1

SOME ELECTRICAL QUESTIONS

CAPACITANCE: The property of capacitor is to store electricity (charge). Its unit is Farad. RESISTANCE: It is the property which opposes the flow of current. Its unit is ohm (). Where, R=V/I. POWER: Rate of doing work in unit time is called power. Its unit is Watt. Where, P=V*I. CURRENT: The flow of free electron in the metal is called current. Its unit is Ampere. Where, I=V/R VOLTAGE: Where, V=I*R. ENERGY: It is the capacity of doing work. Its unit is Joule. Where, [1watt =1joule/sec and 1kwh = 1000watt] HORSE POWER: It is the practical unit of mechanical output [H.P = 746watt (British)] JOULE: It is the unit of energy work and can be defined as the work done when a force of one Newton acts so as to cause displacement of one meter. WORK: Work is said to be done by force when it moves a body through a certain distance. (w=f*x) Its unit is Joule. FREQUENCY: Number of cycles completed by an alternating quantity per second is called frequency. It can be denoted by f and expressed in hertz (Hz). AMPLITUDE: The maximum value of an alternating quantity is called amplitude. AMPERE: The constant current which when flowing through each of the two straight long parallel conductors situated in vacuum and placed one meter apart produce between them a force equal to 2*10-7 Newtons per meter length. It is the SI unit of current.

2 RESISTOR: Resistor is a device which shows the constant relation between voltage drop across it and current flowing through it. EMF (electro motive force): It is a device that maintains the potential difference between two points is said to develop emf (volt). POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE: It is the difference between the two points. RECTIFIERS (a.c to d.c): It converts fixed A.C.to variable D.C voltage. It is widely used for controlling d.c drives. INVERTERS (d.c to a.c): It converts fixed D.C voltage to an A.C voltage. It is used in induction motor, synchronous motor, UPS, HVDC transmission etc. CONVERTERS: It converts i/p power at one frequency to o/p power at different frequency It is used for obtaining low frequency a.c voltage. REGULATORS (a.c to a.c): It converts fixed A.C voltage to variable A.C voltage at same frequency. It is used for speed control of large fans and pumps. CHOPPERS (d.c to d.c): It converts fixed D.C input voltage to variable D/C output voltage. It is used for d.c drives, trolley trucks etc. AMMETER: It is used for the measurement of current in the equipment. VOLTMETER: It is used for the measurement of voltage. WATTMETER: It is used for the measurement of input power consument in the circuit. MULTIMETER: It is used for the measurement of current, voltage, resistance. CLIP ON METER: It is used for the measurement of current in working circuit. MEGGER: It is used for the measurement of insulation resistance.

3 EARTH TESTER: It is used for the measurement of earth resistance. LINE TESTER: It is used to check phase terminal or neutral terminal. TACHO METER: It is used to check speed of moving parts, rotor etc. PHASE SEQUENCE INDICATOR: It is used for the checking of phase sequence in 3 phase supply. CELL TESTER: It is used to measure voltage of storage battery. FILLER GUAGE: It is used for the measurement of air gap. DIAL GUAGE: It is used to check vibration, and also air gap of both rotor and stator. THERMOMETER: It is used for the measurement of temperature. POWER FACTOR METER: It is used for the measurement of power factor of the circuit.

TORQUE: Turning effect of force about an axis is called torque. Its unit is Nm or joules. EFFICIENCY: Output energy divided by the input energy is called efficiency. Efficiency = output energy/input energy Energy converting motor etc cannot convert the whole of input energy to required form of output energy. Some of the energy is wasted either in incoming friction or other way. POWER FACTOR: The cosine of angle between voltage and current in a.c circuit is called power factor. Causes: (1) Arc lamps, industrial heating furnace etc operate at low lagging power factor. (2) Most of a.c motors are induction type in which have low lagging power factor. This motor work at p.f which is extremely small on light load (0.2 to 0.3) and rises to 0.8 to 0.9 at full load. (3) Load on power system is varying, being high during morning and evening and low at other times. During low load period supply voltage increased which increases the magnetization current. This results in decreased p.f.

4 Power factor improvement: For the improvement of power factor capacitor is used (that is connected in parallel with load). The capacitor draws leading current and completely neutralizes the lagging current. Power factor improvement equipments:(1) Static capacitor (2) Phase advancer (3) Synchronous condenser. PLCC EQUIPMENT: It is used to establish communication to the other generating stations and sub-station and load dispatch center of power system. In short it is used for carrying communication signals. PLCC is the short form of Power Line Carrier Communication. OHMS LAW:-

Relationship between the potential difference (V), current (I), and resistance(R) in d.c circuit, first discovered by German scientist George Simon ohm (1787 1854) is called ohms law. Statement: - It states that current flowing between any two points of a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across them, provided by physical conditions (e.g temperature) do not change. Mathematically, IV or V/I = constant --------------------------- (1)

It can also be stated as, V/I=R It can also be stated as, V=iR or I=V/R ---------------------------- (3) ------------------------------(4) ----------------------------- (2)

Limitations:(1) Does not apply to non-linear devices. Exp- zenerdiode, voltage-regulator (VR) tubes etc. (2) Ohms law does not apply to all non-metallic conductors. ISOLATOR: In substation it is often to desire to disconnect a part system for general maintenance and repairs. This is accomplished by an isolating switch or isolators. An isolator switches are operated only when the line in which they are connected carry no current. BUSBAR:-

5 When number of lines operating at same voltage has to be directly connected electrically, bus bar is used as the common electrical equipment. Bus bars are copper or aluminum. Incoming and out going lines of substation are connected to bus bar. Commonly used bus bars are:(1)Single bus bar arrangement. (2)Single bus bar system with sectionalisation. (3)Double bus bar arrangement. SAG: The difference in the level between the supports and the lowest point on the conductor is called sag. HYSTERESIS LOSS: When a magnet material is magnetized, its domains are aligned in the direction of the applied field. If the material is magnetized in the reverse direction, the domains swing around to align themselves in the opposite direction. If there is a cyclic reversal of the applied field, the domains rotate to and fro. in this process there is a loss of power called hysteresis loss. This loss appears in the form of heat and raises the temperature of the magnetic material. EDDY CURRENT LOSS: When the magnetic material is subjected to a changing (or alternating) magnetic field, an emf is induced in the magnetic material itself according to faradays law of electromagnetic induction. Since, magnetic material is also a conducting material; this emf circulates currents within the body of the material. These circulating currents are known as eddy currents. As these currents are not used for doing any useful work and flow within the body, these current produce a loss in the magnetic material called eddy current loss. Like hysteresis loss this loss also increases the temperature of the magnetic material. Total loss due to hysteresis and eddy current loss in magnetic material is called iron loss or core loss or magnetic loss

EARTHING: The process of connecting the metallic frame of electrical equipment or some electrical part of the system to earth is called earthing or earthing is provided for safety of electrical equipment/apparatus and human safety.

Types of earthing:-

(1)PLATE EARTHING: This is one of the common systems of earthing. In this type of earthing, a copper or G.I plate is used as an earth electrode. If G.I plate is used, it shall be of dimensional

6 60cm*60cm*6.35mm thick and used, it shall be of dimensions 60cm*60cm*3.18mm thick. The pit is dug about 4meters deep. The plate is buried to a depth not less than 2meter. The plate is completely covered by 80mm of charcoal with a layer of common salt of 30mm all around it; keep the face of the plate vertical as shown in figure. The plate is buried into the ground in such a way that its face is vertical. The G.I wire is used for G.I plate and copper wire is used for copper plate. The size of wire is selected according to the installation and fault current.

(2)PIPE EARTHING: Taking in consideration the factors such as initial cost, inspection, resistance measurement etc, the pipe earthing is the best form of ground connection. Iron is the cheapest, material and remains serviceable even if put in salty mass of earth. The pipe used as earth electrode is galvanized and perforated. Size of pipe depends upon the current to be carried and type of soil in which earth electrode is buried. For ordinary soils, the length of the G.I pipe used as an electrode is 2m long and 38m diameter or 1.37m long and 51mm in diameter. For dry and rocky soils, the length may be increased to 2.75m and 1.85m respectively. The pipe is placed vertically to a depth not less than 2m. The pipe shall be completely covered by 80mm of charcoal with layer of common salt 30mm. it increases earth resistance. The earthing lead should be soldered and connected to the pipe. It is to be noted that salt is poured at the bottom and there after alternate layers of salt and charcoal are arranged. FACTORS WHICH DECIDE TYPE OF EARTHING TO BE PROVIDED:1. 2. 3. 4. Earth resistance value of resistivity of soil nature of earthing of soil Temperature and moisture content of the soil.

7 Value of earth resistance in generating station is 0.2 to 0.3 ohm and for large stations 0.5 ohm and for small station is >=1 ohm and transmission line tower footings are 8 ohm above

TRANSISTOR: It is an important semi-conductor device. It is used in different types of amplifier oscillator and integrated circuits. When we keep N and P type semi-conductor between two P type and N type semi-conductor, two PN junctions are formed. Such a semi-conductor device with two PN junctions is known as a Transistor. It has two junctions and 3 layers. They are emitter, base and collector. P N P N P N C B B E Transistor figure E C

TYPES OF SWITCH:(1)TUMBLER SWITCH: It is also known as surface switch. Tumble switch are those switch fixed on the mounting block of teak wood directly fixed on the surface of the wall. Available in round and oblong base. Round ball switches are cheap and in common use. Oblong ball switches are good in appearance, but are costly and rarely used. (2)FLUSH SWITCH: Flush switches from their name are fixed in flush with the wall and do not project out. These switches are used for very high performance and appearances are required. They are classified. (a)ONE- WAY SWITCH: This type of switch consists of two terminals which can be easily seen from back side of switch as well, without removing the cover. This switch is always connected in series with the point (lamp, fan, and socket-outlet) to be control (b)TWO- WAY SWITCH: This type of switch consists of four terminals two of them are being short-circuited inside the switch. This type of switch is usually used for stair case wiring or circuits where one points is to be controlled from two different places. This type of switch is usually used for stair case wiring or circuits where one points is to be controlled from two different places.

8 (c)TWO- WAY CENTER- OFF SWITCH: This type of switch is just like two way switch but having three operations. In the center it becomes off. Such switches are used when two lamps are operated alternately. (d)DOUBLE POLE SWITCH: This is the combination of two one way switches which can be operated simultaneously, as ON-OFF terminals of both the switches are connected together by a handle made of Bakelite. Such switches are used as interlinked switches when the load current is less than 5A and supply voltage is under 250V. In case voltage or current increases, DPIC switch is used. (e)PUSH BUTTON SWITCH: Such switch is used for controlling the electric bells. When the knob is pressed, the circuits is completed and the bell rings as soon as the knob is left circuits becomes open. (f)TABLE LAMP SWITCH: This is a small ON-OFF switch which is commonly used in table lamps.

(g)BED SWITCH: Such switch is used to switch OFF the table lamps or other lamps while going to sleep or making the lamp ON while getting up at night. It is connected in series with one of two flexible wires. (h)DOUBLE PPOLE IRON CLAD SWITCH (DPIC): It is used for controlling 1-phase two wire circuits. It is normally used for domestic wiring. (i)TRIPLE POLE IRON CLAD SWITCH (TPIC): It is used for controlling 3-phase wire system. It is used for industrial installation. (J)TRIPLE POLE IRON CLAD SWITCH WITH NEUTRAL LINK (TPNIC): This switch is used for controlling 3-phase, 4 wire systems. It is used fort industrial installation. Now a days improved form of switch are employed. Fuse units with indicator light are used which give a better look.

HOLDERS:(1)LAMP HOLDER: Lamp holder is used to support the lamps and also to connect it electrically to the supply system. These are so designed that lamp can be removed and replaced easily. These are normally available with brass exterior and porcelain interior or also with Bakelite exterior and porcelain interior. Brass holders are costlier, but more durable compared to Bakelite holders.

9 Brass may give shock if connections are poor. (2)BATTERN HOLDERS: These holders are used where the lamp is fitted to the roof or to the wall. This type of lamp holder is fitted directly on the wooden board which itself is fixed on the wall. Lamp is than supported in the battern holder. (3)PENDENT HOLDERS: When bulb is to be suspended from the ceiling rose, this type of holder had to be used for holding the lamp. (4)ANGLE HOLDERS: They are used where the light of the lamp is needed at a certain angle. Such lamp holders are available in various fancy design and colours. These are directly fixed to the wall. (5)BRACKET HOLDERS: These are used where direct light is needed in the room. These are also used in the table lamps. These cannot be fixed on the roof or made hang. Usually these are fixed on wall. Brackets used are made of brass material. (6)WATER TIGHT BRACKET HOLDERS: These are mainly used street light. These are provided with tubular glasses with water tight covers. Also used for supporting the bulbs outside the houses premises where no cover to save the bulbs from falling of water over it. Transformer : A transformer is a device that transforms electrical energy from one ckt to another through inductively coupled wires. Transformer is static electrical equipment which transforms a.c. electrical power from one voltage to another voltage at the same frequency by induction. Transformer is a static device, it do not have rotor. It transforms power from one ckt to another ckt at same frequency but at different voltage. They operate on the principle of electromagnetic induction. They operate only with A.C, not with D.C. current. The highest a.c voltage in the system is 1500KV. The highest rating of the transformer in the world is 2000MVA. Transformers are generally used for stepping up and stepping down the voltage. Transformers generally have efficiency of the order of above 90%. For step up transformer delta/star connection is used. For step down transformer star/delta connection is used. Constructional details (single phase): Transformer has two windings primary and secondary windings. These windings are made of copper.

10 These windings are put on limbs of transformer core. A suitable insulation is used for the former on which windings are put. Transformer core is made of silicon steel stampings which are varnished coated. The smaller transformer is air cooled but higher capacity transformer is dipped in the oil tank for cooling purpose. Air blast cooling or water cooling is adopted for bigger transformer. Advantages of 3 phase over 1phase transformer? 1. The cost of one 3- phase transformer is lesser than the 3- unit of single phase transformer. 2. Weight of one unit of 3 phase transformer is lesser than the weight of 3 units of 1 phase transformer. 3. Space occupied by one unit of 3 phase transformer is lesser than the space occupied by 3 units of 1phase transformer. 4. 3 phase transformer are highly efficient. 5. The bus bar structure, switch gear and other wiring of 3 phase transformer is cheaper and simple in comparison with 3 units of 1 phase transformer. 6. It should be mentioned here one advantage of using 3 units of 1 phase transformer is that if one of the unit becomes faulty, the remaining units can supply electric energy partially. What is ideal transformer? An ideal transformer is one which has no losses i.e. its winding has no ohmic resistance, there is no magnetic leakage and hence which has no I2R losses and core losses. Difference between core type and shell type:SR.N O CORE TYPE In this type the winding surrounds the whole core Suitable for high voltage Easy for repairs Average length of core is more Magnetic has only one continuous path SHELL TYPE In this type the core surrounds the windings Suitable for less voltage Difficult for repairs Average length of core is less Magnetic is distributed into two paths

1 2 3 4 5

Why transformers are rated in VA, KVA or MVA not in W, KW or MW? Copper loss depends on current and iron loss depends on voltage. Hence total transformer loss depends on volt-ampere (VA) and not on phase angle between voltage and current .that is why rating of transformer is in kva not in kW. Disadvantage of a D.C current due to the resistance of the transmission wires. Direct current must be generated at the voltage level required by the load. Since power in D.C. system must be transmitted at low voltage and high current levels, the I2R power losses becomes a problem in the D.C. system. Why tappings are required on transformers? To compensate changes in the applied voltage on bulk supply and other system transformer.

11 To compensate for regulation with in the transformer and maintain the output voltages constant. On which portion of the windings tappings are provided? The tappings are provided on the neutral side of the windings in star connection. On which side HV, LV and TERTIARY tappings are provided and why? The tappings of the tap changers are generally provided on the H.V. side due to followings reasons:1. The number of turns in the windings is large and therefore a fine voltage regulation is obtained 2. The current on the L.V. side of the high capacity transmission and generation transformer is very high. 3. The L.V. winding is placed on the inner side nearer to the core while the H.V. winding is placed on the outside. Which protection schemes are employed for protection of power transformer? 1. differential relay 2. buchholz relay 3. over current relay 4. Restricted earth fault relay.

Buchholz relay: It is used for major fault. It is used for the protection of transformer against all internal faults. It is placed between the tank and conservator. It is used on oil cooled transformer. It is gas operated relay. When normal faults occur in the transformer tank buchholz gives the indication to provide protection by alarm circuit. Buchholz relay has two elements. The upper element consists of a mercury switch to a float. The lower element consist a mercury switch mounted on hinged type flap located in the direct path of flow of oil from the conservator. The upper element closes an alarm ckt during normal faults, whereas the lower element is arranged to trip the ckt breaker in case of severe internal faults. List out electrical faults and non electrical or incipient faults. Electrical faults:1. Phase to phase and phase to ground faults. 2. Terminals fault at H.V. &L.V. terminals. 3. H.V.& L.V. windings 4. Earth fault on tertiary winding etc.

12 5. Short circuit between the turns of l.v or h.v windings. Non-electrical or incipient faults. 1. Core faults 2. Bad electrical joints 3. core lamination insulation 4. failure cooling system 5. fault in temperature changes 6. Leakage of oil tank fault. Serious faults to trip the transformer. 1. short ckt between the phases 2. winding short ckt 3. winding earth fault 4. puncture of bushing What are incipient faults? Faults which are not significant in the beginning but which slowly develop into serious faults. What is Breather? Why it is required? Breather is a device fitted on a transformer through which transformer breathes. It is required i.e. air is sucked in the transformer when the oil contracts and air is passed out when the oil expands. What is the colour of dry as well as wet silica gel? The colour of dry silica gel is Blue & the colour of wet silica gel is dull pale yellow or slightly pink. What is reactivation of silica gel and how it is done? Reactivation of silica gel means to remove moisture from silica gel by heating process. Why silica gel is used in breather? Silica gel property is to absorb the moisture, when air is sucked into conservator, there is possibility of dust and moisture entering transformer which deteriorates insulating properties of oil and insulation. Function of Bushing A bushing is necessary when a conductor is taken out through tank or a wall. Simple porcelain bushing can be used up to 20kv class. Oil filled bushing is used for 33kv. Oil impregnated paper condenser bushing is used for 132kv.

Types of bushing 1. Composite bushing 2. condenser bushing 3. oil filled bushing

13 4. oil immersed bushing 5. solid bushing 6. dry type bushing Why porcelain is used in bushing? Porcelain is used in bushing because porcelain is made from ceramic material. Its tensile and compressive strength is very high. Various types of insulations used in transformers. 1. 2. 3. 4. Class A, B, C, F & H: - used in dry type transformers for temperature classification. Insulating varnish: - used for impregnating the transformers winding. Enamel: used on conductor for dry type transformer. Transformer oil: used as insulation and cooling medium in power transformer and instrument transformer.

Drying out of transformer:Drying out of transformer can be carried out by applying heat on any one of the following methods, 1. circulating hot oil 2. heating by short circuit test 3. vpd (vapour phase drying) What is voltage regulation? The voltage regulation of the transformer is the relationship of the open circuit (no load condition) to the rated voltage (full load condition). What is radiator? Radiator is used for better cooling of transformer. Radiators consist of elements joined to top and bottom headers. The material used for manufacturing radiator is of many types and one is C.R.C.A. (cold rolled carbon alloys).

Properties of good transformer oil:Transformer oil is used as di-electric coolant in transformers, switch gears, starters, regulators etc. performance of transformer depends upon the quality of transformers oil. The fresh oil has pale clear yellow colour. The dark cloudy appearance indicates impurities in it. Properties of good insulating oil:1. Appearance:The appearance should be pale yellow colour, free suspended matters and it should be transparent. The dark cloudy appearance indicates impurities in it. 2. Density:The density of insulating oil should not be more than 0.89 gm/cm3.

14 3. Viscosity:The low viscus oil flows in all the voids holes and places in the machine and provides good oil insulation and fast cooling. Low viscosity means higher fluidity 4. Electric strength:Di-electric strength should be higher to withstand high voltage surges. Less dielectric strength indicates the presence of free moisture in the oil. it should be filtered. The dielectric strength should not be less than 30 kV with 2.5 mm standard gap of testing this oil. 5. Specific resistance:It should be as high as possible. if the specified of oil is less than 1 x 10 raise to 12 cm at 27C it should be rejected. If the value lies between 1 x 10 raise to 12 to 10 x 10 raise to 12 the oil should be reconditioned by filtering. 6. Purity:The presence of impurities such as sulphur us harmful. it causes deterioration of metallic parts coming in contact with it . Sludge is formed due to it. The pure oil is free from impurities. 7. Sludging:Due to heat of oxidation the sludge is formed. Sludge is a formation of hydrocarbons which are semi-solids. It affects cooling process and machine becomes hot. Its affect can be reduced with the use of conservator tank in transformer. 8. Water content:Presence of water/moisture reduces dielectric strength of insulating oil. it should be removed by filtering. The oil should be moisture free. 9. Pour point:The oil should not freeze other wise a problem is created in buchcholzs relay in transformer. 10. Flash point:For safety the flash point of oil should not be less than 160. The flash point is the temperature above which the vapour of oil on its surface starts igniting. 11. Fire point:This should be above 200C. This is the temperature at which oil starts igniting and burns continuously. 12. Acidity:Acid present in the oil is very harmful. The oil should be reconditioned if acidity is from 0.5 to 1 mg. KOH/gr and oil should be rejected if it is more than 1 mgKOH/gr. acid corrodes the metallic parts. Applications:The transformer oil is used in 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Minimum oil circuit breaker. Bulk oil circuit breaker Oil fuses switches Rheostates starters/controllers Regulators ON-load tap-changers 8. Isolators 9. Transformer

15 Agents which contaminates the transformer oil. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Water dust/dirt solid/particles/sledges Fibers of various origins Sulphur Acid 7. Gases 8. Grease 9. Carbons 10. Ketons 11. Hydrocarbons

What is Auto-transformer? How it differs from two-winding transformers? It is transformer with one winding only, part of this being common to both primary and secondary. In this transformer the primary and secondary are not electrically isolated from each other as in the case with two winding transformer. But its theory and operation are similar to those of a two-winding. Because of one winding it uses less copper and hence is cheaper. It is used where transformer ratio differs little from unity. Advantage of Auto-transformer:1. We can save much copper with use of auto-transformer. 2. Efficiency is as much as two winding transformer. 3. We get good voltage regulation with use of auto-transformer. Disadvantage of auto transformer:1. The isolation is not met between the supply and load.

State importance of transformers in any electrical networks? Transformers are highly reliable and efficient equipment for transformer of bulk power between two voltage levels. They are important, concient and vital link in power system networks. Power transformers are considered as static equipment and have remote change of failure. Failure of transformer at key location impact heavily then other. STARTER We know that when an induction motor is switched ON i.e. connected directly to the supply. It takes about 6 to 8 times the full load current. Its starting torque is about 1.5 to 2.5 times the full load torque. This large starting current produces large voltage drop in the line. This will affect the operation of other equipments and machines connected to the same line. To overcome from this starters are used. The following are the methods for starting induction motors:(A) Squirrel cage induction motors (1)DOL starter (2) Primary resistor (3)Autotransformer (4)Star-delta starter- 1-manual 2- automatic (B) Slip ring induction motor (1) Rotor rheostat stater

16 DOL starter: - it is used up to 5h.p motor. If numbers of large motors are started direct on line, the voltage drop will be very high and objectionable to other load connected to the other system. DOL is applicable to the squirrel cage induction motor having rated up to 5 h.p.

MOTOR
An electric motor turns because of magnetic force exerted between the stator and rotor. In induction motor, the current is induced in the rotor without contacts by the magnetic field of the stator, through electromagnetic induction. An induction motor is sometimes called a rotating transformer because the stator (stationary part) is the primary side of the transformer and the rotor (rotating part) is the secondary side. The normal transformer which changes the current by using time varying flux, induction motors use rotating magnetic fields to transform the voltage. The current in the primary side creates an electromagnetic field which interacts with the electromagnetic field of the secondary side to produce a resultant torque, thereby transforming the electrical energy into mechanical energy. Induction motors are widely used, especially polyphase induction motors, which are frequently used in industrial drives. Induction motors are now the preferred choice for industrial motors due to their rugged construction, absence of brushes (which are required in most DC motors) andthanks to modern power electronicsthe ability to control the speed of the motor.

Three-phase induction motors

17 Animation of a squirrel-cage AC motor

AC AND DC MOTORS There are two main types of electric motors. They are direct current DC and alternating current AC motors. DC or AC refers to how the electrical current is transferred through and from the motor. Both types of motors have different functions and uses. Dc motors come in two general types. They can have brushes or brushless. AC motors, as well, come in two different types. They can be two phases or three phases. DC electric motors work for situations where speed needs to be controlled. D.C is conductive motor. DC motors have a stable and continuous current. DC motors were the first and earliest motors used. They were found, however, to not be as good at producing power over long lengths. Electric companies found using DC motors to generate electric did not work because the power was lost as the electric was transmitted. Brush DC motors use rings that conduct the current and form the magnetic drive that powers the rotor. Brushless DC motors use a switch to produce the magnetic drive that powers the rotor. Direct current motors are often found in appliances around the home. In a DC motor and a slip-ring AC motor, current is provided directly to the rotor through commutators In D.C motor the current flowing in the field winding and armature winding is same, so flux increases which increases torque.

18

AC MOTOR
AC electric motors are used differently based on what type of AC motor it is. Single phase AC motors are known as general purpose motors. A.C is the inductive motor They work well in many different situations. These AC motors work great for systems that are hard to start because they need a lot of power up front. Three phase, also called polyphase, AC motors are usually found in industrial settings. These motors also have high starting power build. While in A.C motor when the current is flowing, magnetic field is produced which produces the flux, now when the armature rotates it cuts the flux and emf is produced which is given to the armature winding, so the torque decreases. An induction motor or asynchronous motor is a type of AC motor where power is supplied to the rotor by means of electromagnetic induction.

DC and AC electric motors are found everywhere from the home to the car to industrial plants. Motors are important to everyday life.

19 DC motors and AC motors are different in many ways, but they still both are used to power the world.

Slip
The slip is a ratio relative to the synchronous speed and is calculated using:

Where s is the slip, usually between 0 and 1 nr = rotor rotation speed (rpm) ns = synchronous rotation speed (rpm) The speed of the rotor is controlled by the number of pole pairs (number of windings in the stator) and by the frequency of the supply voltage. Single phase In a single phase induction motor, it is necessary to provide a starting circuit to start rotation of the rotor. If this is not done, rotation may be commenced by manually giving a slight turn to the rotor. The single phase induction motor may rotate in either direction and it is only the starting circuit which determines rotational direction. How rotor does rotate? When three phase supply is given to the stator winding, rotating magnetic field of constant magnitude revolving at synchronous speed is produced. This magnetic field helps the rotor to rotate. State the classification of motors? (A) D.C motors (B) A.C motors (a) Synchronous motors (1) Super synchronous motor (2) Plain synchronous motor (b) Asynchronous motor (1) Induction motor (2) Single cage induction motor (3) double cage induction motor (4) Slip ring induction motor

20 (c) Commutator motor (1) Series (2) Compound (3) Shunt (4) Repulsion (5) Repulsion induction INDUCTION MOTOR We know that electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy D.C motors are called conduction motors because the electrical energy is given to the armature. While in induction motors the electrical power received by the rotor is by induction See the question how does the rotor rotates Advantage:1. Its construction is simple 2. It is reliable 3. Its cost is comparatively low 4. Maintenance required is less due to absence of Commutator Disadvantage;1. Its speed is almost constant 2. Its speed decreases with increase in load 3. Its starting torque is low compared to dc shunt motor CONSTRUCTION OF INDUCTION MOTOR There are two parts (1) Stationary called stator (2) Rotating called rotor The rotor is place inside the stator and is supported on both the sides STATOR The stator is stationary part of motor consisting core and winding. The core is made up of thin laminate stamping to reduce iron losses. The slots of stator carry three phase distributed winding. This winding is fed with three phase supply. When three phase supply is fed to the stator winding produce rotating magnetic field of constant magnitude revolving at synchronous speed. This flux induces an emf in the rotor by mutual induction. Note:For light load squirrel cage induction motor is used For heavy load wound rotor is used. Points:There are two types of induction motor (1) Squirrel cage induction motor (2) slip ring induction motor

21 Starting torque of squirrel induction motor is inferior To improve starting torque external resistance is connected to slip ring for wound rotor induction motor

Difference:Squirrel cage: (1) Rotor bars are mounted (2) There are no slip rings (3) Can be used for light load Slip ring: (1) Windings is there in the rotor slots (2) There are slip rings (3) Can be used for heavy load WORKING PRINCIPLE OF INDUCTION MOTOR The induction motor works on the principle of mutual induction The stator winding is connected to supply and emf is induced in the rotor due to the cutting of the flux produced by stator coils Thus the rotor receives the electrical power by induction motor The induction motor can be compared with the stator winding and secondary is short circuited rotor and is free to rotate. Why starting torque of slip ring induction motor is better than squirrel cage induction motor? The rotor resistance can be increased by additional resistance connecting externally in star This is possible only in slip ring induction motor R2 of squirrel cage induction motor cannot be increased due to short circuited rotor bars. Different types of speed control of induction motor (1) By applied voltage control method (2) Frequency control method (3) Pole changing method APPLICATIONS OF (1) Squirrel cage I.M. This type of motor is used in \ (a) Lathe machine (b) Fan (c) Blower (d) Reciprocating pumps (e) Punching presses

22 (2) Slip ring I.M This type of motor are used to drive heavy load

Define Synchronizing:The operation of connecting an alternator in parallel with another alternator or with busbar is known as synchronizing. Procedure of synchronizing:(1) Measure the frequency of i/c alternator with the help of frequency meter which should be same as that of alternator or busbar. If not make it same by adjusting its speed (2) Measure the voltage of i/c alternator with the help of voltmeter which should be same as that of another alternator of busbar. If not make it same. (3) Test the phase sequence of both the alternator with the help of phase sequence tester. If not make it same by interchanging of two terminals of i/c alternator. (4) Synchronizing switch must be ON when the voltage of both the alternator are in phase. ALTERNATOR Its converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. SULPHUR HEXAFLOURIDE (SF6) CIRCUIT BREAKER:SF6 gas is used as an arc quenching medium. it has strong tendency to absorb free electrons. the contacts of C.B. are opened in a high pressure flow of SF6 gas and arc is struck between them. the free electrons in the arc are captured by the gas to form negative ions. this electrons in the arc quickly builds up enough insulation strength to extinguish the arc. SF6 C.B is very effective for high voltage service. Construction:it consist fixed and moving contacts enclosed in the chamber containing SF6 gas. the chamber is connected to gas reservoir. when the contacts of breaker are opened the valve mechanism permits high pressure gas flow from the reservoir to flow towards the arc interruption chamber. the fixed contact, moving contact and arcing horn are coated with copper-tungsten arc resistant material. SF6 gas is costly it is reconditioned and reclaimed by suitable auxiliary system after each operation of the breaker. working;in closed position of the breaker, the contacts remain surrounded by SF6 gas at a pressure of 2.8kg/cm2. when the breaker operates, the moving contact is pulled and an arc is struck between the contacts.

23 the movement of moving contact is synchronized with the opening of the valve which permits high pressure flow of SF6 gas at 14kg/cm2 from the reservoir to the arc interruption chamber. it absorbs the free electrons in the arc path to form negative ions. therefore the contact quickly build up high dielectric strength and causes the extinction of the arc. after the arc extinction the valve is closed by the action of a set of a medium.

Advantages:1. this circuit breaker has very short arcing time. 2. the dielectric strength of SF6 gas is 2 to 3 times that of air. 3. SF6 gas gives the noiseless operation 4. there is no risk of fire because SF6 gas is non-inflammable. 5. it has low maintenance cost 6. minimum auxiliary requirement. Disadvantage:1. SF6 breakers are costly due to high cost of SF6. 2. SF6 gas has to be reconditioned after every operation of the breaker; additional equipment is required for this purpose. Application:SF6 C.B. have been developed for voltages 115kv to 230kv, power ratings 10MVA to 20MVA and interrupting time less than 3 cycles. VACUUM CIRCUIT BREAKER (VCB) In such breakers vacuum is used as an arc quenching medium. Since vacuum offers highest insulating strength. When the contacts are opened in vacuum an arc is produced between the contacts. However the arc is quickly extinguished because the metallic vapour, electrons and ions produced during arc is condense on the surface of the circuit breaker contacts result quick recovery of dielectric strength. Construction:It consist fixed contact, moving contact and arc shield mounted inside the vacuum chamber. The movable member is connected to the control mechanism by stainless steel bellow. This enables permanent sealing of the vacuum chamber to eliminate possibility of leak. A glass vessel or ceramic vessel is used as outer body. Working:When the breaker operates, the moving contact separates from the fixed contact and arc is struck between the contacts. The production of arc is due to the ionization of metal ions. The arc is quickly extinguished because the metallic vapors, electrons and ions produced during arc are diffused in a short time and seized by the surface of moving and fixed members. Since vacuum has very fast rate of recovery of dielectric strength .

24 Advantage;1) They are compact, reliable and has longer life. 2) There are no fire hazards. 3) There is no generation of gas during and after operation. 4) They require less maintenance. 5) They can successfully withstand lightning surges. 6) They have low arc energy. Applications:For a country like India, where distance are large and accessibility to remote areas difficult, the installation of such outdoor, maintenance free circuit breakers should prove a definite advantage. Vacuum C.B. are being employed for outdoor applications ranging from 22kv to 66kv. Even with limited ranging say 60 to 100 mva, they are suitable for majority of applications in rural areas. AIR-BLAST CIRCUIT BREAKER:Types of circuit breaker:1. Axial blast type 2. Cross blast air breaker 1. Axial blast type:Figure shows components of axial blast air circuit breaker. The fixed and moving contacts are held in the closed position by spring pressure under normal conditions. The air reservoir is connected to the arcing chamber through the air valve. The valve remains closed under normal condition but opens automatically when the fault occurs. Now, when the fault occurs the air valve gets opened which connects the air reservoir to the arcing chamber. The high pressure air entering the arcing chamber pushes away the moving contact against spring pressure. The moving contact is separated and arc is struck. it. Therefore arc is extinguished and current flow is interrupted. 2. Cross blast air breaker:In this type of breaker, an air blast is directed at right angles to the arc. Figure shows components of cross blast air circuit breaker. When the moving contact is opened an air is struck between the fixed and moving contacts.

TEST TO BE PERFORMED:-

SR.NO ITEM
01 Bushings

TEST CATEGORY
Power frequency test

TEST TO BE PERFORMED
Power factor-voltage test Internal or partial discharge test One minute wet withstand test

25 Momentary withstand test Visible discharge test Impulse voltage test Thermal test 02 Surge arresters Full wave withstand test Temperature rise and thermal stability test Power frequency and spark over test Hundred percent standard impulse spark over test Residual voltage test High current impulse test Other test Long duration impulse current test Operating duty cycle test Pressure relief test Pollution test Voltage withstand test on insulator Switching surge flashover test Mechanical test likeporosity, temperature cycle test 03 Cable test Mechanical test Bonding test Dripping and drainage Fire resistance test Corroision test Withstand voltage test Dielectric power factor test Partial discharge test Life expectancy tests Thermal duty tests Dry and wet flashover tests Wet and dry withstand test Impulse withstand voltage test Impulse flashover test Pollution testing 05 Circuit breaker and insulator switches Dielectric test or overvoltage test Temperature rise test Mechanical test Short circuit test

Power frequency other

04

insulator

Power frequency test Impulse test

26 06 transformer Induced voltage test Partial discharge test Impulse testing tests

JOULES LAW:It states that there exists a definite relation between the electrical energy expanded and amount of heat produced. thus, relation is called joules law. This law states that amount of heat produced (H) is directly proportional to the electric energy expanded (W) i.e. H W or W/H = J (constant) ----------------------------------------------(1)

Where j is constant. The value of jis4.186 joules/calorie i.e. J = 4.186 joules/calorie or 1 calorie = 4.186 joule It means that to produce 1 calorie of heat 4.186 joules of electric energy is expanded. For equation (1), H = W/J But H = VIt or I2Rt or V2/R x t

Thus

H = VIt / J = V I t / 4.186 calories = V I t / 4.186 kcal.

27

THERMAL POWER STATION:ADVANTAGE:1) The fuel used is quite cheap. 2) Less initial cost as compared to other generating station. 3) It requires less space as compared to H.P.S. 4) It can be installed at any location .the coal can be transported to site by road and rail. 5) Huge amount of power can be generated by T.P.S. DISADVANTAGE:1) Running cost is more as compared to H.P.S. 2) It pollutes the atmosphere due to production of smoke and mines. 3) Maintenance cost is more 4) Over all efficiency is very low (about 29%) SITE SELECTION FOR T.P.S:1) Supply of fuel: The steam power station should be located near the coal mines so that transportation cost of fuel is minimum. However if such a plant is to be installed at a place where coal is available, then care should be taken that adequate facilities exists for the transportation of coal. 2) Availability of water: Huge amount of water is required for the condenser; therefore such a plant should be located at the bank of river or near the canal to ensure the continuous supply of water. 3) Transportation facilities: Power station should have the transportation facility such as road and rail for transportation of material and machinery. 4) Away from populated area:Steam power plant produces smoke and fumes by burning of huge amount of coal. It pollutes the surrounding area. Hence plant should be located away from the populated area. 5) Near to load centre: Power station should be located near to the load centre to minimize the transmission cost of electrical energy. 6) Ash Disposal facilities: Ash produces after the burning of coal is about 20-40% of the weight of coal. Thus it becomes more serious problem. Therefore there must be sufficient space available for disposal of large quantity of ash.

28 7) Space requirement:The space required for the T.P.S. plant is large for plant equipment, coal storage, ash disposal staff colony etc.the land available for the power plant must be available at low cost and also it should have sufficient bearing capacity to withstand the load of machinery. Why the efficiency of T.P.S. is low? The over all efficiency of T.P.S. is much lower and that is about 29%, it is mainly due to two reasons; 1) Large amount of heat is wasted in condensers 2) The heat wastage in other parts of the plan

HYDRO POWER STATION:ADVANTAGE:1) It requires no fuel as water is used for the generation of electrical energy 2) It is quiet neat and clean, as no smoke or ash is produced 3) Its construction is simple 4) It requires less space 5) It is robust and has longer life 6) It has very small running charges because water is the source of energy and freely available from the nature. 7) Its starting time is very less. 8) Skilled employees are required only for erection but for running the plant very few experienced people can operate the plant DISADVANTAGE:1) Due to the construction of dam, capital cost is high. 2) Skilled and experienced persons are required to build the dam. 3) The transmission cost is high as the plant is located in the hilly areas which are generally. 4) There is uncertainty of availability of water due to dependence of water.

SITE SELECTION FOR H.P.S:1) Availability of water:Since the primary requirement of H.P.S is the availability of huge amount of water. Such plant should be build at a place where adequate water is available at the good head. 2) Storage of water:There are wide variations in water supply from a river or canal during the year. This makes it necessary to store the water by building a dam In order to ensure the generation of power throughout the year. The storage of helps in equalizing the flow of water so that any excess quantity of water at a certain period of the year can be made available during times of very low flow in the river. 3) Cost and type of land:-

29 The land for the construction of plant should be available at reasonable price. Further the bearing capacity of ground should be adequate to withstand the weight of heavy equipment to be installed. 4) Near to load centers:The site selected for H.P.S station should be such that it should be near to the load centre to minimize the transmission cost. 5) Transportation facilities:Power station should have the transportation facility such as road and rail for transportation of material and machinery.

SCHEMATIC ARRANGEMENT OF H.P.S:-

1) RESERVOIR:It is the basic requirement of hydro electric plant. It purposes is to store water which may be utilized to run the prime mover to produce electrical power. The reservoir stores water during the rainy season and supplies the same during the dry season. 2) DAM:A dam is a barrier which stores water and creates water head. Dams are built of concrete on earth or rock fill. The arrangement of the dam depends on the topography of the site. The dam may be built in a narrow canyon.

30 3) TRASH RACK:The purpose of providing trash rack is to prevent entry of debris which might damage the wicket gates and turbine runners. A trash rack is made up of steel bars and placed across the intake. 4) FOREBAY:A fore bay is essentially a storage reservoir at the head of the penstocks. The purpose of fore bay is to temporarily store water when it is not required by the plant and supply the same when required. When the plant is located at the base of the dam no forebays are required as reservoirs itself serves the same purpose. 5) SURGE TANK:Generally open conduits carrying water to the turbine requires no protection. When closed conduits are used protection becomes necessary to limit the abnormal pressure in the conduits. For this reason closed conduits are always provided with surge tank. A surge tank is a small reservoir or tank (open at top) in which water level rises or falls to reduce the pressure swings in the conduit. A surge tank is located near the beginning of the conduit. When the load on the turbine is running at steady load and there are no surges in the flow of water through the conduit. i.e., the quantity of water flowing in the conduit is just sufficient to meet the load requirements. However when the load on the turbine decreases, the governor closes the gates of turbine reducing water supply to the turbine. The excess water to the end of the conduit rushes back to the surge tank and increases its water level. Thus the conduit is prevented from the bursting. On other hand when the load on the turbine increases, additional water is drawn from the surge tank to meet the increased load requirement. Hence, the surge tank overcomes the abnormal pressure in the conduit when the load on the turbine falls and rises. 6) PENSTOCK:Penstocks are open or closed conduits which carry water to the turbines. They are generally made up of reinforced or steel. Concrete penstocks are suitable for low heads (<30m) The steel penstocks are designed for any head, the thickness of the penstocks increases with the head or working pressure. Various devices such as butterfly, air valve, and surge tank are provided for the protection of penstocks. Automatic butterfly valve shuts off water through the penstocks if it ruptures. Air valve maintains the air pressure inside the penstock equal to the outside atmospheric pressure. When water runs out of a penstock faster than it enters, a vacuum is created which may cause the penstock to collapse. Under such situation air valve opens and admits the air in the penstock to maintain the air pressure equal to the outside air pressure. 7) SPILLWAYS:In rainy season the river flow exceeds the storage capacity of the reservoir. In order to discharge the water from the storage reservoir into the river on the downstream side of the dam. Spillways are constructed of concrete piers on the top of the dam.

31 Gates are provided between these piers and water is discharged by opening these gates. 8) POWER HOUSE:It is located at the foot of the dam. If the power house is near the dam, the loss of the head due to friction in the penstock would be less. It consist two main parts, a substructure to support the hydraulic and electrical equipment and super structure to support this equipment.

NUCLEAR POWER STATION:ADVANTAGES:1) The amount of fuel required is quite small. Therefore there is considerable saving in the cost of fuel transportation. 2) It requires less space compared to other station. 3) It has low running charges as fuel required is very less. 4) This type of plant is very economical for producing bulk electric power 5) It can be located near to the load centres because it does not require large quantities of water. Therefore cost of primary distribution is reduced. 6) It ensures reliability of operation. DISADVANTAGES:1) Fuel used is quite expensive and is difficult to recover. 2) The capital cost is very high as compared to other plants. 3) High technology is required for erection and commissioning of N.P.S. 4) The fission by-products are generally radioactive and may cause a dangerous amount of radioactive pollution. 5) Maintenance cost is high due to lack of standardization. 6) Disposal of by-products which are radioactive is a big problem. They have either to be disposed off in a deep trench or in a sea away from sea-shore.

SITE SELECTION FOR N.P.S.:1) Availability of water: Sufficient water is required for cooling purpose, therefore the plant site should be located where sufficient quantity of water is available. e.g. river canal or lake. 2) Disposal of waste: The waste produced in N.P.S is generally radioactive which must be disposed off properly to avoid health hazards. The waste should be either buried in the deep trench or disposed off in sea quite away from the sea-shore. 3) Disposal from populated areas: -

32 The site selected for N.P.S should be quite away from the populated areas as there is a danger of presence of radioactive in the atmosphere near the plant. 4) Transportation facilities: The site selected for N.P.S should have transport facilities in order to transport the heavy equipment during erection and to facilitate the movement of workers employed in the plant.

SCHEMATIC ARRANGEMENT OF NUCLEAR REACTOR

33 1) NUCLEAR REACTOR:It is an apparatus in which fission of uranium (U235) or thorium (TH232) produce a huge amount of heat. This heat is utilized to convert water into steam. Nuclear reactor is an apparatus in which fission of above radioactive element is carried out. A nuclear reactor is a cylindrical pressure vessel in which fuel rods, moderators and control rods are placed. MODERATOR:The moderator is of graphite rods. The moderators slow down the neutrons before they bombard the fuel rods. CONTROL RODS:The control rods are of cadmium and are inserted into the reactor. Cadmium is strong neutron absorber and thus regulates the supply of neutrons for fission. When the control rods are pushed in deep enough, they absorb most of the fission neutrons and hence few are available for chain reaction. However as they are pulled out from the reactor more and more chain reaction takes place, and when pushed them again it is reduced. COOLANT:The main function of coolant in the reactor is to transfer the heat generated in the reactor to heat exchanger where steam is generated. Sodium metal is used as coolant. SHIELDING:Fuel rods as well as the biproducts of fission are highly radioactive which radiates -rays, -rays, -rays, which are very harmful to the human life. To prevent these shielding is done shielding is done by concrete and steel plate lining which absorbs -rays and all other radiations. 2) HEAT EXCHANGER The coolant gives up heat to the heat exchanger which is utilized to convert water into steam. After giving up heat, the coolant is again fed to the reactor. 3) STEAM TURBINE:The steam produced in the heat exchanger is fed to the steam turbine through the valve. After doing a useful work in the turbine, the steam is passed to the condenser. The condenser condenses the steam which is fed to the heat exchanger through feed water pump. 4) ALTERNATOR:The steam turbine drives the alternator which converts mechanical energy to electrical energy.

34 The output of the alternator is delivered to the busbar through transformer, circuit breaker and isolator. 5) CONDENSER AND COOLING TOWER:After doing a useful work in the turbine, the steam is passed to the condenser in which steam is converted into water. In cooling tower the temperature of condensed water is further decreased and then recircuilated in the heat exchanger. SCHEMATIC ARRANGEMENT OF T.P.S 1) COAL AND ASH HANDLING PLANT The coal is transported to the power station by road or rail and is stored in the coal storage plant. Storage of coal is primarily a matter of protection against the shortage in case of failure of transportation and other abnormal conditions. From the coal storage plant, coal is delivered to the coal handling plant where it is pulverised (crushed into small pieces). The pulverised coal is fed to the boiler by belt conveyors. The coal is burnt in the boiler and the ash produced after the complete combustion of coal is removed to the ash handling plant and then delivered to the ash storage plant for disposal. 2) STEAM GENERATING PLANT (a) BOILER:Steam boilers are classified into fire tube and water tube boilers. If the hot combustion gases are inside the tubes and water surrounded with water then boiler is known as fire tube boiler. If water is inside the tubes and hot gases are outside the tubes boiler is known as fire tube boiler. Generally water tube boilers are used for electric power stations. In boiler coal is burnt and the heat is utilized to convert the water into steam. Flue gases from the boiler are passed through the super heater, economizer and air pre heater before releasing to the atmosphere. (b) SUPERHEATER:The steam produced in the boiler is impure i.e. it contains some moisture in it. The steam produced in the boiler is wet and is passed through superheater, where it is dried and superheated by the flue gases. Superheating increases the overall efficiency of the plant. (c) ECONOMISER:The purpose of economizer is to heat the feed water before supplying to the boiler. The flue gases derive heat to increase the temperature of the feed water in economiser. (d) AIR-PREHEATER:An air preheater increases the temperature of air supplied for coal burning by deriving heat from flue gases.

35 Air is drawn from the atmosphere by forced draught fan and is passed through air pre heater before supplying to the boiler furnace. The air preheater extracts heat from flue gases and increases the temperature of air used for coal combustion. The advantage of air preheating is that, it increases the thermal efficiency.

(3) STEAM TURBINE