Welding Basics

WHAT IS WELDING ? Welding is a joining of two or more piece of metal by applying heat or pressure, or both, with or without addition of filler metal, to produce a localized union through fusion or recrystalization across the interface. ADVANTAGES OF WELDING : 1.) Uniform chemistry throughout the joint. 2.) Excellent match of physical properties like color, density & electrical & thermal conductivity. 3.) Better or uniform mechanical properties throughout the weld joint & base metal A configuration of members to be welded is called a Joint. A union of pieces of metal made by welding is called a Weld.

<A brief about fusion welding n say in l&t we use arc welding mostly>

Arc welding
Arc welding is one of several fusion processes for joining metals. By applying intense heat, metal at the joint between two parts is melted and caused to intermix - directly, or more commonly, with an intermediate molten filler metal. Upon cooling and solidification, a metallurgical bond is created. Since the joining is an intermixture of metals, the final weldment potentially has the same strength properties as the metal of the parts. This is in sharp contrast to non-fusion processes of joining (i.e. soldering, brazing etc.) in which the mechanical and physical properties of the base materials cannot be duplicated at the joint. In arc welding, the intense heat needed to melt metal is produced by an electric arc. The arc is formed between the actual work and an electrode (stick or wire) that is manually or mechanically guided along the joint. The electrode can either be a rod with the purpose of simply carrying the current between the tip and the work. Or, it may be a specially prepared rod or wire that not only conducts the current but also melts and supplies filler metal to the joint. Most welding in the manufacture of steel products uses Fig. 1 The basic arc-welding circuit the second type of electrode. Basic Welding Circuit The basic arc-welding circuit is illustrated in Fig. 1. An AC or DC power source, fitted with whatever controls may be needed, is connected by a work cable to the workpiece and by a "hot" cable to an electrode holder of some type, which makes an electrical contact with the welding electrode. An arc is created across the gap when the energized circuit and the electrode tip touches the workpiece and is withdrawn, yet still with in close contact. The arc produces a temperature of about 6500F at the tip. This heat melts both the base metal and the electrode, producing a pool of molten metal sometimes called a "crater." The crater solidifies behind the electrode as it is moved along the joint. The result is a fusion bond.

Arc Shielding However, joining metals requires more than moving an electrode along a joint. Metals at high temperatures tend to react chemically with elements in the air - oxygen and nitrogen. When metal in the molten pool comes into contact with air, oxides and nitrides form which destroy the strength and toughness of the weld joint. Therefore, many arc-welding processes provide some means of covering the arc and the molten pool with a protective shield of gas, vapor, or slag. This is called arc shielding. This shielding prevents or minimizes contact of the molten metal with air. Shielding also may improve the weld. An example is a granular flux, which actually adds deoxidizers to the weld. Figure illustrates the shielding of the welding arc and molten pool with a Stick electrode. The extruded covering on the filler metal rod, provides a shielding gas at the point of contact while the slag protects the fresh weld from the air. The arc itself is a very complex phenomenon. In-depth understanding of the physics of the arc is of little value to the welder, but some knowledge of its general characteristics can be useful.

Fig. 2 This shows how the coating on a coated (stick) electrode provides a gaseous shield around the arc and a slag covering on the hot weld deposit.

Nature of the Arc An arc is an electric current flowing between two electrodes through an ionized column of gas. A negatively charged cathode and a positively charged anode create the intense heat of the welding arc. Negative and positive ions are bounced off of each other in the plasma column at an accelerated rate. In welding, the arc not only provides the heat needed to melt the electrode and the base metal, but under certain conditions must also supply the means to transport the molten metal from the tip of the electrode to the work. Several mechanisms for metal transfer exist. Two (of many) examples include: Surface Tension Transfer - a drop of molten metal touches the molten metal pool and is drawn into it by surface tension. Spray Arc - the drop is ejected from the molten metal at the electrode tip by an electric pinch propelling it to the molten pool. (great for overhead welding!) If an electrode is consumable, the tip melts under the heat of the arc and molten droplets are detached and transported to the work through the arc column. Any arc welding system in which the electrode is melted off to become part of the weld is described as metal-arc. In carbon or tungsten (TIG) welding there are no molten droplets to be forced across the gap and onto the work. Filler metal is melted into the joint from a separate rod or wire. More of the heat developed by the arc is transferred to the weld pool with consumable electrodes. This produces higher thermal efficiencies and narrower heat-affected zones.

Since there must be an ionized path to conduct electricity across a gap, the mere switching on of the welding current with an electrically cold electrode posed over it will not start the arc. The arc must be ignited. This is caused by either supplying an initial voltage high enough to cause a discharge or by touching the electrode to the work and then withdrawing it as the contact area becomes heated. Arc welding may be done with direct current (DC) with the electrode either positive or negative or alternating current (AC). The choice of current and polarity depends on the process, the type of electrode, the arc atmosphere, and the metal being welded.

In L&T, MFF Hazira we use mostly the below processes: SMAW SAW GTAW GMAW FCAW The above welding processes have been discussed in detailed in the following section.

SMAW- Shielded Metal Arc Welding Process

DEFINITION: It is an arc welding process wherein coalescence is produced by heating the work piece with an electric arc setup between a flux coated electrode and the work piece. The flux covering decomposes due to arc heat performs many functions, like arc stability, weld metal protection etc., the electrode itself melts and supplies the necessary filler metal. PRINCIPLE: Heat required for welding is obtained from the arc struck between a coated electrode and the wok piece. The arc temperature and thus the arc heat can be increased or decreased by employing higher or lower arc currents. A high current arc with a smaller arc length produces very intense heat. The arc melts the electrode end to the job. Material droplets are transferred from the electrode to the job, through the arc and are deposited along the joint to be welded. The flux coating melts produces a gaseous shielded and slag to prevent atmospheric contamination of the molten weld metal.

PREPARATION: Before welding edges of the work piece are suitably prepared. The edges and the area adjoining them is cleared of all the scales, rust, dust, paint, grease or any other foreign matter, either chemically or mechanically using wire brush grinding wheel etc. through cleaning helps producing homogeneous and strong welds. The work pieces to be welded are positioned and with respect to each other and held in a fixture or tack welded to maintain correct root gap during welding. Since it is easier and less tiring to weld in flat position, the welding assembly may be moved or rotated with the help of fixtures, rotators or manipulators in order to carry out welding in flat position.

Welding leads are properly connected to the power source and the work piece. Power source is switched on and suitable welding currents are set. Electrode is gripped in the holder and the operator is ready for welding. PROCESS ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS: a) ADVANTAGES: 1. SMAW is one of the most commonly used process, it can be done indoors or outdoors, on a production line, a ship, a bridge, a building frame work, an oil refinery or any such type of work. 2. The equipment is relatively simple, inexpensive and portable. 3. Auxiliary gas shielding or granular flux is not required. 4. The position of welding is not limited by the process. 5. The process is suitable for most of the commonly used materials and alloys. 6. The shielded metal arc process is commonly used to weld material at thick as 250 mm (10 in.). b) LIMITATIONS: 1. It is time taking process. 2. After the process the slag usually must be removed from the bead. 3. When electrode is consumed welder must interrupt his work to change electrode. 4. Low melting metals such as Lead, Tin, Zinc and their alloys and also REACTIVE metal such as Titanium, Zirconium, Tantalum and Columbium are not welded by this process. POWER SOURCES: 1. TYPES OF OUTPUT CURRENT: Either AC (Alternating Current) or DC (Direct Current) may be employed for SMAW. CV (Constant Voltage) power source are not suitable for this process because of their flat volt-ampere curve, even a small change in arc length (Voltage) produce a relatively large change in amperage. CC (Constant Current) power source produce only a small change in amperage with a change in arc length. Because of this, a CC power source is preferred for manual welding. CC power gives maximum welding speed and highest quality welds. Current supplied by the various power source is shown in the following table.

CURRENTS AC DC AC and DC

POWER SOURCES Transformer or Alternator Rectifier or Motor Generator Three phase Transformer Rectifier

1. POWER SOURCE SELECTION: The primary factors are: 1. Types of welding current. 2. The position of welding. 3. The primary available at the work station. 2. OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE: 1. Which is the voltage set on the power source, on the other hand it id the voltage generated by the power source when welding is not being done. 2. Open circuit voltage generally run between 50 V to 100 V. 3. SELECTION OF ELECTRODE: The primary factors are: 1. Chemical composition of base metal. 2. Mechanical composition of base metal. 3. Base metal thickness. 4. Position of welding. 6. TRAVEL SPEED: It influenced by: 1. Types of welding current and polarity. 2. Thickness of material. 3. Types of joint. 4. Joint fit-up etc. 7. ARC LENGTH: The gap between tip of the electrode and the surface of the molten weld pool. Proper arc length results in sound weld metal. Generally, arc length should be equal or shorter than core diameter of electrode. CLASSIFICATION OF SMAW CONSUMABLE E 8018-C3 E = Electrode 80 = UTS in 1000 psi ( 60/70/80/90/100/ 110) 1 = Position (1= all, 2= 1G, 1F & 2F, 3= 1G & 1F) 8 = Type of coating (0,1,2,3,5,6,8) C3=Mn:0.40-1.25, Ni 0.8-1.10, Cr: 0.15, Mo: 0.35

GTAW
DEFINITION: It is an arc welding process wherein coalescence is produced by heating the job with an electric arc struck between a tungsten electrode and the job. A shielding gas is used to avoid atmospheric contamination of the molten pool. A filler metal may be added, if required. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION: Welding current, water and inert gas supply are turned on. The arc is struck either by touching the electrode with a scrap tungsten piece and than broken by increasing the arc length. This procedure repeated twice or thrice warms up the tungsten electrode. The arc is then struck between the electrode and precleaned job to welded. This method avoids breaking electrode tip, job contamination and tungsten loss. In the second method, a high frequency current is superimposed on the welding current. The welding torch is brought nearer to the job. When electrode tip reaches within a distance of 2 to 3 mm from the job, a spark jumps across the air gap between the electrode and the job. The air path gets ionized and arc is established. After striking the arc, it is allowed to impinge on the job and a molten weld pool is created. Moving the torch along the joint as in oxy-acetylene welding starts the welding. At the far end of the job, increasing the arc length breaks arc. The shielding gas is allowed to impinge on the solidifying weld pool for a few seconds even after the arc is extinguished. This will avoid atmospheric contamination of the weld metal. The welding torch and filler metal. The welding torch and filler metal are generally kept inclined at 70 to 80 and 10 to 20 degrees respectively with the flat work piece. A leftward welding technique may be used. Filler metal, if required, should be added by dipping the filler rod in the weld pool. When doing so, the tungsten electrode should be taken a little away from weld pool. During welding operation, alternatively filler rod and tungsten electrode will withdraw and come closer to the weld pool. This procedure will avoid contamination from the tungsten electrode. Introducing and withdrawing of filler rod into the molten weld pool may disturb the inert gas shielding, entrain air, oxidized filler rod end and thus contamination the weld pool. In order to avoid these problems, it is preferred to keep the heated end of the filler rod always within the inert gas shield even when withdrawing the same weld pool during welding. EQUIPMENTS: 1. Welding torch, tungsten electrode and filler metal. 2. Welding power source, high frequency unit and cables. 3. Inert gas cylinder, pressure regulator and flow meter. 4. Cooling water supply.

5.

Water and gas supply.

ELECTRODE PREPARATION : A silicon carbide grinding wheel should be reserved for tungsten grinding to prevent contamination of the electrode by other materials. As a general guide for DC welding a sharp point with a 1-3 x diameter taper should be used, the lower the current the longer the taper and vice-versa. For 100% X-ray quality, a slightly rounded point will prevent any tungsten inclusions within the weld. Under these conditions the arc is so short that the molten globules at the electrode (wire) tip short circuit to the work piece at rapid time intervals. The rise in the current melts the electrode tip and this re-establishes the arc. This cycle occurs approximately 100 times per second. SHIELDING GAS: A chemically inert gas is required for TIG welding. Argon is the most common gas used, it is present in the atmosphere to approximately .94% volume. Argon is tasteless, odourless, nontoxic and does not burn. The gas is supplied in light blue steel cylinders and generally at a pressure of 2500 lbs. per square inch (14.5 lbs = 1 Bar). It is extracted through a pressure regulator at 30 lbs per square inch. Cylinders should be changed when the reading on the content gauge falls to 30 lbs. Argon combined with either Hydrogen, Helium, or Oxygen is used to improve the welding characteristics on various materials. POTENTIAL PROBLEMS WITH THE PROCESS INCLUDE: 1. Tungsten inclusions can occur if the electrode is allowed to contact the weld pool. 2. Contamination of the weld metal can occur if proper shielding of the filler metal by the gas steam is not maintained. 3. There is low tolerance for contaminants on the filler or base metal. 4. Possible contamination or porosity is caused by coolant leakage from water-cooled torches. 5. Arc blows or arcs deflection, as with other process. PROCESS VARIABLES: The primary variables in GTAW are arc voltage (Arc Length), welding current, travel speed and shielding gas. The amount of energy produced by the arc is proportional to the weld current and voltage. The amount of transferred per unit length of the weld is inversely proportional to the travel speed. The arc in helium is more penetrating than that in argon. 1. Arc Current: Arc current controls the weld penetration, the effect being directly proportional, if not somewhat exponential. Arc current also affects the voltage at a fixed arc length, it is necessary to change the voltage setting when the current is adjusted. The process can be used with either or altering current, the choice depending largely on the to be welded. Direct current with the electrode negative offers the advantage of deep penetration and fast welding speeds. Alternative current provides a cathodic cleaning which removes refractory

oxides from the joint surface of the Aluminum and Magnesium allowing superior weld to be made in this case argon must be used for shielding because sputtering can not be obtained with helium. Argon is the gas of choice for manual welding whether used with direct current or altering current. 2. Arc Voltage: The voltage measured between the tungsten electrode and the work is commonly referred to as the arc voltage. Arc voltage is a strongly dependant variable, affected by the following. a) b) c) d) Arc current. Shape of the tungsten electrode tip. Distance between the tungsten electrode and the work. Type of shielding gas.

The arc voltage is changed by the effects of the other variable, and is used in describing welding procedures only because it is easy to measure. Since the other variables such as the shield gas, electrode and current have been predetermined, arc voltage becomes a way to control the arc length, a critical variable that is difficult to monitor. Arc length is important with this process because it affects the width of the weld pool which is proportional to the arc length. Therefore, in most applications other than those involving sheet, the desired arc length is as short as possible. Of course, recognition to be given to the possibility of short circuiting the electrode to the pool or filler wire if the arc is too short. However, with mechanized welding, using a helium shield, DCEN polarity and a relatively high current, it is possible to submerge the electrode tip below the plate surface to produce deeply penetrating but narrow welds at high speeds. This technique has been called BURIED ARC. When arc voltage is being used to control arc length in critical applications, care must be taken to observe the other variables which affect arc voltage. Among them are electrode and shielding gas contaminants, improperly fed filler wire, temperature changes in the electrode and electrode erosion. Should any of these change enough to effect the arc voltage during mechanized welding, the arc length must be adjusted to restore the desired voltage. 3. Travel speed. Travel speed affects both the width and penetration of a gas tungsten arc weld. However, its effect on width is more pronounced than that on penetration. Travel speed is important because of its effect on its cost. In some applications, travel speed is defined as an objective with the other variables selected to achieve the desired weld configuration at that speed. In other cases, travel might be a dependant variable, selected to obtain the weld quality and uniformity needed under the best conditions possible with the other combinations of variables. Travel speed is generally is fixed in mechanized welding while other variables such as current or voltage are varied to control of the weld.

4. Wire feed. In manual welding, the way filler metal is added to the pool influences the number of passes required and the appearance of the finished weld. In machine and automatic welding, wire feed speed determines the amount of filler deposited per unit length of weld. Decreasing wire feed speed will increase penetration and flatten the bead contour. Feeding the wire too slowly can lead to undercut, centerline cracking and lack of joint fill. Increasing wire feed speed decreases weld penetration and produces a more convex weld bead.

PROCESS ADVANTAGES: The following are some advantages of the gas arc welding process, It produces superior quality welds, generally free of defects. It is free of spatter, which occurs with other arc welding processes. It can be used with or without filler metals such as required for the specific application. It allows excellent control of root pass weld penetration. It can produce inexpensive autogeneous welds at high speed. It allows the precise control of the welding variables. It can be used to weld almost all material, including dissimilar metal joints. It allows the heat sources and filler metal to be controlled independently.

PROCESS LIMITATIONS: The following are some limitations of the gas tungsten arc welding process. Deposition rates are lower than the rates possible with consumable electrode arc welding process. There is a need for slightly more dexterity and welder coordination than with gas metal arc welding or shielded metal arc welding for manual welding. It is less economical than the consumable electrode arc welding process for thicker sections greater than 3/8 in. (10 mm). There is difficulty in shielding the weld zone properly in drafty environments.

Classification of GTAW Consumable ER 70 S 2 ER = Electrode or Rod 70 = UTS in 1000 psi ( 60/70/80/90/100/110) S = Indicate whether the filler metal is solid or composite 2 = Indicate chemical composition of solid electrode

FCAW
DEFINITION: FCAW is an arc welding process in which coalescence of metal is achieved by heating them with an arc between a continuous filler metal (Consumable) electrode and the work. Shielding is provided by a flux contained within the tubular electrode and may be supplemented by an external gas.

PRINCIPLE: The benefits of FCAW are achieved by combining two general features. 1. The productivity of continuous welding and 2. The metallurgical benefits that can be derived from a flux. 3. The process is widely used in construction because of its high welding speed. In gas shield method, the shielding gas (Usually but not exclusively Carbon Dioxide) protects the molten metal from Oxygen and Nitrogen of the air by forming an envelop around the arc and over the weld pool. Little need exists fro denitrification of the weld metal because the Nitrogen of the air is mostly excluded; some Oxygen is present in atmosphere. It may be present as an additive to Argon from dissociation of Carbon dioxide to form carbon monoxide and oxygen. DESCRIPTION: Flux cored arc welding is a process designed for welding ferrous metals. This process may be applied both automatically and semi-automatically. A fabricated tubular consumable electrode is fed continuously into the welding arc where the molten metal is protected from the surrounding atmosphere by 1. An atmosphere resulting from both decomposition and vaporization of some of the fluxing ingredients in the electrode and externally supplied carbon dioxide gas. 2. The decomposition or vaporization of some of the fluxing ingredients alone. The equipment used for FCAW generally consist of a DC constant voltage power supply, wire feeder and controls and a welding gun or welding head TYPES OF FCAW Without shielding gas: This is made possible by the flux core in the tubular consumable electrode. This core also contains various ingredients that when exposed to

the high temperatures of welding generate a shielding gas for protecting the arc. This type of FCAW is preferable because it has excellent penetration into the base metal. Also, the conditions of air flow do not need to be considered.

With Shielding gas : It uses both a flux cored electrode and an external supplied shielding gas It is a combination of gas metal arc welding (GMAW) and flux-cored arc welding (FCAW). This particular style of FCAW is preferable for welding thicker metals. The slag created by the flux is also easier to remove. It cannot be used in a windy environment as the loss of the shielding gas from air flow will produce visible porosity on the surface of the weld. ADVANTAGES: High quality weld metal deposition. Excellent weld appearance. Weld a variety of steel over wide thickness range. Relatively high electrode utilization. Retentively high travel speed.

LIMITATIONS: Process restricted to limited materials. Produces slag which must be removed. Electrode more expansive compared to bare wire. Equipment more expensive than SMAW. Cannot be used in windy atmosphere.

Classification OF PCAW Consumable E 70 T 1 E = Electrode 7 = Tensile strength(X10000 psi) 0 = Position(0-Flat horizontal, 1 All Positions) T = Flu x cored (Tubular) 1 = Usability, Polarity and general operating characteristics

SELECTION OF WELDING PROCESS Following point shall be taken care while selecting a process: 1.Thickness 2. Position 3.Groove size : Narrow or wide 4.Cleanliness : Gas welding 5.Heat Factor : Temp limitation if harmful precipitation is likely to occur. 6.Fabrication : Visual Insp.. Requirements, Distortion, color match 7.Work place location; 8.Application :For structural jobs aws gives pre-qualified wps with SMAW, SAW, GTAW, GMAW. 9.Equipment cost; 10.Safety aspects: Brazing: A process of joining generally applied to metals in which, during or after heating, molten filler metal is drawn into or retained in the space between closely adjacent surfaces of the parts to be joined by capillary attraction. In general, the melting point of the filler metal is above 450C but always below the melting temperature of the parent material. Braze welding: The joining of metals using a technique similar to fusion welding and a filler metal with a lower melting point than the parent metal, but neither using capillary action as in brazing nor intentionally melting the parent metal.