Name :- Tanusi Lahiri Class :- IX Roll No. :-31 Subject :- Computer Project Work St.

Francis School

Childhood
Childhood is the most loving part of our life. It is the time that everyone from youngs to olds wants to go back to. It is the phase of our life when we are not only innocent but we also have good behavior or character and it is also the most tension free phase of our life.

I Was In Chandigarh The First 4 Years Of My Life. I Used To Study In St. Marys School, Back Then, When I Was In Pre-School. I Was Loved By Most Of The Teacher And I Still Remember Mitra Mam Who Used To Lunch With Me Everyday For Almost 2 Years. I Remember Some Of My Friends. Also, I Was Good In Studies For A 3-Year Old And Always Used To Ask Too Many Questions. aT THE AGE OF 4, MY FATHER LEFT aIR-fORCE AND AS A CONSEQUENCE MY FAMILY MOVED TO hABRA, WHICH IS ALSO MY NATIVE TOWN. aFTER COMING HERE, i STUDIED FOR TWO YEARS IN nORTH pOINT sCHOOL, hABRA. iT WAS THEN THAT i MADE SOME REALLY GOOD FRIENDS WITH WHOM i AM STILL IN TOUCH WITH NOW-A-DAYS. i ALSO HAD GOOD RANKS DURING THAT TIME. IT WAS THEN IN 2006, THAT I WAS ADMITTED IN ST. FRANCIS SCHOOL. SINCE THEN, FOR A CONTINUOUS 8 YEARS THAT I HAVE BEEN IN THIS SCHOOL AND IT HAS GROWN VERY CLOSE TO ME. MY CHILDHOOD WAS SWEET AND HAPPY AS EVERYONES IS. NOW I AM IN MY TEENS AND AM ADOLESCENCE BUT I STILL MISS THOSE DAYS OF MY CHILDHOOD, THOUGH I ENJOY MY LIFE NOW.

My Favorite Subjects are : Physics Mathematics English Literature Biology

Magnetism is a property of materials that respond to an applied magnetic field. Permanent magnets have persistent magnetic fields caused by ferromagnetism. That is the strongest and most familiar type of magnetism. However, all materials are influenced varyingly by the presence of a magnetic field. Some are attracted to a magnetic field (paramagnetism); others are repulsed by a magnetic field (diamagnetism); others have a much more complex relationship with an applied magnetic field (spin glass behavior and antiferromagnetism). Substances that are negligibly affected by magnetic fields are known as non-magneticsubstances. They include copper, aluminium, gases, and plastic. Pure oxygen exhibits magnetic properties when cooled to a liquid state.

The magnetic state (or phase) of a material depends on temperature (and other variables such as pressure and applied magnetic field) so that a material may exhibit more than one form of magnetism depending on its temperature, etc. History
Aristotle attributed the first of what could be called a scientific discussion on magnetism to Thales of Miletus, who lived from about 625 BC to about 545 BC.[1] Around the same time, in ancient India, the Indian surgeon, Sushruta, was the first to make use of the magnet for surgical purposes.[2] In ancient China, the earliest literary reference to magnetism lies in a 4th century BC book called Book of the Devil Valley Master (): "The lodestone makes iron come or it attracts it."[3] The earliest mention of the attraction of a needle appears in a work composed between AD 20 and 100 (Louen-heng): "A lodestone attracts a needle."[4] The ancient Chinese scientist Shen Kuo (10311095) was the first person to write of the magnetic needle compass and that it improved the accuracy of navigation by employing the astronomicalconcept of true north (Dream Pool Essays, AD 1088), and by the 12th century the Chinese were known to use the lodestone compassfor navigation. They sculpted a directional spoon from lodestone in such a way that the handle of the spoon always pointed south. Alexander Neckham, by 1187, was the first in Europe to describe the compass and its use for navigation. In 1269, Peter Peregrinus de Maricourt wrote the Epistola de magnete, the first extant treatise describing the properties of magnets. In 1282, the properties of magnets and the dry compass were discussed by Al-Ashraf, a Yemeni physicist, astronomer, and geographer.[5] In 1600, William Gilbert published his De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus, et de Magno Magnete Tellure (On the Magnet and Magnetic Bodies, and on the Great Magnet the Earth). In this work he describes many of his experiments with his model earth called the terrella. From his experiments, he concluded that the Earth was itself magnetic and that this was the reason compasses pointed north (previously, some believed that it was the pole star (Polaris) or a large magnetic island on the north pole that attracted the compass). An understanding of the relationship between electricity and magnetism began in 1819 with work byHans Christian Oersted, a professor at the University of Copenhagen, who discovered more or less by accident that an electric current could influence a compass needle. This landmark experiment is known as Oersted's Experiment. Several other experiments followed, with AndrMarie Ampre, who in 1820 discovered that the magnetic field circulating in a closed-path was related to the current flowing through the perimeter of the path; Carl Friedrich Gauss; Jean-Baptiste

Biot and Flix Savart, both of which in 1820 came up with the Biot-Savart Law giving an equation for the magnetic field from a current-carrying wire; Michael Faraday, who in 1831 found that a timevarying magnetic flux through a loop of wire induced a voltage, and others finding further links between magnetism and electricity. James Clerk Maxwell synthesized and expanded these insights into Maxwell's equations, unifying electricity, magnetism, and optics into the field of electromagnetism. In 1905, Einsteinused these laws in motivating his theory of special relativity, [6] requiring that the laws held true in all inertial reference frames. Electromagnetism has continued to develop into the 21st century, being incorporated into the more fundamental theories of gauge theory, quantum electrodynamics, electroweak theory, and finally the standard model. Sources Of magnetism Magnetism, at its root, arises from two sources:

1.

Electric currents or more generally, moving electric charges create magnetic fields (see Maxwell's Equations). 2. Many particles have nonzero "intrinsic" (or "spin") magnetic moments. Just as each particle, by its nature, has a certain massand charge, each has a certain magnetic moment, possibly zero. It was found hundreds of years ago that certain materials have a tendency to orient in a particular direction. For example ancient people knew that "lodestones," when suspended from a string and allowed to freely rotate, come to rest horizontally in the North-South direction. Ancient Mariners used lodestones for navigational purposes. In magnetic materials, sources of magnetization are the electrons' orbital angular motion around the nucleus, and the electrons' intrinsic magnetic moment (see electron magnetic dipole moment). The other sources of magnetism are the nuclear magnetic moments of the nuclei in the material which are typically thousands of times smaller than the electrons' magnetic moments, so they are negligible in the context of the magnetization of materials. Nuclear magnetic moments are important in other contexts, particularly in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Ordinarily, the enormous number of electrons in a material are arranged such that their magnetic moments (both orbital and intrinsic) cancel out. This is due, to some extent, to electrons combining into pairs with opposite intrinsic magnetic moments as a result of thePauli exclusion principle (see electron configuration), or combining into filled subshells with zero net orbital motion. In both cases, the electron arrangement is so as to exactly cancel the magnetic moments from each electron. Moreover, even when the electron configuration is such that there are unpaired electrons and/or non-filled subshells, it is often the case that the various electrons in the solid will contribute magnetic moments that point in different, random directions, so that the material will not be magnetic. However, sometimes either spontaneously, or owing to an applied external magnetic field each of the electron magnetic moments will be, on average, lined up. Then the material can produce a net total magnetic field, which can potentially be quite strong.

The magnetic behavior of a material depends on its structure, particularly its electron configuration, for the reasons mentioned above, and also on the temperature. At high temperatures, random thermal motion makes it more difficult for the electrons to maintain alignment. Different Topics in Magnetism

Diamagnetism Paramagnetism Ferromagnetism Magnetic Domians Antiferromagnetism Ferrimagnetism Superparamagnetism Electromagnet Molecular Magnet Metamagnetism Molecule-Based Magnet
Spin Glass