from adjacent basins by a drainage divide. The characteristic of watershed pertain to the land and channel elements of the watershed. The element of watershed consists of size, shape, slope, elevation, vegetation, land use, soil type, hydrogeology, lakes, swamps, density of channel, and artificial drainage (Singh, 1992). 2.7. Estimation Surface Runoff Runoff is general term used to indicate the accumulation of precipitation excess. The volume of runoff is total volume of runoff water occurring over a period of time (Singh, 1992). The runoff volume is expressed by integrals of discharge at time period. = ()
0

Where VQ is runoff volume and Q(t) is the discharge at time t. 14

2.8.

Hydrological Model Models are considered to simplified representation of real world where

each model has their own conceptual approach, parameters, and related to mathematical expression. Hydrological models are attempts to represent the hydrological system from precipitation to stream flow in mathematical form. The complexity of a hydrological model is varies with the user requirements and the data availability. Models vary from simple statistical techniques which use graphical methods for their solution to physically-based simulations of the complex three-dimensional nature of a watershed. An important issue in modeling the hydrological response of a catchment is the level of detail at which land cover properties are represented, both where land cover patterns are stable and where they are changing over time. Nowadays, various approaches are available to assess the impacts of land cover changes in different parts of the world. Based on the assessment, most of the hydrological models belong to the categories of distributed physically based and semi distributed conceptual hydrological models. In this terminology physically based stand for the physiographic information of the catchment and climatic factors in a simplified manner while conceptual stands for the hydrologic state of a catchment, flow process at any time or instant. Conceptual rainfall runoff models are normally run with area and average values of precipitation and evaporation as primary input data and, subject to the selected approach, produces catchment values of soil-moisture, runoff volumes, peak flows etc. The conceptual rainfall runoff model is common approach to 15

represent a catchment area into a model. On this study, the conceptual rainfall runoff model will apply to assess the hydrological responses to land cover changes.

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