True interactivity is not about clicking on icons or downloading files, its about encouraging communication.

-Edwin Schlossberg Introduction The ever emerging information and communication technologies have reshaped the patterns of our daily life especially in the way that we learn. Its powerful appeal is evidenced by various inventions and innovations in the field of educational technologies. There is a strong consensus, that argues that engaging user in the learning process is pre-requisite for effective learning. Here, infusing appropriate interactivity is crucial in engaging learners and providing necessary support for developing higher-level cognitive skills. This puts pressure on application designers in designing applications that allow active learner or user participation and involvement in the learning process, or in other words, integrating interactivity into learning activities. This discussion is therefore, aimed at describing what interactivity is and discuss the types of interactivity. What is interactivity? Interactivity can be defined in two ways: computer-based definition and non-computer-based definition. The non-computer-based definition is reciprocal action; action or influence of persons or things

on each other (Oxford English Dictionary). In this discussion, we will discuss the interactivity as in computer-based definition. According to Barker (1994), interactivity can be described as a necessary and fundamental mechanism for knowledge acquisition and the development of both cognitive and physical skills. It is now going beyond simple menu selection, clickable objects or linear sequencing. It is more on how the computer application keeps the user engaged into the application rather than just giving point-andclick options. Similarly, interactivity can also be described as stimulus-response behaviour in which computer establishes a real-time or true dialogue between the user and the application. Here, the real-time or true dialogue refers to the users response and the computers feedback. It is said that if the response is consistent with the learners information processing needs, it will lead to a meaningful interactivity (Jonassen, 1988). Therefore, interactivity can be defined as the meaningful interaction between the user and the computer application that leads to effective knowledge acquisition. Interactivity implies doing as opposed to being, action and reaction with one another whether it be a computer or a person.

The types of interactivity As it is known, interactivity is a feature of the medium, which allows the user to experience a series of exchanges with the technology. Why is this feature is given much consideration when designing a courseware or an application? Moore (1989) have indicated that

numerous studies have concluded that increased levels of interaction result in increased motivation, positive attitudes toward learning, higher satisfaction with instruction, deeper, more meaningful learning, and higher achievement. Therefore, when it comes to planning and designing interactivity for a multimedia application, a designer should make best use of the technology, not only to imitate human behaviour and communication, but to enhance humancomputer communications through a better understanding of the use and implementation of interactive events. This includes how users can access, manipulate and navigate through the content material. For this, it will be wiser if the designer knows and understands the classification of interactivity. As mention by Sims (1997), interactivity can be classified into ELEVEN(11) types, which can be used by the designers as a guide to different modes of communication between computer and user. The mentioned types are: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) Object Interactivity Linear Interactivity Hierarchical interactivity Support Interactivity Update Interactivity Construct Interactivity Reflective Interactivity Simulation Interactivity Hyperlinked Interactivity Non-Immersive Contextual Interactivity Immersive Virtual Interactivity

The above mentioned types of interactivity will be further elaborated based on Sims(1997) discussion.

(a)

Object Interactivity

This type of interactivity is known as proactive inquiry whereby the user will be activating objects such as buttons, graphics and etc by using a mouse or other pointing devices. The activation of objects by clicking usually will generate a form of audiovisual response. The functionality of such objects depends on previous objects encountered, previous encounters with the current object, or previous instructional performance or activity. This involves direct manipulation of objects in an application. Refer to Figure 1 for an example. In this web-based application is especially designed for children. The objects are in the form of buttons: Be mine, Be my Valentine, I like you and Be my Friend. When a button is clicked, for example, Be my Friend is clicked, Be my friend will be narrated and at the same time the button will be moved to the string (refer Figure 1(b)).

(a)

(b)

Figure 1: Example of object interactivity Source: www.starfall.com/n/holiday/valentine/ (b) Linear Interactivity Often referred as reactive pacing whereby its functionality is to enable the user to move forwards or backwards through a predetermined linear sequence of the content. It is also termed as electronic page-turning as it does not provide response-specific feedback to users, however, it gives access to users to navigate through the pages in sequence. It is not recommended to overuse this type of interactivity as the level of user control is restricted and user-initiated branching may not be accessible. Figure 2 shows and example of linear interactivity. This example is taken from a courseware on children interactive story book. This interactive storybook offers users with linear

navigation options whereby users are able to move backwards and forwards just by clicking.

Figure 2: Example of linear interactivity Source: BBC Interactive Storybook for Children (c) Hierarchical interactivity This type is known as reactive navigation. It offers the user with a predefined set of options whereby the users are able to select a specific path or structure of accessing the content. The most common example of this interaction is the main menu where the user returns to select another option. Figure 3 shows and example of hierarchical interactivity. This example is on Ikeas online catalogue. This catalogue offers users with navigation options whereby users are able to choose the page that they want to go to. It could be by topic from the table of contents, preferred page number and etc.

Figure 3: Example of hierarchical interactivity Source: http://onlinecatalogue.ikea.com/2010/ikea_catalogue/my/ (d) Support Interactivity Known as reactive inquiry which gives the user with a range of help options and messages. This may include options which can be very simple and others quite complex. Figure 4 shows an example of support interactivity. This can be found in Microsoft Word to facilitate users if they have any problems in using this application.

Figure 4: Example of support interactivity

(e)

Update Interactivity

This type of interactivity relates to components of the application that initiate a dialogue between the user and the computer-generated content. The program generates questions or problems to that demands the user must respond. The analysis of response results in computergenerated update or feedback. In Figure 5, an example of update interactivity is shown. This example is taken from Adobe Photoshop. When the user wanted to flatten the image, the update message is displayed prompting the user whether to discard the hidden layers or cancel the option. If the user clicks OK, then the application will automatically discard the hidden layers.

Figure 5: Example of update interactivity (f) Construct Interactivity Termed as proactive elaboration, construct interactivity is an extension of update interactivity. This type of interactivity requires the creation of an environment in which the user is

required to manipulate component objects to achieve specific goals. It allows learners to work together with the computer to perform a certain task or create a certain product, such as constructing a circuit or drawing up a Profit and Loss Statement. Such interactivity engages learners by making learning more purposeful and hence meaningful for the learners. Appropriate and adequate scaffolding or guidance is provided where necessary to help learners complete the task. Figure 6 shows an example of construct interactivity in a virtual lab. Here, the users need to work with the application to test the chemical liquids.

Figure 6: Example of construct interactivity Source: www.chemcollective.org/vlab/vlab.php (g) Reflective Interactivity

This type of interactivity is termed as proactive elaboration that refers to text responses. If n text responses are

available to the user there is always the possibility that the user will require the n+1 answer and the program will judge the enquiry as "incorrect". Reflective interactivity responds by providing answers recorded by other users and allows the current user to compare and reflect on their response.

(h)

Simulation Interactivity

Simulation interactivity falls into the category ranging from reactive elaboration to mutual elaboration, depending on its complexity. This extends the role of the user to become the controller or operator of the application whereby each selection determines the sequence of the application. Figure 7 shows an example of simulation activity. Here, hotspots are arranged around pictorially represented concepts (or screenshots) and this allows user to navigate through several cascading levels bringing each path to a logical conclusion.

Figure 7: Example of simulation interactivity Source: OUMs Learning Objects Repository

(i) Hyperlinked Interactivity This is a proactive navigation which provides access to a wealth of information that the user is allowed to navigate at will. There are multiple paths creating a "maze" that the user needs to negotiate in order to resolve a problem. Figure 8 shows an example of hyperlinked interactivity. Here, the user is taken through the process of learning by offering multiple paths.

Figure 8: Example of Hyperlinked interactivity Source: Prof Dunnings Training Material (j) Non-Immersive Contextual Interactivity

Termed as mutual elaboration which combines all previous levels of interactivity and extends them into a complete virtual training context. Here, the users will be able to work in a meaningful, job-related context. Users are transported into a microworld that reflects their existing working environment and the tasks they undertake mirror those of their working environment. Figure 8 shows an example on non-immersive contextual interactivity. This branching-logic interaction model allows the developer to review content with a user in an engaging manner. Here, mages and text are used to build scenarios that encapsulate core concepts covered in a learning object. Instructive feedback is used to reinforce the appropriate application of these concepts.

Figure 8: Example of non-immersive contextual interactivity Source: OUMs Learning Objects Repository (k) Immersive Virtual Interactivity

This type of interactivity falls under mutual elaboration category. This provides an environment that projects the user into a complete computer-generated world which responds to individual movements and actions. Figure 7 shows an example of immersive virtual interactivity. In this application head movements are being recorded and used to update the view point in real time. Here, virtual reality technology is used to recreate realistic trajectories and ask players to judge where they think the ball will go.

Figure 9: Example of immersive virtual interactivity Source: www.qub.ac.uk/virtualreality/projects/ulsterrugbyvideo.aspx Conclusion The important aspects of the earlier mentioned types of interactivity is that they are not mutually exclusive events, but elements which can be integrated to provide comprehensive and engaging instructional transactions (Sims, 1997). Sims (1997) also has mentioned that the execution of such interactions is not only dependent on the skills of the designers and developers, but also on the extent to which the interactions are independent (that is, will perform identically on each encounter with a user) or consequential (where the functionality of the interaction is dependent upon previous actions or performance by the current user). Therefore, it is crucial for any multimedia developer or designer to pay more attention in designing the interactivity of an application. References

Barker, P. (1994). Designing Interactive Learning, in T. de Jong & L. Sarti (Eds), Design and Production of Multimedia and Simulationbased Learning Material. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Jonassen, D. (Ed) (1988). Instructional Designs for Microcomputer Courseware. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Moore, M. (1989). Editorial: Three types of interaction. The American Journal of Distance Education, 3(2),1-7. Sims.R (1997). Engagement, Control and the Learner:A Theoretical Appraisal of Interactivity. Available http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/adelaide96/papers/40.html, November 1, 2009. Sims, R. (1994). Seven levels of interactivity: implications for the development of multimedia education and training, in (Ed) M. Ryan, Proceedings of the Asia Pacific Information Technology in Training and Education (APITITE) Conference, Volume 3. Brisbane, Qld: APITITE. Sims.R (1997). Interactivity: A Forgotten Art? Available http://www2.gsu.edu/~wwwitr/docs/interact/, November 1, 2009.