GENERAL AND INORGANIC CHEMISTRY UNIT I INTRODUCTION Many things around us occupy space and have weight.

Things like chairs, tables, pins, etc. occupy space and have weight. These things are all forms of matter. We will be focusing our study on matter. What it is made of? How does it differ from other forms of matter? What do you need so that change is possible? If change had occurred, how do you stop the changes? How much energy is involved to start and stop these changes? Chemistry It is a branch of science that deals with the study of matter and the changes that matter undergoes its composition and structure. It is the scientific discipline that treats the composition, properties and transformations of matter. It is the study of the structure of matter and the changes matter undergoes in natural processes and planned experiments. CHEMISTRY maybe defined as the science that is concerned with the characterization, compositions and transformations of matter. TWO BROAD AREAS OF CHEMICAL STUDY 1. Descriptive Chemistry records the characteristics of substances that distinguish them from one another, describes the condition under which they interact, and summarizes the properties and uses any new substances produced. It deals with what question. 2. Theoretical Chemistry seeks to explain why changes take place. These explanations focus on the behavior of the tiniest particles of matter, particles too small to be seen but about which much has been learned from indirect measurement. It deals with the why question. MAIN BRANCHES OF CHEMISTRY 1. Organic Chemistry. The chemistry of chemical compounds of carbon and hydrogen, whatever their origin. 2. Inorganic Chemistry. The chemistry of substances that do not contain carbon combined with hydrogen. 3. Analytical Chemistry. The chemistry concerned with the detection or identification of substances that are present in a material (qualitative analysis) and how much of each is present (quantitative analysis). 4. Physical Chemistry. The application of the methods and theories of Physics to the study of chemical changes and the properties of matter. This really forms the foundation for all the other branches of the subject (Chemistry). 5. Biochemistry. It is concerned with the chemistry of the processes that take place in living things or the chemistry of living systems, both plants and animals. THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN CHEMISTRY

The development of chemistry may be divided into seven periods. In outline, these are the: Prehistoric Period Alchemical Period Iatrochemical Period Phlogiston Period Before 1500 BC 1500BC 1500 AD 1500 1650 1650 1775
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Quantitative Period Atomic Period Sub-atomic Period

1775 1900 1900 1960 1960 present

Pre-historic Period : From the Practical Arts to the Greek Theories The development of these processes was empirical, that is, based on practical experience with the particular substances, without reference to general underlying chemical principles of the chemical change. There are no records of chemical practice in this pre-historic period, but we do find much definite information regarding certain chemical facts mentioned by Chaldean, Egyptian, Persian, Indian, Roman, and Greek writers. They excelled in certain metallurgical processes, cosmetic preparations, drugs and pottery. o By about 2000 BC, craftworkers of Egypt and Mesopotamia could make weapons, tools, and ornaments from metals such as copper (Cu), gold (Au), and silver (Ag). Bronze was made by melting copper and tin (Sn) together. o Special glass articles were prepared. o Perfume and wine were known. The Shu Ching, a Chinese book written several hundred years BC, claimed that everything was made of earth, fire, water, metal, and wood. The early Greeks sought to understand matter and its changes purely on the basis of logic. However, they were not especially concerned with using these ideas as guide to improve their crafts. o Empedocles (Greek, 424-484 BC) believe there were four chief roots of matter earth, fire, water and air. This idea provided a reasonable explanation for many observations. The idea of the four elements was extended by emphasizing the basic properties of these elements. These were coldness, hotness, dryness, and wetness. Each element, in its ideal form, had two associated properties. For example, water was the wet, cold element. The Greeks believed that an element could be changed into any other element by altering its properties. For example, water could be changed to earth by replacing the property of wetness with the property of dryness. o Leucippus and Democritus (5th century, BC) taught that substances were made up of basic units called atoms (atomos, greek for indivisible). According to this theory, atoms were hard bits of matter, so tiny that they could not be further subdivided. Democritus imagined that atoms of water were smooth; round balls and that atoms of fire had sharp edges. o Aristotle believed that matter was continuous, and not made up of discreet units; and that all matter was made up of a common material, the hule. The different characteristics of matter were a result of superimposing specific properties in the hule. Aristotles ideas about the continuity of matter were more popular than the discontinuity model, and it was only much later, in 1805, that Dalton revived the atomic theory of matter. Alchemical Period: the Philosophers stone and the Elixir of Life
This period started when the philosophical tradition of ancient Greece and the craft tradition of Ancient Egypt met in Alexandria Early alchemists used Egyptian techniques for the handling of materials to investigate theories concerned with the nature of matter. Its philosophical content incorporated elements of astrology and mysticism into the theories of the earlier Greeks. Their dominant interest was the transmutation of base metals(i.e. lead, iron) into gold. Almost at the same time, and probably independently, a similar alchemy arose in China. The aim of the Chinese is to make gold, although not for the monetary value but because they

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believe that it could prolong life or even cause immortality on anyone who consume it (elixir of life). o After the decline of the Roman Empire, Greek writings were less openly studied until a sect of Christians known as the Nestorians translated it into Syriac in the 6th century and spread it throughout the Asia Minor.

Alchemists improved the method of extracting the metals from ores. They learned how to prepare and use various acids. Alchemists also designed tools/apparatus which included balances for weighing chemicals and crucibles for melting metals. Arabian alchemist believed that different metals could be formed by combining mercury (Hg) and sulfur (S) in various proportions. This theory became widely accepted in other countries after the Arab and Moors invaded and conquered most of Spain in the 7th century AD. The English philosopher and alchemist Roger Bacon (1214-1292) laid the foundations for the experimental method of chemical research by carefully planning and interpreting his laboratory work. He believed that the best hope for progress lay in experimentation and in the application of mathematical techniques to science.

Iatrochemical Period: the Search for New Medicinal Substances In the Renaissance, the search for new medicinal substances became the general aim of chemical endeavor. A Swiss physician, Theophrastus von Hohenheim (1493-1541), better known as Paracelsus, pioneered in iatrochemistry, the study of the effects of medicine on the body. He believed that earth, air, fire, and water were the four basic substances. He also believed that they took the form of mercury, sulfur and salt which he called the three principles. The iatrochemists did not fully understand how medicines affected the body but their work promoted an interest in the chemistry of the body. Phlogiston Period: Chemistry becomes a Science During the 16th and 17th centuries, physicians continue to do pioneering work in chemistry. They studied bile, blood, saliva, and urine and experimented with the medical uses of substances containing sulfur, mercury and other minerals. Jan Baptista van Helmont (1577-1644), a Belgian chemist and physician, taught that air and water were the only elements. He measured the growth of a tree fed only with water. This led him to believe that water was the basic elements of all plants. Van Helmont invented the word gas and studied the nature of gases released by burning charcoal and fermenting wine. The particular gas that he obtained by burning wood was called gas sylvstre (gas from wood). It is what we now called carbon dioxide. Robert Boyle (Irish,1627-1691) is often considered the first real chemist and the founder of chemistry. Boyle taught that theories must be supported by careful experiments. He accepted some of van Helmonts ideas, and broadened the knowledge of gases, especially air. Boyle believed that matter was made up of small, solid, indivisible particles. He wrote The Skeptical Chymist (1661), which marked the final break between chemistry and alchemy. This book was exceedingly influential in establishing the newer outlook among chemists of the 17th century. Chlorine (Cl), cobalt (Co), manganese (Mn), and other elements were identified, and the study of gases began by van Helmont and Boyle was continued. The discovery of the importance of oxygen and its role in chemical reactions became the key to modern chemistry. The early experiments of the 17th century were based from the theory advanced by Georg Ernst Stahl, a German chemist and physician, who taught that a substance called phlogiston escaped whenever a material was burned or when metals like iron become rusty.

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Carl W. Scheele, a Swedish pharmacist, believed that the heat produced by chemical reactions consisted of two substances. He claimed that one substance has phlogiston. The other he called fire, air. Although Scheeles theory was incorrect, he managed to devise an experiment to produce his fire, air, a new gas which made the flame of a candle burn more brightly. The gas was oxygen. Joseph Priestly, and English minister and an amateur chemist, worked at about the same time as Scheele and developed a similar theory, i.e., he too produced oxygen. Henry Cavendish, another Englishman, studied the gas produced when he treated metals with acid. He found that the gas was explosive when mixed with ordinary air, and so he called it inflammable air. Although this gas was hydrogen, Cavendish identified it as the phlogiston present in metals.

Quantitative Period: The Birth of Modern Chemistry In 1772, a wealthy French nobleman named Antoine Lavoisier began experimenting with combustion or burning. Lavoisier concluded that when a substance burned, it gained something from the air. The weight gained by the burning sample was the same as the weight lost by the air, giving quantitative measurements that could not be explained using the phlogiston theory. Lavoisier also found that combustion in dephlogisticated air, which he named oxygen, gave the same products as combustion in air. Thus, air contained oxygen and the role of air in combustion was not to carry off phlogiston but to provide oxygen. He then rejected phlogiston theory and proposed, instead that oxygen is removed from air when an object burned and become incorporated into the burning object. Lavoisier is generally considered the father of modern chemistry because of his reliance on carefully controlled experiments and because of his use of qualitative observations and quantitative measurements. He abandoned the ancient myth that a material that contains a particular element must have the properties of that element. He adopted the idea proposed by Robert Boyle in 1661 that elements were basic substances out of which all other substances could be made and into which all other substances could be decomposed or resolved. Lavoisiers treatise, the first textbook of chemistry, was published in 1789. This included a table of simple substances belonging to all kingdoms of nature, which may be considered as the elements of bodies. In this table, he listed the gases oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, the nonmetals sulfur, phosphorus, and charcoal (carbon); and 17 metals, from arsenic to zinc. He also included light and caloric (heat) as elements among these gases.
UNIT III MATTER AND ENERGY Matter may be defined operationally as anything that occupies space, has mass or weight, offers resistance to change and has inertia. Conceptually, it can be defined as materials composed of atoms, molecules, ions or a mixture of these particles. Mass is a measure of the quantity of matter. A body that is not being acted on by some external force has a tendency to remain at rest, or when it is in motion, to continue in uniform motion in the same direction. This property is known as inertia. The mass of a body is proportional to its inertia. Weight is the gravitational force of attraction exerted by the earth on a body; the weight of a given body varies f the body is directly proportional to its mass and also to the earths gravitational attraction. The mass of a body is constant or invariable; on the other hand, the weight of a body is not. PROPERTIES OF MATTER The various properties of matter may be classified as: 1. A physical property is a characteristic that can be observed for a material without changing its chemical identity. Examples are physical state and color. Measurable physical properties are classified as either intensive or extensive. a. Intrinsic or intensive property is one whose magnitude is independent of the amount of material. These are the properties that we use to identify the material. Examples are density, optical rotation, color, ability to react with other materials, texture, and boiling, melting, freezing or sublimation temperatures.

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b. Extrinsic or extensive properties are dependent on the amount of material in a given sample. Examples are sie, mass, volume, pressure of a gas and heat content. 2. A chemical property is a characteristic of a material involving its chemical change. For example, one chemical property of chlorine is its ability to react readily with water. Matter may also undergo the following changes 1. Physical changes involve changes in extrinsic properties. It is a change in the form of matter but not in its chemical identity. Physical changes may involve a change of phase: a. Melting from solid to liquid b. Evaporation from liquid to gas c. Sublimation solid to gas d. Other changes that belong to this category are changes in mass, size, volume, temperature. 2. Chemical changes involve changes in both intrinsic and extrinsic properties. The original material is completely altered to form new substances with a different set of intrinsic and extrinsic properties. Some examples of these chemical changes are: a. Synthesis is the formation of more complex substances from simple ones b. Decomposition is the breakdown of a complex substance into more simple substances c. Combustion is the reaction of a substance with oxygen producing the oxides of these elements, heat and light d. Precipitation is the formation of insoluble solid substances upon mixing two solutions Evidences of a Chemical Change 1. Evolution of heat and light 2. Evolution of gas, i.e. H2, O2, H2S, SO2, NO2, CO2 3. Formation of precipitate, an insoluble solid 4. Production of mechanical energy 5. Production of electrical energy 3. Nuclear change DESCRIPTION OF MATTER There are two principal ways of classifying matter that have emerged. 1. By its physical state as a solid, liquid or gas

State Solid Liquid Gas

Physical Properties of Solids, Liquids and Gases Shape Volume Particles Definite Definite Rigidly cohering; tightly packed Indefinite Definite Mobile, cohering Indefinite indefinite Independent of each other and relatively far apart

Compressibility Very slight Slight High

The term vapor is often used to refer to the gaseous state of any kind of matter that normally exists as a liquid or a solid. Other properties, such as density can also be used to distinguish the three states of matter. Solids and liquids have relatively high densities compared with gases. In most cases, the liquid form of a given material is less dense than the solid form. The solid form of water is less dense than its liquid form.

2. By its chemical constitution as a pure substance or mixture A pure substance or simply substance is a particular kind matter with a definite, fixed composition. It is either an element or composed of either an element or a compound. An element is a substance that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by any chemical
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reaction. Elements are the building blocks of all substances. The elements are numbered in increasing complexity beginning with hydrogen, number 1. Of the first 92 elements, 88 are known to occur in nature. The other 4 technetium (43), promethium (61), astatine (85) and francium (87) either do not occur in nature or have only transitory existences during radioactive decay. With the exception of number 94, plutonium, elements above number 92 are not known to occur naturally, but have been synthesized in small amounts in laboratories. The discovery of trace amounts of plutonium are reported recently. The synthesis of element 110 was reported in 1994. The abbreviations of elements is called symbol. 14 elements have a single letter symbol while the rest have two. The rules governing symbols of elements are as follows: 1. Symbols have either one or two letters. 2. If one letter is used, it is capitalized. 3. If two letters are used, only the first is capitalized. Metals, Nonmetals and Metalloids

Metals

Characteristics Solids at room temperature (except mercury) Have high luster Good conductors of heat and electricity Malleable (can be rolled or hammered into thin sheets) Ductile (can be drawn into wires) Most have high melting point and high density Have little density to combine with each other to form compounds Readily combine with nonmetals to form ionic compounds Often mixed with one another to form homogeneous mixtures of solids called alloys Not lustrous Have relatively low melting points and densities Generally poor conductors of heat and electricity C, P, S, Se and I are solids, Br is liquid, the rest are gases Combine with one another to form molecular compounds Boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, tellurium, and polonium Some are used as raw materials for semi-conductor devices that make our modern electronics industry possible

Nonmetals

Metalloids

COMPOUNDS Most substances are compounds. A compound is a substance composed of more than one element, chemically combined. By the end of the 18th century, many compounds had been shown by Lavoisier and others to be composed of the elements in definite proportions by mass. It was Joseph Louis Proust (1754-1826), however, who convinced the majority chemists of the general validity of the Law of Definite Proportions (a.k.a. the Law of Constant Composition). A pure compound, whatever its source, always contains definite or constant proportions of the elements by mass. For example, 1.0000 g of sodium chloride always contains 0.3934 g of sodium and 0.6066 g of chlorine, chemically combined. Sodium chloride has definite proportions of sodium and chlorine: that is, it has constant or definite composition. A molecule is the smallest uncharged individual unit of a compound formed by the union of two or more atoms (molecular compound). An ion is a positively (cation) or negatively (anion) charged atom or group of atoms. An ionic compound is held together by attractive forces that exist between these cations and anions. Diatomic molecules each contain exactly 2 atoms (alike or different). Seven elements are diatomic: hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine.
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Chemical formulas, the abbreviations for compounds, show the symbols and the ratio of the atoms of the elements in a compound.

MIXTURES Most of the materials around us are mixtures. A mixture is a material that can be separated by physical means into two or more substances. Unlike a pure compound, a mixture has variable composition. When we dissolve sodium chloride in water, we obtain mixture; its composition depends on the relative amount of sodium chloride dissolved. We can separate the mixture by the physical process of distillation. Classification of Mixtures 1. A heterogeneous mixture is a mixture that consists of physically distinct parts, each with different properties which can be separated physically. a. Colloidal suspensions are mixtures containing particles larger than normal solutes but small enough to be invisible to the eye, even with a microscope but which appear in the field of an ultramicroscope. b. Coarse suspension consists of particles appearing as huge molecules in a dispersing medium; particles may be visible to the eye and which settle fairly rapidly to the bottom of the container. 2. A homogeneous mixture (a.k.a. solution) is a mixture that is uniform in its properties throughout the given sample. It has no differing parts that can be distinguished even with a microscope. A phase is one of several different homogeneous materials present in the portion of matter under study. ENERGY The energy of a body or a system is that bodys or systems ability to do work. Every change, chemical or physical, involves a change in energy. We think of energy as having a number of forms. Heat energy, electric energy, radiant energy and chemical energy are some familiar examples. One form of energy can be converted into any other form. Electric energy is the type of energy associated with the passage of current of electricity. Radiant energy is the type that is associated with ordinary light, X-rays radio waves and infrared rays. It is also called electromagnetic radiation all radiation that travels through space with the speed of light, 3.00 X 108 meters per second, or 186,000 miles per second. Chemical energy is the energy a substance has because of its chemical state. It can be transformed into another form of energy when matter undergoes a proper kind of change. Conversely, other kinds of energy can be converted into chemical energy by the proper kind of change. All life processes involve the change of chemical energy to other forms and vice versa. Nuclear energy or atomic energy is associated with the manner in which atoms are constructed. Actually, all forms of energy fall into two general classes: potential or kinetic. Potential energy is the energy a body possesses because of its position or because of its existence in a state other than its normal state of lowest energy. Kinetic energy, on the other hand is the energy a body possesses because of its motion. Kinetic energy depends on both mass and velocity. If substances or a single substance change in such a way that energy is given to the surroundings, the change is said to be exothermic. Whereas, if a change involves taking up energy from the surroundings, it is said to be endothermic.

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LAWS ABOUT MATTER AND ENERGY The Law of Conservation of Energy states that energy is neither created nor destroyed in any transformation of matter. The Law of Conservation of Mass states that mass is neither created nor destroyed in any transformation of matter. The Law of Definite Composition also called the Law of Definite Proportion states that a pure compound is always composed of the same elements combined in a definite proportion by weight. For example: A 10.0g Mass of C, g 2.00 15.00 5.00 + B 5.0g Mass of O, g 5.34 40.05 13.36 ------ AB 15.0g (ratio of A:B is 2:1) Mass of CO2, g 7.34 55.05 18.36

The Law of Multiple Proportions states that when two elements combine to form more than one compound, the different weights of one that combine with a fixed weight of the other are in the ratio of small whole numbers. For example: S 3.2g 2S 3.2g + + O2 3.2g 3O2 4.8g --------- 2SO3 --------- SO2

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UNIT IV ATOMIC THEORIES & STRUCTURE OF ATOMS Daltons atomic Theory The idea of atoms had been proposed much earlier by the ancient Greek philosophers. Dalton's theory was different since it wasn't just a philosophical statement that there are atoms because there must be atoms. Dalton's model was that the atoms were tiny, indivisible, indestructible particles and that each one had a certain mass, size, and chemical behavior that was determined by what kind of element they were. The Postulates of Daltons Atomic Theory 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. All matter is made up of tiny, invisible particles called atoms. Atoms are indivisible and permanently unalterable. (atomos Gk for indivisible) Atoms of the same element have the same mass and the same properties. Atoms take part in chemical combinations. Law of Definite Composition states that when two or more elements combine chemically to form a compound, they will always combine in a fixed proportion by weight. 6. Law of Multiple Composition states that when two or more elements combine with the fixed weights of the others are in a ratio of simple whole numbers. Interesting Fact: The unit for atomic weight was called a "dalton" for many years. Today, it is used in biochemical circles, (e.g. "The atomic weight of that protein is 35,000 daltons.") What is an Atom The diameter of a single atom ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 nanometers (1nm = 1 X 10 -9 m). Hydrogen, the smallest atom has a diameter of about 0.1 nm. Developments of the Atomic Theory Around the beginning of the 20th century, the concept of the atom changed rapidly. Atoms were no longer seen as hard spheres differing only in weight; they were conceived of as being made up of component parts and of having different sizes and shapes. This became necessary because of the discovery of the existence of the sub-atomic particles identified as electrons and protons. The first attempt to account for the presence of these particles in atoms was made by Joseph J. Thomson in 1904. In the Thomson model, an atom is composed of a sphere of positive electricity in which are embedded a number of electrons carrying an equivalent negative charge. Since the number of positive charges equals the number of negative charges, the atom has no net charge; it is electrically neutral. The theory was based on the discovery that the proton, the bearer of the smallest unit of positive charge, is approximately 2,000 times heavier than the electron, although the magnitude of the opposite charge carried

Thomson Model of an Atom

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The Nature of Electric Charge The properties of an electric charge are: 1. Charge may be of two types, positive and negative. 2. Unlike charges attract (positive attracts negative), and like charges repel (negative repel negative and positive repels negative). 3. Charge may be transferred from one object to another, by contact or induction. 4. The less the distance between two charges, the greater the force of attraction between unlike charges (or repulsion between identical charges). Discovery of Ions The great English scientist Michael Faraday (1791-1867) made the discovery that certain substances when dissolved in water conduct an electric current. He also noticed that certain compounds decompose into their elements by passing an electric current through the compound. Atoms of some elements are attracted to the positive electrode, while atoms of other elements are attracted to the negative electrode. Faraday concluded that these atoms are electrically charged. He called them ions after the Greek word meaning wanderer. The Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius (1859-1927) extended Faradays work. Arrhenius reasoned that an ion is an atom (or group of atoms) carrying a positive or negative charge. When a compound such as sodium chloride is melted, it conducts electricity. Water is unnecessary. Arrhenius explanation of this conductivity was that upon melting, the sodium chloride dissociates, or breaks up, into charged ions, Na+ and Cl-. The sodium ions move toward the negative electrode (cathode), whereas the chloride ions migrate toward the positive electrode (anode). Thus positive ions are called cations and negative ions are called anions. From Faradays and Arrheniuss works with ions, Irish physicist G.J. Stoney (18261911) realized there must be some fundamental unit of electricity associated with atoms. He named this unit the electron in 1891. Unfortunately he had no means of supporting his idea with experimental proof. Evidence remained elusive until 1897 when English physicist Joseph Thomson (18561940) was able to show experimentally the existence of the electron. J.J. Thomson demonstrated in 1897 that cathode rays (the emissions of the Crookes tube): 1) travel in straight lines, 2) are negative in charge, 3) are deflected by by electric and magnetic fields, 4) produce sharp shadows, and 5) are capable of moving a small paddle wheel. Protons were first observed by German physicist Eugen Goldstein in 1886. However, it was Thomson who discovered the nature of the proton, its mass, charge. The third major subatomic particle was discovered in 1932 by James Chadwick. This particle, the neutron, has neither a positive nor a negative charge and has a relative mass of about 1 amu. Particle Symbol ep+ n0 Relative electrical charge -1 +1 0 Relative mass (amu) 1/1837 1 1 Actual mass (g) 9.110 X 10-28 1.673 X 10-24 1.675 X 10-24

Electron Proton Neutron

The Nuclear Atom

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The discovery that positively charged particles are present in atoms came soon after the discovery of radioactivity by Henri Becquerel in 1896. By 1907, Ernest Rutherford had established that the positvely charged alpha particles emitted by certain radioactive elements are ions of the element helium. He used these alpha particles in his gold foil experiment to establish the nuclear nature of an atom. Rutherford reasoned that each gold atom contain a positively charged mass occupying a relatively tiny volume and that, when an alpha particle approaches close enough to this positive mass, it is deflected. He called this positive mass as nucleus of the atom. Because the alpha particles have relatively high masses, the extent of the deflections indicated to Rutherford that the nucleus is very heavy and dense. Because most of the alpha particles passed through the thousand or so gold atoms without any apparent deflection, he further concluded that most of an atom consists of empty space. When we speak of the mass of an atom, we are referring primarily to the mass of the nucleus, which contains the protons and neutrons and represents 99.99% of the total mass of an atom Atomic mass Atomic number = = number of protons + number of neutrons

number of protons in the nucleus

Atoms of an element having the same atomic number but different atomic masses are called isotopes of that element. Atoms of the various isotopes of an element therefore have the same number of protons and electrons but different number of neutrons. Thompson knew atoms were neutral, so there must be a balance of negative and positive particles. This new model is referred to as the Plum Pudding Model.

Dalton

J.J. Thompson

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MODERN ELECTRONIC THEORY In 1964, a French physicist, Prince Louis de Broglie, postulated that all matter in motion has wave characteristics. Then in 1927, a German physicist, Werner Heisenberg recognized that there is no experimental method can be devised that will measure simultaneously the precise position and momentum of an object. For a particle as small as an electron, this lack of precision is critically important. This is called as Heisenbergs uncertainty principle. The dual nature of matter, the exhibition of both wavelike and particle-like character, requires a unified description for submicroscopic phenomena. This study is called quantum mechanics or wave mechanics. This approach is based on the assumption that there are waves associated with both matter and radiation and that the mathematical descriptions of the waves provide information about the energies of electrons and their positions. Quantum Numbers for Electrons 1. The first or principal quantum number, n, tells which main energy level the electron is occupying. It has integral values of 1, 2, 3, 4, and so on. The larger the value of n, the greater is the size of the orbital the electron occupies. 2. The second or azimuthal quantum number, l,

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THE PERIODIC PROPERTIES OF THE ELEMENTS The periodic table is a useful device for organizing the chemistry of elements. It is as important to chemists and chemistry students as good maps are to travelers. The table organizes all sorts of chemical and physical information about the elements and their compounds. It allows us to systematically study the way properties vary with the elements position within the table, and, in turn, makes the similarities and differences among the elements easier to understand and remember. Historical Background Chemists from the time that elements were discovered knew that many elements closely resembled each other in physical and chemical properties. Attempts were made to classify the elements on the basis of physical and chemical properties. Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier is credited with setting up the first true table of the chemical elements. He published a textbook of chemistry which included a table of simple substances belonging to the kingdom of nature, which may be considered as the elements of bodies. 1817 Dobereiner noted that within a group of elements closely related to each other in chemical properties, atomic weights are either nearly the same or else the atomic weight of the middle element is approximately the arithmetic mean of those of the other two. These triads of Dobereiner represent the first reported attempt at classification. 1850 Pettenkofer suggested that among chemically similar elements, successive differences in atomic weights amount to either some constant or to a multiple of some constant. 1857 Odling arranged the known elements into 13 groups on the basis of similarities in chemical and physical properties, the members of each group being listed in the order of atomic weights. 1862 The first real periodic classification was the Telluric Screw proposed by De Chancourtois. Using a cylinder as a base, he divided its surface into 16 equal segments and plotted atomic weights as ordinates on the genetrix. De Chancourtois stated that properties of substances are the properties of numbers. 1864-1866 Newlands noted that when elements are placed in order of increasing atomic weights, similarities in chemical and physical properties reappeared after each interval of 8 elements and termed this concept The Law of Octaves. 1869 Final evolution of the periodic classification came as a result of the apparently independent efforts of Dmitri Mendeleev, who considered the chemical properties of the elements, and Lothar Meyer, who considered the physical characteristics of the elements. Mendeleev is the Father of the Periodic Table. 1913 Henry Moseley discovered while working on an x-ray diffraction that nuclear charge controls the character and population of the electronic energy levels which in turn determine the properties of the elements. The Periodic Law is now stated as: the physical and chemical properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers. Types of elements Based Upon the Electronic configuration of their Atoms Inert Gases. Elements of this type are characterized by atoms in which all subsidiary quantum numbers are filled up to capacity. They are members of group VIIIA in the periodic table. Representative Elements are those that occupy the s and p blocks. Their s and p orbitals are partially occupied.

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Transition Elements are characterized by atoms in which an inner d-level is present but is not filled to capacity. Inner Transition Elements contain completely filled d-levels as well as incompletely filled flevels. Trends in the Periodic Table Metallic or Nonmetallic Property Metals have metallic luster; are good thermal and electrical conductors; they tend to lose an electron/s when forming compounds; and they all exist in crystalline form, except those in the liquid state Non-Metals are not shiny; non-conductors of electricity; and they tend to receive electron/s when forming compounds. Atomic Radius is one-half the distance between the nuclei of two like atoms bonded together by a single bond, radius of spherical ion. Ionization Energy is the energy required to remove the most loosely held electron from a gaseous atom when it is in its ground state. Electron affinity is the energy change associated with the gain of an electron by a neutral gaseous atom. Electronegativity is the ability of a bonded atom to attract electrons towards itself when combined with different atoms. Ionic size. When electrons are gained by an atom, a negative ion is formed. A positive ion is formed when electrons are lost by an atom. From left to right within a given period, metallic property and atomic radius decreases while, ionization energy, electron affinity, and electronegativity increases. From top to bottom within a given group or family metallic property and atomic radius increases while, ionization energy, electron affinity, and electronegativity decreases. The size of a negative ion is bigger than the atom. The size of a positive ion is smaller than the atom. CHEMICAL BONDS I. II. III. Introduction. Atoms are held together by forces known as chemical bonds. Electrons play a key role in chemical bonding. Importance of Electrons in Chemical Bonding LEWIS THEORY 1. Electrons, especially those of the outermost (valence) electron shell, play a fundamental role in chemical bonding. 2. In some cases, chemical bonding results from the transfer of one or more electrons from atom to another. This leads to the formation of positive and negative ions and a bond type known as ionic. 3. In other cases, chemical bonding results from a mutual sharing of electrons between atoms. This leads to the formation of molecules having a bond type called covalent. 4. The transfer or sharing of electrons occurs to the extent that each atom involved acquires an especially stable electron configuration. Often, this configuration is that of a noble (inert) gas, that is, involving eight outer-shell electrons, as octet.
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IV.

Lewis symbols lead to more accurate predictions of chemical formulas when the number of unpaired dots is maximized before dots are shown as pairs. A Lewis Symbol represents an atom using the atomic symbol of the element to represent its nucleus and inner core and dots to represent its outermost (valence) electrons. Example: Li Mg C O Cl

Exercises: Locate the following elements in the periodic table and write the Lewis symbols corresponding to each of them. 1. P As Sb Bi

2.

Ca

Si

V.

IONIC BONDING 1. An ionic bond results from the transfer of electrons between a metal and a non-metal atom. In this transfer, the metal atom becomes a positively charged ion (cation) and a non-metal, a negatively charged ion (anion). 2. The metal gains a sufficient number of electrons to produce an anion with a noble gas electron configuration. 3. A formula unit of an ionic compound is the smallest collection of ions that is electrically neutral. The formula unit is obtained automatically, when the Lewis structure is written. Example: Formulation of NaCl
11Na 17Cl

- 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

- 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5

Exercises: Write the Lewis structure for all the following ionic compounds. 1. MgO VI. COVALENT BONDING 1. This is a chemical bond involving sharing of electrons 2. It is a bond found between 2 non-metals. Example: formation of Cl2
17Cl

2. MgCl2

3. K2S

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 + Cl Cl Cl or Cl-Cl

Cl

Exercises: Write the Lewis structure for all the following covalent compounds. 1. HCl VII. 2. HF 3. N2 4. H2O

Polarity of Covalent Bonds When a covalent bond is formed between two atoms of the same kind, the molecular orbital corresponding to the bond is symmetrical with respect to both atomic nuclei.
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This means that there is equal sharing of electrons and the covalent bond is nonpolar. On the other hand, a bonding molecular orbital between two dissimilar atoms would not be symmetrical. There will be uneven sharing of electrons and the covalent bond is polar. There will be a surplus of negative charge around one nucleus and a deficiency around the other. In general, the polarity of a covalent bond can be correlated with electronegativity values of the atoms involved. The greater the electronegativity difference, the greater the unevenness of sharing and the greater share is acquired by the initially more electronegative atom. In other words, the electron density will be displaced in the direction of the more electron-attracting atom. The more electron-attracting atom will acquire a fractional negative charge or a partial negative charge (-). The other atom making the covalent bond will acquire a positive charge or a partial positive charge (+). The greater the difference between the electron-attracting power of the atoms, the greater is the ionic character of the covalent bond.

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CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE Rules in Writing Formulas 1. A compound maybe assumed to consist of a positive and negative part. The following combinations are possible POSITIVE Element Element Radical Radical NEGATIVE element radical element radical EXAMPLE NaCl CaSO4 NH4Cl (NH4)2SO4

2. The convention is to write the symbol of the positive part before the symbol of the negative part. 3. Since a compound is always neutral, i.e., the algebraic sum of the oxidation states is always zero, the parts must be combined in such a ration that the net oxidation state is zero. To do this, crisscross the valences. The valence of the positive part becomes the subscript of the negative part and the valence of the negative part becomes the subscript of the positive part. 4. When the subscript is supposed to be one (1), it is no longer written after the symbol. It is understood that there is only one atom of the element or a unit of the radical present. 5. Since compound shows the simplest ratio in which the positive and the negative are combines: A. Omit writing subscripts whenever subscripts (by rule 3) are numerically equal. B. Whenever possible, reduce the subscripts to the simplest whole number ratio. Be sure not to alter the correct formula of any radical. 6. Whenever a radical need a subscript, enclose it first with a parenthesis. If the original already contains a parenthesis, use a bracket. Example: (NH4)CO3 Ca3[Fe(CN)6]2

Rules in naming Compounds 1. Binary Compounds a binary compound is one which contains only two different elements. To name, give the name of the positive element and change the last letters of the negative element to IDE. Example: NaCl SODIUM chlorIDE K2O POTASSIUM oxIDE

2. Compounds whose positive part is multivalent (consist of more than one oxidation state) may be named in such a way as to distinguish between the two compounds composed of the same elements by: A. THE OLD METHOD the use of the suffix OUS if the element exists in the lower oxidation state and the suffix IC if the element exists in the higher oxidation state. Latin names or Latin stems may be used. B. THE STOCK METHOD the stock method the name of the positive element is given followed by its oxidation state written in roman numberals and enclosed inn a parenthesis and then the name of the negative part with its last letters changed to IDE.

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Example: FeCl2 FeCl3

Old system FerrOUS ChlorIDE FerrIC ChlorIDE

Stock System IRON(II) ChlorIDE IRON(II) ChlorIDE

C. Stoichiometric proportions may be denoted by the use of Greek or Latin Prefixes. Example: 3. Acids. A. Binary Acids an acid composed of hydrogen and a negative element. To name, use the prefix HYDRO and the suffix IC for the negative element, the follow with the word ACID. Example: HCl HYDROchlorIC ACID HBr HYDRO bromIC ACID CO2 Carbon Dioxide PCl5 phosphorous PENToxide

B. Oxyacids oxyacids are acids containing oxygen. To name, use the suffix IC for the acid-forming element or radical followed by the word ACID. Example: H2CO2 carbonIC ACID H2C2O4 oxalic ACID

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C. Oxyacids whose acid-forming element is multivalent. Use the suffix OUS for the acidforming element if it occurs in the lower oxidation state and IC if in the higher oxidation state. Example: H2SO3 sulfurOUS acid H2SO4

D. If more than two acid can be formed from the same elements because of multivalency, use the prefix HYPO for the lowest oxidation state and PER for the highest oxidation state. Example: 4. Salts of Oxyacids To name, give the name of the positive element or radical and follow with the name of the negative radical. Example: K2PO4 potassium phosphate (NH4)2C2O4 ammonium oxalate HClO HYPOchlorous acid HClO2 chlorous acid

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CHEMICAL EQUATIONS When a substance undergoes a chemical change, it takes part in a chemical reaction. After it reacts, it no longer has the same chemical identity. Many clues indicate when chemical reactions occur. Color changes Precipitation Energy changes Odor changes Gas release

Writing Word and Chemical Equations A chemical equation is a shorthand way of describing chemical changes. Excercises: Write word and chemical equations for the following reactions. 1. The reaction of hydrogen and oxygen gases to form gaseous water and release energy. 2. When an aqueous solution of magnesium chloride is added to a silver nitrate solution. Aqueous magnesium nitrate and solid silver chloride form. 3. Magnesium metal and water combine to form solid magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen gas. 4. An aqueous solution of hydrogen peroxide (dihydrogen dioxide) and solid lead (II) sulfide combine to form solid lead (II) sulfate and liquid water. 5. When energy is added to solid manganese (II) sulfate heptahydrate crystals, they break down to form liquid water and solid manganese (II) sulfate monohydrate. 6. Solid potassium reacts with liquid water to produce aqueous potassium hydroxide and hydrogen gas. Any reaction or chemical change may be classified as one of the following basic reaction types: Reaction(s) Product(s) 1. DIRECT COMBINATION OR SYNTHESIS a type of reaction wherein a single more complex product is formed by the combination of two or more simpler substances. A + B ------------ > AB

2. DECOMPOSITION OR ANALYSIS A reaction wherein a compound is broken down into two or more simpler substances AB ------------ > A + B

3. SINGLE DISPLACEMENT a reaction wherein an element or an ion displaces another element or ion in a compound. The reaction is generally represented as: AB AB + + C C ------------ > ------------ > CB AC + + A B

4. DOUBLE DECOMPOSITION OR METATHESIS in this type of reaction the compounds interchange ions or radicals. Compounds exchange positive and negative parts and results in the formation of different compounds. AB + CD ------------ > CB + AD

BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

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1. In balancing chemical equations, the Law of Conservation of Mass is observed. This means that the number and kinds of atoms on both sides of the chemical equation must be the same. 2. the notations (g), (l), (s), and (aq) mean gas, liquid, solid, and aqueous solution, respectively. These indicate the physical state of the reactants and products. 3. P4 means that there are four phosphorous atoms bound together by chemical bonds into a single molecule; 4P denotes four separate phosphorous atoms. 4. reactants are the substances we start with end products are what we end up with. Reactants appear to the left of the arrow in a chemical equation and products are written on the right. 5. subscripts in chemical formulas should not be changed when balancing equations because changing the subscript changes the identity of the compound (Law of Constant Composition). Moreover, subscripts should never be used to balance chemical equations. 6. To balance a chemical equation, coefficients are written beside the symbol or formula of the reactant or product. When no coefficient is written, the coefficient is understood to be 1.

Methods of Balancing Chemical Equations 1. Inspection or Trial and Error Method Example: CH4 CH4 CH4 + + + O2 O2 2O2 = = = CO2 CO2 CO2 + + + H2O (unbalanced)

2H2O (unbalanced) 2H2O (balanced)

2. Oxidation Reduction Method Oxidation Reduction Reactions Consider the combustion of hydrogen gas H2(g) + O2(g) = H2O(g). hydrogen has been oxidized from zero to +1 oxidation state, and oxygen has been reduced from 0 to -2 oxidation state. Therefore, the combustion of hydrogen gas is an oxidationreduction reaction. The oxidation state of an atom in some chemical combination is the arbitrary electrical charge assigned to that atom according to a prescribed set of rules. Other expressions often used to refer to the oxidation state are oxidation number or valence state. In any oxidation-reduction reaction, both oxidation and reduction must occur. The substance that makes it possible for another substance to be oxidized is called the oxidizing agent or oxidant. The oxidizing agent gains electrons and is itself reduced. In the process of gaining electrons the oxidation state of the species involved decreases. Similarly, a reducing agent or reductant is a substance that gibes up electrons thereby causing another substance to be reduced. The reducing agent is oxidized in the process and thereby increases its oxidation state. A common mnemonic in remembering oxidation and reduction is LEO the lion says GER; Losing Electrons is Oxidation; Gaining Electrons is Reduction. Example: Identify the oxidizing and reducing agents in the following oxidationreduction (redox) equation: 2H2O(l) Answer: + Al(s) + MnO4(aq) + MnO2

Al is the reducing agent, MnO4 is the oxidizing agent.

A. Oxidation State Method:

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Example: Balance the following oxidation-reduction reaction: HNO3 + Steps: 1. Assign oxidation states to each element in the reaction. The oxidation state of a free and uncombined element is zero. The oxidation state of H in a compound is usually +1, except in the case of metallic hydrides, where it is -1. The oxidation state of oxygen in a compound is usually -2, except in peroxides where it is -1 or in fluorine compounds where it may be positive. The algebraic sum of the positive and negative oxidation states in a compound is zero. The algebraic sum of the positive and negative oxidation states in a polyatomic ion is equal to the charge of the ion.
+1 +5 -2 +1 -2 +2 -2 0 +1 -2

H2S

NO

H2O

HNO3

H2S

NO

H2O

2. Note the elements that are oxidized and reduced.

+1 +5 -2 +1 -2 +2 -2 0 +1 -2

HNO3

H2S

NO

H2O

The oxidation state of N changes from +5 to +2. (reduction) The oxidation state of S changes from -2 to 0. (oxidation) Reversible Reactions The French scientist Henri Louis Le Chatelier proposed in 1884 that disturbing equilibrium will make a system readjust to reduce the disturbance and regain equilibrium. This principle regarding changes in equilibrium is called Le Chateliers principle. The following are some factors that can influence the direction of a reaction: Removal of a product or a reactant Adding more reactants Adding or removing energy, usually in the form of heat Reaction Rate Many reactions reach equilibrium, the time when reactants and products are formed and broken down at the same rate. How fast is this rate? Can the rate of a reaction be changed? Four factors affect this rate. Effect of Temperature Most reactions go faster at higher temperatures. Lowering the temperature slows down most reactions. Photographic film and batteries stay useful longer if they are kept cool because the lower the temperature slows the reactions that can ruin these products. Effect of Concentration Changing the amounts of reactants present can also alter reaction rate. The amount of substance present in a certain volume is called the concentration of the substance. Raising the concentration of a reactant will speed up a reaction because there are more particles per volume. More particles result in more collisions, so the reaction rate increases. In most cases, concentration is increased by adding more reactant. If a gas is involved, concentration may be increased by increasing pressure. It doesnt increase the number of particles but it brings the particles closer so collisions are more frequent.
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Presence of Catalysts Another way to change the rate of a reaction is to add or take away a catalyst. A catalyst is a substance that speeds up the rate of a reaction without being permanently changed or used up itself. Even though they increase the rate of reactions, catalysts do not change the position of equilibrium. Therefore, they do not affect how much product you can get from a reaction just how fast a given amount of product will form. Many different compounds are able to act as catalysts. The most powerful catalysts are those found in nature. They are needed to speed up the reactions necessary for a cell to function efficiently. These biological catalysts are called enzymes. To slow down reactions that have undesirable products, inhibitors are used. Just as catalysts dont make reactions to occur, inhibitors dont completely stop reactions.

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SOLUTIONS A solution may be defined as a homogenous or uniform mixture of two or more substances. It is composed of a solute (the dissolved substance) and a solvent (the dissolving medium) but commonly the solute is a solid and lesser in quantity. Dissolution occurs when a solute and solvent mix to form a solution. The maximum amount of solute that dissolves in a fixed quantity of solvent is its solubility. Factors Affecting the Solubility of Solid Solutes in Liquid Solvents 1. Nature of solute and nature of solvent. The choice of solvent is important when one attempts to dissolve a solid substance. Water (polar molecule) is a common solvent for many solutes such as sugar and salts, but it is unsatisfactory for fat or paint. Iodine (nonpolar) is only slightly soluble in water, but will dissolve readily in alcohol. Ether, (CCl4) and gasoline (all nonpolar) are good solvents for fatty materials, whereas turpentine is used to dissolve paint. Like dissolves like substances. Polar molecules will dissolve readily in polar solvents. Nonpolar molecules will dissolve readily in nonpolar solvents. 2. Surface area. A finely powdered solute will dissolve more rapidly because more surface is exposed to the solvent. 3. Agitation. If the mixture is stirred, the rate of solubility of the solute is increased, since fresh solvent is continually coming in contact with the solute. 4. Temperature. The solubility of most solutes increase with a rise in temperature. However, the solubility of gases is decreased by an increase in temperature and is increased by an increase in pressure. Since solutions are mixtures, their concentration depends entirely on the amount of solute dissolved in a definite quantity of solvent. Concentration is expressed in many ways. Qualitatively, a dilute solution contains a small amount of the solute, whereas a concentrated solution contains a large amount of solute. If a solution is prepared by stirring in an excess of solute until no more will dissolve, it is said to be a saturated solution. A saturated solution is one whose solubility has been attained. At any given temperature, a saturated solution will contain a definite quantity of solute in a given amount of solvent. A state of equilibrium exists between the dissolved and the undissolved solute. A saturated solution is defined as a solution in which the dissolved solute exists in a state of equilibrium with the undissolved solute. If a saturated solution is prepared at a high temperature and then allowed to cool, the extra solute that was dissolved at a higher temperature usually becomes insoluble and settles out of the solution. If the hot solution is cooled slowly and is not disturbed, the excess solid may not settle out. In this case the solution will contain more solute than it can ordinarily dissolve at room temperature. Such a solution is called supersaturated solution. If this solution is disturbed by the addition of a crystal of the solute, the material in excess of that required to saturate the solution at that temperature will crystallize out. Freshly prepared jams and jellies are common examples of supersaturated solutions. Upon standing, they may slowly form sugar crystals.

Types of Solutions Since matter can exist in different physical states solid, liquid or gas many different types of solutions are possible. The types of solutions are summarized in the following table. Solute Solid Liquid Solvent solid Solid Examples Alloys steel, brass Amalgams mercury in a metal
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Gas Solid Liquid Gas gas

Solid Liquid Liquid Liquid Gas

H2 in palladium catalyst Salt in water seawater Gasoline solution of several medium chain hydrocarbons Softdrink or carbonated beverage CO2 in water Air mixture of O2, N2, CO2, Ar

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