6.

1 RAY OPTICS
TIPS:

= sin i sin r

of optically rarer medium is lower and that of a denser medium is higher. of denser medium w.r.t. rarer medium is more than 1 and that of rarer medium w.r.t. denser medium is less than 1. (air = vacuum = 1) In refraction, the velocity and wavelength of light change. In refraction, the frequency and phase of light do not change.
am

= ca / cm

and

am

= a / m Rarer (a) Denser (b)

Principle of Reversibility of Light:

ab

=
ab

sin i sin r x ba = 1 or

ba

sin r sin i

i r N

ab = 1 / ba

If a ray of light, after suffering any number of reflections and/or refractions has its path reversed at any stage, it travels back to the source along the same path in the opposite direction.

A natural consequence of the principle of reversibility is that the image and object positions can be interchanged. These positions are called conjugate positions.

Refraction through a Parallel Slab:

ab

sin i1 sin r1

b a

sin i2 sin r2 N i1 Rarer (a) N =1 t r1 i2 Denser (b) M y

But ab x ba = 1 sin i1 sin r1 x sin i2 sin r2

It implies that i1 = r2 and i2 = r1 since i1 r1 and i2 r2.

Lateral Shift:
t sin y= cos r1 or y= t sin(i1- r1) cos r1

Rarer (a)

r2

Special Case: If i1 is very small, then r1 is also very small. i.e. sin(i1 r1) = i1 r1 and cos r1 = 1 y = t (i1 r1) or y = t i1(1 1 /ab)

Refraction through a Compound Slab:

ab

sin i1 sin r1 i

a Rarer (a)

bc

sin r1 sin r2 r

N Denser (b) r b

ca

sin r2 sin i1

ab

x bc x ca = 1
ab

Denser (c) r

r2

or or

x bc = ac

bc = ac / ab

c Rarer (a) c > b i

Apparent Depth of a Liquid:

ba

= =

sin i sin r hr ha =

or

ab

sin r sin i Rarer (a) r a

ab

Real depth Apparent depth

Apparent Depth of a Number of Immiscible Liquids:

n

ha hr
O O

r i

i b Denser (b)

ha = hi / i
i=1

Apparent Shift:
Apparent shift = hr - ha = hr (hr / ) = hr [ 1 - 1/] TIPS:

If the observer is in rarer medium and the object is in denser medium then ha < hr. (To a bird, the fish appears to be nearer than actual depth.) If the observer is in denser medium and the object is in rarer medium then ha > hr. (To a fish, the bird appears to be farther than actual height.)

Total Internal Reflection:

N N N N

r = 90 ic i > ic i

Rarer (air)

O Conditions for TIR:

Denser (glass)

The incident ray must be in optically denser medium. The angle of incidence in the denser medium must be greater than the critical angle for the pair of media in contact.

Relation between Critical Angle and Refractive Index:

Critical angle is the angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the angle of refraction in the rarer medium is 90 .
g a

sin i sin r = 1 a g

sin ic sin 90
ag

= sin ic 1 sin ic 1 ag g a

or

ag

or

sin ic =

Also

sin ic =

Red colour has maximum value of critical angle and Violet colour has minimum value of critical angle since, 1 sin ic = ag 1 = a + (b/ 2)

Applications of T I R:

Mirage formation Looming Totally reflecting Prisms Optical Fibres Sparkling of Diamonds

Refraction at Convex Surface:

(From Rarer Medium to Denser Medium - Real Image)

i=+ tan = tan = tan = sin i sin r MA MO MA MI MA MC =

=r+

or MA MO MA MI MA

r=-

A M R v r

or = or = or = 2 1 or

O u 1

Rarer Medium

Denser Medium

MC 2 i = r 1

or

1 i = 2 r

Substituting for i, r, , and , replacing M by P and rearranging, Applying sign conventions with values, 2 - 1 = PO = - u, PI = + v and PC = + R + PO PI PC 2 - 1 = + -u v R

Refraction at Convex Surface:

(From Rarer Medium to Denser Medium Virtual Image)
-u + v = 2 - 1 R

N A i r R

I v

O uP M
Rarer Medium

Denser Medium

Refraction at Concave Surface:

(From Rarer Medium to Denser Medium - Virtual Image)
A -u + v = 2 - 1 R
O

N r

I C u

M P

Denser Medium

Rarer Medium

Refraction at Convex Surface:

(From Denser Medium to Rarer Medium - Real Image)
N A r -u + = v R 1 - 2 i R v
Rarer Medium

C u

M P

Denser Medium

Refraction at Convex Surface:

(From Denser Medium to Rarer Medium - Virtual Image)
-u + = v R 1 - 2

Refraction at Concave Surface:

(From Denser Medium to Rarer Medium - Virtual Image)
-u + = v R 1 - 2

Note: 1. Expression for object in rarer medium is same for whether it is real or virtual image or convex or concave surface. 1 -u + 2 = v R 2 - 1

2. Expression for object in denser medium is same for whether it is real or virtual image or convex or concave surface.

2 -u +

1 = v

1 - 2 R

3. However the values of u, v, R, etc. must be taken with proper sign conventions while solving the numerical problems. 4. The refractive indices 1 and 2 get interchanged in the expressions.

Lens Makers Formula:

For refraction at LP1N, + = 2 - 1 N1 i L 1 A 1 N2

C CC CI1 O if the image is formed (as in the denser medium) For refraction at LP2N, -CI1 + CI = -(1 - 2) CC u O C2

P1 R2

C P 2
2 v N

R1

C1

I1

(as if the object is in the denser medium and the image is formed in the rarer medium) Combining the refractions at both the surfaces, Substituting the values with sign conventions, 1 1 + ) = (2 - 1)( + 1 1 C CC 1 (2 - 1) 1 C CC ( ) + = O I -u R2 v R1 Since 2 / 1 = 1 1 2 1 - 1) ( + =( 1 -u v R1 or 1 + -u v 1 = ( 1) ( 1 R1 1 R2 )

1 R2

When the object is kept at infinity, the image is formed at the principal focus. i.e. u = - , v = + f. _ 1 1 1 So, ) = ( 1) ( R2 f R1 This equation is called Lens Makers Formula. 1 Also, from the above equations we get, + -u v 1 = 1 f

Thin Lens Formula (Gaussian Form of Lens Equation):

For Convex Lens:
A M 2F1

F1 B

C
u

F2

2F2

v f CB CB CB = BF2 CF2 = CB - CF2 A

R Triangles ABC and ABC are similar. AB CB = AB CB Triangles MCF2 and ABF2 are similar. BF2 AB = MC CF2 or AB AB = BF2 CF2

CB CF2 According to new Cartesian sign conventions, CB = - u, CB = + v and CF2 = + f. 1 v u 1 = 1 f

Linear Magnification:
Linear magnification produced by a lens is defined as the ratio of the size of the image to the size of the object. m = AB I O CB

Magnification in terms of v and f:

m = f-v f

= AB CB According to new Cartesian sign conventions, AB = + I, AB = - O, CB = + v and CB = - u. +I -O +v -u I O v u

Magnification in terms of v and f:

m = f f-u

or

Power of a Lens:
Power of a lens is its ability to bend a ray of light falling on it and is reciprocal of its focal length. When f is in metre, power is measured in Dioptre (D). P= 1 f

Refraction of Light through Prism:

A N1 i r1 O r2 B In quadrilateral APOQ, A + O = 180 .(1) C From (1) and (2), A = r1 + r2 From (3), = (i + e) (A) .(2) or i+e=A+ P D Q e N2

(since N1 and N2 are normal) In triangle OPQ, r1 + r2 + O = 180 In triangle DPQ, = (i - r1) + (e - r2) = (i + e) (r1 + r2) .(3)

Variation of angle of deviation with angle of incidence:

When angle of incidence increases, the angle of deviation decreases. At a particular value of angle of incidence the angle of deviation becomes minimum and is called angle of minimum deviation. At m, i = e and r1 = r2 = r (say) After minimum deviation, angle of deviation increases with angle of incidence.

m 0 i=e i

Refractive Index of Material of Prism:

A = r1 + r2 A = 2r r=A/2 i+e=A+ 2 i = A + m i = (A + m) / 2 According to Snells law, sin i sin i = = sin r1 sin r sin = sin (A + m) 2 A 2

Refraction by a Small-angled Prism for Small angle of Incidence:

= sin i sin r1 and = sin e sin r2

If i is assumed to be small, then r1, r2 and e will also be very small. So, replacing sines of the angles by angles themselves, we get = i r1 and = e r2 i + e = (r1 + r2) = A But i + e = A + So, A + = A or = A ( 1)

Dispersion of White Light through Prism:

A

D v

r
R O Y G B I V

White light B C Screen

Cause of Dispersion:
v = sin i sin rv and r = sin i sin rr Since v > r , rr > rv So, the colours are refracted at different angles and hence get separated.

Dispersion can also be explained on the basis of Cauchys equation. b =a + 2 + Since v < r , But = A ( 1) Therefore, v > r c 4 (where a, b and c are constants for the material)

v > r

So, the colours get separated with different angles of deviation. Violet is most deviated and Red is least deviated.

Angular Dispersion:

The difference in the deviations suffered by two colours in passing through a prism gives the angular dispersion for those colours. The angle between the emergent rays of any two colours is called angular dispersion between those colours. It is the rate of change of angle of deviation with wavelength. ( = d / d) = v - r or = (v r) A

Dispersive Power:
The dispersive power of the material of a prism for any two colours is defined as the ratio of the angular dispersion for those two colours to the mean deviation produced by the prism. It may also be defined as dispersion per unit deviation. = Also = where is the mean deviation and = v - r or = (v r) A (y 1) A v + r

2 (v r) or = (y 1)

Scattering of Light Blue colour of the sky and Reddish appearance of the Sun at Sun-rise and Sun-set:
The molecules of the atmosphere and other particles that are smaller than the longest wavelength of visible light are more effective in scattering light of shorter wavelengths than light of longer wavelengths. The amount of scattering is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength. (Rayleigh Effect) Light from the Sun near the horizon passes through a greater distance in the Earths atmosphere than does the light received when the Sun is overhead. The correspondingly greater scattering of short wavelengths accounts for the reddish appearance of the Sun at rising and at setting.

Compound Microscope:
uo B Fo 2Fo A Fo fo 2Fo vo A fe

Po

fo

2Fe

A
Pe

Fe

Eye

Objective B L B D Eyepiece

Objective: The converging lens nearer to the object. Eyepiece: The converging lens through which the final image is seen. Both are of short focal length. Focal length of eyepiece is slightly greater than that of the objective.

Angular Magnification or Magnifying Power (M):

Angular magnification or magnifying power of a compound microscope is defined as the ratio of the angle subtended by the final image at the eye to the angle subtended by the object seen directly, when both are placed at the least distance of distinct vision.

M=

Me = 1 and x x D AA D AB

M = M e x Mo ve fe or Me = 1 + vo - uo M= D fe vo - uo (ve = - D = - 25 cm) D fe )

Since angles are small, = tan and = tan M= M= M= M= M= tan tan AB D AB D AB AB AB AB

Mo =

(1+

Since the object is placed very close to the principal focus of the objective and the image is formed very close to the eyepiece, uo fo and vo L D -L ) (1+ M= fe fo or M -L fo x D fe (Normal adjustment i.e. image at infinity)

AB AB

Astronomical Telescope: (Image formed at infinity Normal Adjustment)

fo + fe = L fo Fo Fe Po fe Eye

Pe

Eyepiece

Objective

Image at infinity

Focal length of the objective is much greater than that of the eyepiece. Aperture of the objective is also large to allow more light to pass through it.

Angular magnification or Magnifying power of a telescope in normal adjustment is the ratio of the angle subtended by the image at the eye as seen through the telescope to the angle subtended by the object as seen directly, when both the object and the image are at infinity. M=

Since angles are small, = tan and = tan M= M= tan tan Fe I PeFe M= -I - fe - fo fe / / Fe I PoFe -I fo (fo + fe = L is called the length of the telescope in normal adjustment).

M=

Astronomical Telescope: (Image formed at LDDV)

fo fe Po A Fe Fo

Eye

Pe

I Eyepiece ue Objective B D

Angular magnification or magnifying power of a telescope in this case is defined as the ratio of the angle subtended at the eye by the final image formed at the least distance of distinct vision to the angle subtended at the eye by the object lying at infinity when seen directly. Since angles are small, = tan and = tan M= M= M= tan tan Fo I PeFo Po F o PeFo Lens Equation 1 v 1 u = 1 f becomes / Fo I PoFo or M = + fo - ue M= or 1 -D 1 ue 1 - ue = 1 fe + 1 fe 1 D

M=

Multiplying by fo on both sides and rearranging, we get - fo fe (1+ fe D )

Clearly focal length of objective must be greater than that of the eyepiece for larger magnifying power. Also, it is to be noted that in this case M is larger than that in normal adjustment position.

Newtonian Telescope: (Reflecting Type)

Plane Mirror Light from star

Magnifying Power: M= fo fe

Eyepiece Concave Mirror Eye

Resolving Power of a Microscope:

The resolving power of a microscope is defined as the reciprocal of the distance between two objects which can be just resolved when seen through the microscope.
Objective

1 Resolving Power = d =

2 sin

Resolving power depends on i) wavelength , ii) refractive index of the medium between the object and the objective and iii) half angle of the cone of light from one of the objects .

Resolving Power of a Telescope:

The resolving power of a telescope is defined as the reciprocal of the smallest angular separation between two distant objects whose images are seen separately. 1 Resolving Power = d = 1.22 a
Objective

Resolving power depends on i) wavelength , ii) diameter of the objective a.