AC CIRCUITS

Give thanks for God is good and His love endures forever.

Engr. Rex Jason H. Agustin

ALTERNATING CURRENT
ALTERNATING CURRENT
A current that is constantly changing in amplitude and direction.

Advantages of AC: Magnitude can easily be changed (stepped-up or stepped down) with the use of a transformer Can be produced either single phase for light loads, two phase for control motors, three phase for power distribution and large motor loads or six phase for large scale AC to DC conversion.

BASIC AC THEORY

AC WAVEFORMS

BASIC AC THEORY

AC WAVEFORMS
Parameters of Alternating Signal

f = 1 T

= v f

Period (T) the time of one complete cycle in seconds Frequency (f) the number of cycles per second (Hertz) a. 1 cycle/second (cps) = 1 Hertz (Hz) b. Proper operation of electrical equipmnent requires specific frequency c. Frequencies lower than 60 Hz would cause flicker when used in lightning Wavelength () the length of one complete cycle Propagation Velocity (v) the speed of the signal Phase () an angilar measurement that specifies the position of a sine wave relative to reference

BASIC AC THEORY

AC WAVEFORMS
THE SINUSOIDAL WAVE
Is the most common AC waveform that is practically generated by generators used in household and industries General equation for sine wave:

A(t) = Am sin (t + )
Where: a(t) instantaneous amplitude of voltage or current at a given time (t) Am maximum voltage or current amplitude of the signal angular velocity in rad/sec; = 2f t time (sec) phase shift ( + or in degrees)

BASIC AC THEORY

AC WAVEFORMS
Measurements of AC Magnitude
AMPLITUDE It is the height of an AC waveform as depicted on a graph over time (peak, peak-to-peak, average, or RMS quantity)
PEAK AMPLITUDE the height of an AC waveform as measured from the zero mark to the highest positive or lowest negative point on a graph. Also known as the crest amplitude of a wave.

BASIC AC THEORY

AC WAVEFORMS
PEAK-TO-PEAK AMPLITUDE the total height of an AC waveform as measured from maximum positive to maximum negative peaks on a graph. Often abbreviated as P-P

BASIC AC THEORY

AC WAVEFORMS
AVERAGE AMPLITUDE the mathematical mean of all a waveforms points over the period of one cycle. Technically, the average amplitude of any waveform with equal-area portions above and below the zero line on a graph is zero.

For a sine wave, the average value so calculated is approximately 0.637 of its peak value.

BASIC AC THEORY

AC WAVEFORMS
RMS AMPLITUDE - RMS stands for Root Mean Square, and is a way of expressing an AC quantity of voltage or current in terms functionally equivalent to DC. Also known as the equivalent or DC equivalent value of an AC voltage or current.

For a sine wave, the RMS value is approximately 0.707 of its peak value.

BASIC AC THEORY

AC WAVEFORMS
The crest factor of an AC waveform is the ratio of its peak (crest) to its RMS value. The form factor of an AC waveform is the ratio of its RMS value to its average value.

BASIC AC THEORY

AC QUANTITIES

BASIC AC THEORY

AC QUANTITIES
Inductive Reactance (XL) The property of the inductor to oppose the alternating current Inductive Susceptance (BL) Reciprocal of inductive reactance

XL = 2fL
BL = 1 2fL

BL = 1 XL

Capacitive Reactance (XC) The property of a capacitor to oppose alternating current

XC =
Capacitive Susceptance (BC) Reciprocal of capacitive reactance

1 2fC
BL = 2fC

BL = 1 XC

BASIC AC THEORY

AC QUANTITIES
IMPEDANCE (Z)
Total opposition to the flow of Alternating current Combination of the resistance in a circuit and the reactances involved

Z = R + jXeq

Z = |Z|

Where: |Z| = R2 + X2 = Arctan Xeq R

BASIC AC THEORY

AC QUANTITIES
If I = Im is the resulting current drawn by a passive, linear RLC circuit from a source voltage V = Vm , then

Z = V = Vm = Z I Im Z cos + jZsin = R + jX = R2 + X2 tan-1 X R

Where: Z = Vm = R2 + X2 = magnitude of the impedance Im = = tan-1 X = phase angle of the impedance R R = Zcos = active or real component of the impedance X = Zsin = reactive or quadrature component of impedance

BASIC AC THEORY

AC QUANTITIES
ADMITTANCE (Y)
The reciprocal of impedance Expressed in siemens or mho (S)
Y = Im = Y = Ycos y + jYsin y = G + jB Vm Y = G2 + B2 tan-1 B G
Where: Y = Im = G2 + B2 = 1 = magnitude of the admittance Z y = = = tan-1 B = phase angle of the admittance G G = Ycos y = conductive/conductance component
B = Ysin y = susceptive/susceptance component

BASIC AC THEORY

AC RESISTOR CIRCUIT
Impedance (Z) = R
With an AC circuit like this which is purely resistive, the relationship of the voltage and current is as shown:

Voltage (e) is in phase with the current (i) Power is never a negative value. When the current is positive (above the line), the voltage is also positive, resulting in a power (p=ie) of a positve value This consistent polarity of a power tell us that the resistor is always dissipating power, taking it from the source and releasing it in the form of heat energy. Whether the current is negative or positive, a resistor still dissipated energy.

AC CIRCUITS

AC INDUCTOR CIRCUIT
Impedance (Z) = jXL
The most distinguishing electrical characteristics of an L circuit is that current lags voltage by 90 electrical degrees

Because the current and voltage waves arae 90o out of phase, there sre times when one is positive while the other is negative, resulting in equally frequent occurences of negative instantaneous power. Negative power means that the inductor is releasing power back to the circuit, while a positive power means that it is absorbing power from the circuit. The inductor releases just as much power back to the circuit as it absorbs over the span of a complete cycle.

AC CIRCUITS

AC INDUCTOR CIRCUIT
o Inductive reactance is the opposition that an inductor offers to alternating current due to its phase-shifted storage and release of energy in its magnetic field. Reactance is symbolized by the capital letter X and is measured in ohms just like resistance (R).

o Inductive reactance can be calculated using this formula: XL = 2fL

o The angular velocity of an AC circuit is another way of expressing its frequency, in units of electrical radians per second instead of cycles per second. It is symbolized by the lowercase Greek letter omega, or . o Inductive reactance increases with increasing frequency. In other words, the higher the frequency, the more it opposes the AC flow of electrons.

AC CIRCUITS

AC CAPACITOR CIRCUIT
Impedance (Z) = -jXC
The most distinguishing electrical characteristics of an C circuit is that leads the voltage by 90 electrical degrees

The current through a capacitor is a reaction against the change in voltage across it A capacitors opposition to change in voltage translates to an opposition to alternating voltage in general, which is by definition always changing in instantaneous magnitude and direction. For any given magnitude of AC voltage at a given frequency, a capacitor of given size will conduct a certain magnitude of AC current. The phase angle of a capacitors opposition to current is -90o,meaning that a capacitors opposition to current is a negative imaginary quantity

AC CIRCUITS

AC CAPACITOR CIRCUIT
o Capacitive reactance is the opposition that a capacitor offers to alternating current due to its phase-shifted storage and release of energy in its electric field. Reactance is symbolized by the capital letter X and is measured in ohms just like resistance (R).
o Capacitive reactance can be calculated using this formula: XC = 1/(2fC) o Capacitive reactance decreases with increasing frequency. In other words, the higher the frequency, the less it opposes (the more it conducts) the AC flow of electrons.

AC CIRCUITS

SERIES RESITOR-INDCUTOR CIRCUIT

For a series resistor-inductor circuit, the voltage and current relation is determined in its phase shift. Thus, current lags voltage by a phase shift ()

Impedance (Z) = R + jXL Admittance (Y) = 1 = R jXL R + jXL R2 + jXL2

AC CIRCUITS

SERIES RESITOR-INDCUTOR CIRCUIT

Phase shift () = Arctan ( XL ) |Z| = R2 + jXL2 = e R i

o When resistors and inductors are mixed together in circuits, the total impedance will have a phase angle somewhere between 0o and +90o. The circuit current will have a phase angle somewhere between 0o and -90o. Series AC circuits exhibit the same fundamental properties as series DC circuits: current is uniform throughout.

AC CIRCUITS

SERIES RESISTOR-CAPACITOR CIRCUIT

For a series resistor capacitor circuit, the voltage and current relation is determined by the phase shift. Thus the current leads the voltage by an angle less than 90 degrees but greater than 0 degrees.

Impedance (Z) = R jXC Admittance (Y) = 1 = R + jXC R jXC R2 + jXC2

AC CIRCUITS

SERIES RESISTOR-CAPACITOR CIRCUIT

Phase shift () = Arctan ( XC ) |Z| = R2 + jXC2 = e R i

AC CIRCUITS

PARALLEL RESISTOR-INDUCTOR

Y = G jL

where: G conductance = 1/R L susceptance = 1/XL Z = E , by Ohms Law I

The basic approachwith regarda to parallel circuits is using admittance because it is additive

AC CIRCUITS

PARALLEL RESISTOR-INDUCTOR
o When resistors and inductors are mixed together in parallel circuits (just like in series cicuits), the total impedance will have a phase angle somewhere between 0o and +90o. The circuit current will have a phase angle somewhere between 0o and -90o. o Parallel AC circuits exhibit the same fundamental properties as parallel DC circuits: voltage is uniform throughour the circuit, brach currents add to form the total current, and impedances diminish (through the reciprocal formula) to form the total impedance.

AC CIRCUITS

PARALLEL RESISTOR-CAPACITOR

Y = G + jC

where: G conductance = 1/R C susceptance = 1/XC

o When resistors and capacitors are mixxed together in circuits, the total impedance will have a phase angle somewhere between 0o and -90o.

AC CIRCUITS

APPARENT POWER (S)

APPARENT POWER
Represents the rate at which the total energy is supplied to the system Measured in volt-amperes (VA) It has two components, the Real Power and the Capacitive or Inductive Reactive Power

S = Vrms Irms = Irms2 |Z|

POWER IN AC CIRCUITS

APPARENT POWER (S)

Power Triangle

Complex Power

S = P jQ
POWER IN AC CIRCUITS

REAL POWER (R)

REAL POWER
The power consumed by the resistive component Also called True Power, Useful Power and Productive Power Measured in Watts (W) It is equal to the product of the apparent power and the power factor

P = Scos
Power Factor
Cosine of the power factor angle () Measure of the power that is dissipated by the cicuit in relation to the apparent power and is usually given as a decimal or percentage

Pf = cos
POWER IN AC CIRCUITS

REAL POWER (R)

Ratio of the Real Power to the Apparent Power ( P when: Pf = 1.0 Pf = lagging Pf = leading Pf = 0.0 lag Pf = 0.0 lead

I is in phase with V; resistive system I lags V by ; inductive system I leads V by ; capacitive system I lags V by 90o; purely inductive I leads V by 90o; purely capacitive

Power factor Angle ()

The angle between the apparent power and the real poweer in the power triangle

Let

v(t) = Vm cos(t + v) volts V = Vrms v

i(t) = Im cos(t + i) A I = Irms i

POWER IN AC CIRCUITS

REAL POWER (R)

Instantaneous Power (watts)

P(t) = v(t) i(t) P(t) = VmIm cos (v i) + VmIm cos (2t + v + i)

Average Power (watts)

P(t) = VmIm cos (v i) = VmIm cos

Where: = phase shfit between v(t) and i(t) or the phase angle of the equivalent impedance

POWER IN AC CIRCUITS

REACTIVE POWER (QL or QC)

REACTIVE POWER
Represents the rate at which energy is stored or released in any of the energy storing elements (the inductor or the capacitor) Also called the imaginary power, non-productive or wattless power Measured in volt-ampere reactive (Var) When the capacitor and inductor are both present, the reactive power associated with them take opposite signs since they do not store or release energy at the same time It is positive for inductive power (QL) and negative for capacitive power (QC)

Q = VmIm sin

Reactive factor Ratio of the Reactive Power to the Apparent Power Sine of the power factor angle ()

Rf = sin

POWER IN AC CIRCUITS

BALANCED THREE PHASE SYSTEMS

BALANCED 3-PHASE SYSTEM
Comprises of three identical single-phase systems operating at a 120o phase displacement from one another. This means that a balance three-phase system provides three voltages(and currents) that are equal in magnitude and separated by 120o from each other CLASSIFICATION
Three-Phase, 3-wire systems Provide only one type of voltage(line to line) both single phase and three phase loads Three-Phase, 4-wire systems Provide two types of voltages(line to line and line to neutral) to both single phase and three phase loads

BALANCED THREE PHASE SYSTEM

BALANCED THREE PHASE SYSTEMS

BALANCED Y-system
VLL = 3 VLN
VLL and VLN are out of phase by 30o and

IL = IP

BALANCED -system
IL = 3 IP
IL and IP are out of phase by 30o Where: VLL or VL - line to line or line voltage VLN or VP - line to neutral or phase voltage IL - line current IP - phase current and

VLL = VLN

BALANCED THREE PHASE SYSTEM

ALTERNATING CURRENT
Note: for balanced 3-phase systems: IA + IB + IC = 0 VAN + VBN + VCN = 0 VAB + VBC + VCA = 0

THREE-PHASE POWER VJH

P = 3VPIPcos = 3 VLIL cos Q = 3VPIPsin = 3 VLIL sin S = 3VPIP = 3 VLIL

watts vars va

BALANCED THREE PHASE SYSTEM

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