Seismic Guidelines January 2010

IITK-RDSO GUIDELINES ON SEISMIC
DESIGN OF RAILWAY BRIDGES

Provisions with Commentary and Explanatory Examples

Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur

Research Designs and Standards Organisation
Lucknow

November 2010

NATIONAL INFORMATION CENTRE OF EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING



Developed for
Indian Railways

Prepared by:
Kanpur

With Funding by:
Research Designs and Standards Organisation
Lucknow

November 2010

NATIONAL INFORMATION CENTRE OF EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

The material presented in this document is to help educate engineers/designers on the
subject. This document has been prepared in accordance with generally recognized
engineering principles and practices. While developing this material, many international
codes, standards and guidelines have been referred. This document is intended for the use by
individuals who are competent to evaluate the significance and limitations of its content and
who will accept responsibility for the application of the material it contains. The authors,
publisher and sponsors will not be responsible for any direct, accidental or consequential
damages arising from the use of material content in this document.
Preparation of this document was supported by Railway Design and Standards Organisations
(RDSO), Lucknow, through a project at Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, using World
Bank finances. The views and opinions expressed in this document are those of the authors
and not necessarily of the RDSO, or IIT Kanpur.
The material presented in these guidelines cannot be reproduced without written permission,
for which please contact: Co-ordinator, National Information Center of Earthquake
Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur 208 016 (nicee@iitk.ac.in).
Copies of this publication can be requested from:
National Information Center of Earthquake Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering
Kanpur 208 016
Email: nicee@iitk.ac.in
Website: www.nicee.org

ISBN .................................

PARTICIPANTS

Prepared by:
Sudhir K. Jain, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
Durgesh C. Rai, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
O. R. Jaiswal, Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology, Nagpur

Coordinated by:-
R. K.Goel, Director/SB-I/B&S/RDSO

Review comments from RDSO, Lucknow by:
Piyush Agarwal, the then Executive Director/B&S
Mahesh Kr. Gupta, Executive Director/B&S
R. K. Goel, Director/ SB-I, B&S
Pradip Kumar, Director/ CB-II, B&S
Anil Kalra, Director/ CB-I, B&S
Vivek Bhushan Sood, Professor/Bridge, IRICEN, Pune.
Atul Verma, ADEN/Bridge Design/SEC Railway at RDSO.
H. O. Narayan, Asstt. Design Engr., B&S
R. N. Shukla, Senior Section Engineer/Design, B&S
Sujeet Nath Gupta, Section Engineer/Design, B&S
S. S. Singh, Section Engineer/Design, B&S

Additional Review Comments by:
Debasis Roy, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
S. K. Thakkar, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Mahesh Tandon, Tandon Consultant, Delhi
Laxmy Parameswaran, Central Road Research Institute, Delhi
T. Viswanathan, Aarvee Associates Architects Engineers & Consultants Pvt. Ltd., Delhi
Alok Bhowmick, B & S Engineering Consultants Pvt. Ltd., Delhi
D. B. Rao, NBRDC, Hyderabad
A. K. Gupta, Professor & Head, Structural Engineering Department, MBM Engineering
College, Jodhpur
K. N. Sreenivasa, L&T Railway Business Unit, Faridabad
P. K. Jain, Chief Engineer/KRCL, New Delhi
Milind Bhoot, IBG Asia, Mumbai

PREFACE
In India, there are three codes / standards for seismic design of bridges. These are: IRC 6 of Indian
Road Congress, IS 1893 of Bureau of Indian Standards and existing Bridge Rules of Indian Railways.
IRC 6, published by the Indian Road Congress, deals with highway bridges and its seismic loading
provisions have been modified in 2006, to bring them in line with the IS 1893(Part 1):2002. Bureau of
Indian Standards code, IS 1893(1984) has provisions for highway as well as railway bridges. The
revised version of this code, which is to be published as IS 1893(Part 3), has not yet been finalized.
Existing Bridge Rules of the Indian Railways has derived its seismic loading provisions from IS 1893
(1984). In these provisions, seismic coefficient method is used for bridges, wherein design seismic
coefficient does not depend on the flexibility of the bridge. Moreover, the ductility of bridge
components is not considered while calculating the design seismic loads. Similarly, there are no details
about response spectrum and time history analysis.

The present guidelines on seismic design of railway bridges have been developed under a project given
to IIT Kanpur by the Indian Railways. The scope of these guidelines is limited to the seismic design of
new railway bridges and these shall not be used for seismic evaluation of the existing railway bridges.
The provisions included herein, are in line with the general provisions of IS 1893(Part 1):2002. For
example, the zone map is taken from IS 1893(Part 1) and the response spectra is similar to the one used
in IS 1893(Part 1). In line with the present international practice, these guidelines are written in two
column format with provision on the left side and explanatory commentary on the right side. The
purpose of commentary is to explain background / concept / basis of the provision. The commentary
should help understand the provision better and remove any confusion, but cannot be used in lieu of the
provision.

This document was developed by a team consisting of Professor Sudhir K. Jain, Professor Durgesh C.
Rai (Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur) and Professor O. R. Jaiswal (Visvesvaraya National
Institute of Technology, Nagpur). Effective coordination was done from RDSO side by Shri R.K.Goel,
Director/SB-I/B&S/RDSO to communicate the various parts to concerned officials at RDSO & with
other organizations and giving feed back to I.I.T.-Kanpur. Engineers from RDSO, Luckow have
reviewed several versions of this document. Piyush Agarwal, the then Executive Director/B&S;
Mahesh Kr. Gupta, Executive Director/B&S; R.K. Goel, Director/ SB-I, B&S; Pradip Kumar,
Director/ CB-II, B&S; Anil Kalra, Director/ CB-I, B&S; Vivek Bhushan Sood, Professor/Bridge,
IRICEN, Pune; Atul Verma, ADEN/Bridge Design/SEC Railway at RDSO; H. O. Narayan, Asstt.
Design Engr., B&S; R.N. Shukla, Senior Section Engineer/Design, B&S; Sujeet Nath Gupta, Section
Engineer/Design, B&S have provided valuable suggestions to improve the same. Comments and
suggestions have also been received from Debasis Roy, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur; S K
Thakkar, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee; Mahesh Tondon, Tandon Consultant, Delhi; Laxmy
Parameswaran, Central Road Research Institute, Delhi; T. Viswanathan, Aarvee Associates architects
engineers & consultants Pvt. Ltd., Delhi; Alok Bhowmick, B & S Engineering Consultants Pvt. Ltd.,
Delhi; D.B. Rao, NBRDC, Hyderabad; A. K. Gupta, Professor & Head, Structural Engineering
Department, MBM Engineering College, Jodhpur K. N. Sreenivasa, L&T Railway Business Unit,
Faridabad; P. K. Jain, Chief Engineer/KRCL, New Delhi; Milind Bhoot, IBG Asia, Mumbai.

IIT Kanpur
RDSO Lucknow

CONTENTS
PART 1: Provisions and Commentary

1. Terminology........................................................................................................................... 1
2. Symbols ............................................................................................................................. 5
3. Introduction............................................................................................................................ 8
3.1 - General .........................................................................................................................................8
3.2 - Modifications over Existing Bridge Rules ................................................................................8
3.3 - Railway and Road Bridges ......................................................................................................10
3.4 - References.................................................................................................................................11
4. Relevant Codes/ Standards................................................................................................. 12
5. Scope ........................................................................................................................... 13
6. General concepts................................................................................................................. 14
6.1 - ......................................................................................................................................................14
6.2 - ......................................................................................................................................................14
6.3 - ......................................................................................................................................................14
6.4 - ......................................................................................................................................................15
6.5 - ......................................................................................................................................................15
6.6 - ......................................................................................................................................................15
6.7 - ......................................................................................................................................................15
6.8- Ground Motion............................................................................................................................18
6.9 - Assumptions...............................................................................................................................18
7. Conceptual Considerations.................................................................................................. 20
8. Design Criteria..................................................................................................................... 23
8.1 - Seismic Zone Map ....................................................................................................................23
8.2 - Importance Factor .....................................................................................................................24
8.3 - Methods of Calculating Design Seismic Force.....................................................................26
8.4 - Seismic Weight and Live Load................................................................................................29
8.5 - Combination of Seismic Components....................................................................................30
8.6 - Damping and soil Properties ...................................................................................................33
8.7 - Combination of Seismic Design Forces with Other Forces ................................................37
8.8 - Vertical Motions.........................................................................................................................39
9. Seismic Coefficient Method (Single mode Method)............................................................. 41
9.1 - Elastic Seismic Acceleration Coefficient................................................................................42
9.2 - Maximum Elastic Forces and Deformations .........................................................................46
9.3 - Design Seismic Force Resultants for Bridge Components.................................................47
10. Response Spectrum Method (Multi mode Method) ........................................................... 51
10.1 - Elastic Seismic Acceleration Coefficient in Mode k...........................................................51
10.2 - Inertia Force due to Mass of Bridge at Node j in Mode k .................................................53
10.3 - Maximum Elastic Forces and Deformations .......................................................................55
10.4 - Design Seismic Force Resultants in Bridge Components................................................56
10.5 - Multi-directional Shaking........................................................................................................57

11. Time History Method.......................................................................................................... 58
11.1 - Modeling of Bridge..................................................................................................................58
11.2 - Analysis ....................................................................................................................................58
11.3 - Ground Motion.........................................................................................................................59
11.4 - Interpretation of Time History Analysis Results .................................................................60
12. Pushover Analysis ............................................................................................................. 62
13. Superstructure ................................................................................................................... 63
13.1- .....................................................................................................................................................63
13.2 - ....................................................................................................................................................63
13.3 - ....................................................................................................................................................63
14. Substructure ...................................................................................................................... 68
14.1 - Scour Depth.............................................................................................................................68
14.2 - Hydrodynamic Force ..............................................................................................................68
14.3 - Design Seismic Foce..............................................................................................................72
14.4 - Substructure of Continuous Girder Superstructure ...........................................................73
15. Foundations....................................................................................................................... 74
15.1 - ....................................................................................................................................................74
15.2 - ....................................................................................................................................................74
15.3 - ....................................................................................................................................................74
16. Connections....................................................................................................................... 76
16.1 - Design Force for Connections ..............................................................................................76
16.2 - Displacements at Connections .............................................................................................77
16.3 - Minimum Seating Width Requirements ...............................................................................77
17. Special Ductile Detailing Requirements for Bridges Substructures................................... 80
18. Special Devices ................................................................................................................. 81
18.1 - Seismic Isolation Devices......................................................................................................81
18.2 - Shock Transmission Units.....................................................................................................81
19. Bridges with Seismic Isolation ........................................................................................... 83
19.1 - General .....................................................................................................................................83
19.2 - Design Criteria.........................................................................................................................86
19.3 - Analysis Procedure.................................................................................................................87
19.4 - Requirements on Isolator Unit ..............................................................................................88
19.5 - Tests on Isolation System.....................................................................................................90
19.6 - System Adequacy...................................................................................................................94
19.7 - Requirements for Elastomeric Bearings..............................................................................94
20. Post earthquake Operation and Inspection ....................................................................... 97
Appendix (A) References...................................................................................................... 98
Appendix (B) Relevant Codes and Standards...................................................................... 99
Appendix (C) Ductile Detailing Specifications..................................................................... 100
Appendix (D) Zone Factors for Some Important Towns ..................................................... 107
Appendix (E) Pushover Analysis ........................................................................................ 108

Appendix (F) Dynamic Earth Pressure ............................................................................... 111
Appendix (G) Simplified Procedure for Evaluation of Liquefaction Potential ...................... 115
Appendix (H) System property modification factors............................................................ 125
Appendix (I) Post Earthquake Operations and Inspections................................................ 129

PART 2: Explanatory Examples

Example 1 Railway Bridge with Simply Supported Steel Superstructure ........................... 132
Example 2 Comparison of Design Seismic Forces for Short and Long Span Railway Bridges140
Example 3 Calculation of Seismic Forces for Superstructure............................................. 145
Example 4 Analysis of Superstructure for Vertical Component of Earthquake................... 154
Example 5 Base Isolated Railway Bridge with Simply Supported Steel Superstructure .... 157
Example 6 M-| curve for a Reinforced Concrete (RC) Section .......................................... 164
Example 7 Obtain plastic moment, M
P
for RC pier and the maximum seismic coefficient
required for plastic hinge formation .................................................................. 168
Example 8 - Liquefaction Analysis using SPT data ............................................................... 170
Example 9 - Liquefaction Analysis using CPT data............................................................... 172



Part 1 Provisions and Commentary

IITK-RDSO Guidelines for Seismic Design of Railway Bridges

Page 1

1. Terminology
For the purpose of these guidelines, the following terms are defined

Base
The level at which inertia forces generated in the substructure and superstructure are transferred to the
foundation.
Bearing
An element often used to connect bridge girders to piers and abutments. Bearing are designed to allow or
prevent rotation and translation in different directions.
Bent
The intermediate support under the superstructure. A bent may have one or more columns, or it may
consist of a pier wall.
Bridge Flexibility Factor (Sa/g)
Also called Response Acceleration Coefficient (Sa/g). It is a factor to obtain the elastic acceleration
spectrum depending on flexibility of the structure; it depends on natural period of vibration of the bridge.
Center of Mass
The point through which the resultant of the masses of a system acts. This point corresponds to the
center of gravity of the system.
Closely-Spaced Mode
Closely-Spaced modes of a structure are those of its natural modes of vibration whose natural
frequencies differ from each other by 10 percent or less of the lower frequency.
Critical Damping
The minimum damping above which free vibration motion is not oscillatory.
Damping
The effect of internal friction, imperfect elasticity of material, slipping, sliding, etc., in reducing the
amplitude of vibration and is expressed as a percentage of critical damping.
Design Acceleration Spectrum
It refers to graph of maximum acceleration as a function of natural frequency or natural period of vibration
of a Single Degree Of Freedom (SDOF) system, for a specified damping ratio to be used in the design of
structures.
Design Horizontal Coefficient
It is a horizontal acceleration coefficient that shall be used to obtain design horizontal seismic force on
structures. Refer clause 9.1 and 10.1
Design Seismic Force
The seismic force prescribed by this standard for each bridge component that shall be used in its design.
It is obtained as the maximum elastic seismic force divided by the appropriate response reduction factor
specified in this standard for each component. Refer clause 9.3 and 10.3.
Design Seismic Force Resultant (V)
The force resultant (namely axial force, shear force, bending moment or torsional moment) at a cross-
section of the bridge due to design seismic force for shaking along a considered direction applied on the
structure.
Ductility

Page 2

Ductility of a structure, or its members, is the capacity to undergo large inelastic deformations without
significant loss of strength or stiffness.
Ductile Detailing
The preferred choice of location and amount of reinforcement in reinforced concrete structures to provide
for adequate ductility in them. In steel structures, it is the design of members and their connections to
make them adequately ductile.
Elastic Seismic Acceleration Coefficient (A
h
)
A plot of horizontal acceleration value, as a fraction of acceleration due to gravity, versus natural period of
vibration T that shall be used in the design of structures.
Epicenter
The geographical point on the surface of the earth vertically above the focus of the earthquake.
Focus
The point inside earth on the fault where the slip starts that causes the earthquake.
Importance Factor (I)
A factor used to obtain the design spectrum depending on the importance of the structure.
Linear Elastic Analysis
Analysis of the structure considering linear properties of the material and load-versus deformation
characteristics of the different component of the structure.
Liquefaction
Liquefaction is the state in saturated cohesion less soil wherein the effective shear strength is reduced to
negligible value during an earthquake due to pore pressures caused by vibrations approaching the total
confining pressure. In this situation, the soil tends to behave like a fluid mass.
Magnitude
The magnitude of earthquake is a number which is a measure of energy released in an earthquake. It is
defined as logarithm to the base 10 of the maximum trace amplitude, expressed in microns, which the
standard short-period torsion seismometer world register due to the earthquake at an epicenteral distance
of 100 km.
Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCE)
Maximum considered earthquake is the largest reasonably conceivable earthquake that appears possible
along a recognized fault or within a tectonic province.
Maximum Elastic Force Resultant (F
e
net
)
The force resultant (namely axial force, shear force, bending moment or torsional moment) at a cross-
section of the bridge due to maximum elastic seismic force for shaking along a considered direction
applied on the structure.
Maximum Elastic Seismic Force (F
e
)
The maximum force in the bridge component due to the expected seismic shaking in the considered
seismic zone.
Modal Mass (M
k
)
Modal mass of structure subjected to horizontal or vertical ground motion is a part of total seismic mass of
the structure that is effective in mode k of vibration. The modal mass for a given mode has a unique value
irrespective of scaling of the mode shape.
Mode Shapes Coefficient (
jk
)
The spatial pattern of vibration when the structure is vibrating in its normal mode k is called as mode

Page 3

shape of vibration of mode k.
jk
is coefficient for j
th
node in k
th
mode.
Natural Period
Natural period of a structure is its time period of undamped vibration.
(a) Fundamental Natural Period: It is the highest modal time period of vibration along the considered
direction of earthquake motion.
(b) Modal Natural Period: The modal natural period of mode k is the time period of vibration in mode k.
Normal Mode
Mode of vibration at which all its masses attain maximum values of displacements and rotations
simultaneously, and they also pass through equilibrium positions simultaneously.
Over strength
Strength considering all factors that may cause an increase, e.g., steel strength being higher than the
specified characteristic strength, effect of strain hardening in steel with large strains, and concrete
strength being higher than specified characteristic value.
P- Effect
IT is the secondary effect on shears and moments of frame members due to action of the vertical loads ,
interacting with the lateral displacement of structure resulting from seismic forces.
Response Acceleration Coefficient (Sa/g)
It is factor denoting the design acceleration spectrum of the structure subjected to earthquake ground
motion, and depends on natural period of vibration and damping of structures.
Response Reduction Factor (R)
The factor by which the actual lateral force, that would be generated if the structure were to remain elastic
during the most severe shaking that is likely at that site, shall be reduced to obtain the design lateral
force.
Response Spectrum
It is a representation of the maximum response of idealized single degree of freedom systems of different
periods for a fixed value of damping, during that earthquake. The maximum response is plotted against
the undamped natural period and for various damping values, and can be expressed in terms of
maximum absolute acceleration, maximum relative velocity or maximum relative displacement.
Restrainer
A steel rod, steel cable, rubber-impregnated chain, or similar device that prevents a superstructure from
becoming unseated during an earthquake.
Seismic Mass
Seismic weight divided by acceleration due to gravity.
Seismic Weight ( W )
Total dead load plus part of live load.
Skew
The angle between the centerline of the superstructure and a horizontal line perpendicular to the
abutments or bents.
Soil Profile Factor
A factor used to obtain the elastic acceleration spectrum depending on the soil profile underneath the
structure at the site.
Strength
The usable capacity of a structure or its members to resist the applied loads.

Page 4

Stiffness of Piers ( or bents )
The force required to produce unit deformation in the pier under a lateral load applied at its top.
Substructure
Elements such as piers, abutments, and foundations that support the superstructure.
Superstructure
The bridge elements supported by the substructure.
Zone Factor (Z)
A factor to obtain the design spectrum depending on the perceived seismic risk of the earthquake zone in
which the structure is located.

Page 5

2. Symbols
a Structural width in the direction of hydrodynamic pressure
A Elastic seismic acceleration coefficient
A
o
Sectional area of the substructure
A
c

Area of the concrete core =
2
k
D
4
t

A
g
Gross area of the column cross section
A
k
Elastic seismic acceleration coefficient of mode
r
A
As per APPENDIX C, Area of confined core concrete in the rectangular hoop
measure to its outer side dimensions
A
sh
Area of cross-section of circular hoop
b Structural width perpendicular to hydrodynamic pressure
B

B
I

Bonded plan dimension or bonded diameter in loaded direction of rectangular
bearing or diameter of circular bearing,
Damping coefficient (Table -10)
C
e

Hydrodynamic force coefficient
C
j
Fraction of missing mass for j
th
mode.
C
1
, C
2
,
C
3
, C
4

Pressure coefficients to estimate flow load due to stream on the substructure
D
k
Diameter of core measured to the outside of the spiral or hoops
d
i
Thickness of any layer
E
c
Modulus of elasticity of concrete
EDC Energy dissipated per cycle ( Figure 11 )
E
x,
E
y
Earthquake force in x-and y-direction respectively
E
s
Modulus of elasticity of steel
F Hydrodynamic force on substructure; (also, Horizontal force in kN applied at center
of mass of superstructure for one mm horizontal deflection of bridge along
considered direction of horizontal force)
F
e

Inertia force due to mass of a bridge component under earthquake shaking along a
direction
F
missing

Lateral force associated with missing mass
f
ck
Characteristic strength of concrete at 28 days in MPa.
f
y
Yield stress of steel
{ }
e
k
F
Inertia force vector due to mass of bridge under earthquake shaking along a
direction in mode k
F
p
Maximum Positive force
F
n
Maximum Negative force

Page 6

e
net
F
Maximum elastic force resultants at a cross-section due to all modes considered
F
max

Maximum force
F
y

Yield Force
g Acceleration due to gravity
h Longer dimension of the rectangular confining hoop measured to its outer face
H
p
Height of Pier
I Importance Factor
K Bulk modulus of elastomer
K
d
, K
u
&
K
eff

Post elastic stiffness, Elastic ( unloading ) stiffness , Effective stiffness resp.
( Clause 19.4.2 and Figure 11 )
e
i
K
Smaller effective stiffness
e
j
K
larger effective stiffness
L

Length (in meters) of the superstructure to the adjacent expansion joint or to the
end of superstructure. In case of bearings under suspended spans, it is sum of the
lengths of the two adjacent portions of the superstructure. In case of single span
bridges, it is equal to the length of the superstructure
m Number of modes of vibration considered
j
m Total mass of the j
th
mode
] m [
Seismic mass matrix of the bridge structure
M
y
Moment Capacity of the column/pier section at the first yield of the reinforcing steel
O
M
Sum of the over strength moment capacities of the hinges resisting lateral loads
N
Average SPT value of the soil profile
N
i
Standard penetration resistance of layer i
k
P
Modal participation factor of mode k of vibration
b
p
Pressure due to fluid on submerged superstructures
Q
d
Characteristic strength
R Response Reduction Factor
3 2 1
r r r , ,
Force resultants due to full design seismic force along two principal horizontal
directions and along the vertical direction, respectively
S Pitch of spiral or spacing of hoops
g
S
a

Bridge flexibility factor along the considered direction
k
a
g
S
|
|
.
|
\
|

Bridge flexibility factor of mode k of vibration
t
i
Thickness of i
th
layer

Page 7

1
T
Fundamental natural period of vibration of bridge in considered direction
k
T
Natural Period of Vibration of mode k
T
r

Total elastomer thickness
( ) s u

Displacement at position s caused in the acting direction of inertial force when the
force corresponding to the weight of the superstructure and substructure above the
ground surface for seismic design is assumed to act in the acting direction of inertial
force
V

Lateral Shear Force
e
V

Maximum elastic force resultant at a cross-section of a bridge component
net
V

Design seismic force resultant in any component of the bridge due to all modes
considered
W

Seismic weight, which includes full dead load and part live load
2 1
, , W W W
b

Widths of seating at bearing supports at expansion ends of girders.
e
W

Weight of water in a hypothetical enveloping cylinder around a substructure
Z

Seismic zone factor
{} 1

Vector consisting of unity (one) associated with translational degrees of freedom in
the considered direction of shaking, and zero associated with all other degrees of
freedom
o

Displacement at the acting position of inertial force of the superstructures when the
force corresponding to 80% of the weight of the substructure above the ground
surface for seismic design and all weight of the superstructure portion supported by
it is assumed to act in the acting direction of inertial force (m)
A
P

Maximum positive displacement
A
n

Maximum negative displacement
A
max
Maximum bearing displacement ( Figure 11)
A
Y

yield displacement
Ed
F A
Additional vertical load due to seismic overturning effects, base on peak response
under the design seismic action
| Ratio of natural frequencies of modes i and j, Also equivalent damping ratio
( Sec.19.5.8)
{ }
k

Mode shape vector of the bridge in mode k of vibration
jk
Mode shape coefficient for j
th
, degree of freedom in k
th
mode of vibration
|
y
Yield Curvature

Net response due to all modes considered
k

Response in mode k of vibration
g missin

Maximum response of missing mass


Page 8

PROVISIONS COMMENTARY
3. Introduction
C3.0 Introduction
3.1 - General
The present guidelines deal with the seismic
design of new railway bridges. These guidelines
have been developed to reduce the damage
from earthquakes. Bridges and portions thereof
shall be designed and constructed, to resist the
effects of design seismic force specified in
these guidelines as a minimum. The intention of
these guidelines is to ensure that bridges
possess at least a minimum strength to
withstand earthquakes. The intention is not to
prevent damage to them due to the most severe
shaking that they may be subjected to during
their lifetime.
C3.1- General
Bridges play an important role in the efficient
functioning of railway transport. Reliability
against the natural calamities like earthquakes is
of serious concern for safety of passengers,
goods, and employees. Bridges are lifeline
structures and need to remain functional after
the design earthquake. The designer may choose
to design bridges for seismic forces larger than
those specified in this code and but not less.

3.2 - Modifications over
Existing Bridge Rules
As compared to the seismic loading provisions
of the existing Bridge Rules of Indian Railways,
following important provisions and changes
have been included :
C3.2- Modifications Over
Existing Bridge Rules
In our country, three codes/standards deal with
the seismic design of bridges. These are: IS
1893 (1984), IRC 6:2000 and existing Bridge
Rules of Indian Railways. Amongst these, IRC 6
(2000) is the latest one and it deals with
highway bridges only. IS 1893 is under revision.
The seismic loading provisions of the existing
Bridge Rules are based on IS 1893(1984) and
have not been revised since very long time.
a) Effect of flexibility of the bridge on the design
seismic force is included with the help of time
period of bridge.

a) In the present guidelines, first maximum
earthquake force which will act on the bridge
(also called elastic earthquake force) is
obtained. Then, depending on ductility and
energy dissipating capacity of different bridge
component, design force is specified for
different bridge component. In contrast to this,
the existing Bridge Rules provisions, suggest
seismic coefficient method for bridges. In this
method, the seismic coefficient for different
zone is specified and this coefficient is same for
all types of bridges. Thus, design earthquake
force does not depend on the structural dynamic
characteristics of the bridges. For example, as
per existing Bridge Rules, the design seismic
coefficient for a bridge with pier height of 10 m
and 30 m will be same, and it does not depend
on the flexibility of the bridge.

Page 9


b) The concept of design earthquake force for
elastic behavior of bridge and reduction in
design earthquake using inelastic behavior by
considering ductility of components is included.

b) In existing Bridge Rules, the design seismic
forces are directly specified, which is often
misunderstood as the maximum expected
seismic force on the bridge under design
seismic shaking.

c) Seismic zones and response spectrum as
per IS 1893(Part 1):2002 are used.

c) In IS 1893 (Part 1): 2002 a new seismic zone
map along with zone factors is given. As
against this, for bridges, IS 1893 (1984)
which has old zone map, gives seismic
coefficient for each zone. The same
coefficients are also used in existing Bridge
Rules.

d) Combination of horizontal and vertical
component of ground motion is included.

d)

e) New load combinations consistent with the
present international practice are introduced.

e) In existing Bridge Rules, load combinations
are not mentioned. The Indian Railway
Standard (IRS) for concrete bridge design
specifies load combination, for ultimate and
serviceability limit state. In these load
combinations, load factors for live load and
seismic loads are quite different than other
international bridge codes. The IRS for steel
bridge design and sub-structure and
foundation, does not explicitly specify load
combinations.

f) Details of the response spectrum method and
time history method are given along with the
pushover analysis.

f)

g) The earthquake effect on retaining walls and
abutments is included. The hydrodynamic effect
and method of assessment of liquefaction
potential of soil is also included.

g)

h) Provisions for seismic design of bridges with
seismic isolation devices are also incorporated.

h)

i) Information on the post-earthquake operation
and inspection is provided

i) This information is taken from AREMA code.

Page 10

3.3 - Railway and Road Bridges
Railway bridges are functionally and
behaviorally different from the other bridges.
Firstly, the controlled traffic environment permits
better assessment of train load on the bridges.
Secondly, the presence of continuous rails over
the bridge spans provides restraint against
longitudinal and transverse movement during
earthquakes. Thirdly, the superstructure
configuration of railway bridges is different than
that of the other types of bridges.
C3.3 Railway and Road
Bridges
In case of railway bridges, the ratio of dead load
of superstructure to live load could be quite
different than that for highway bridges. This
ratio could also be significantly different for
bridges with steel superstructure and concrete
superstructure. Various differences of railway
bridges and highway bridges are as follows:-
(i) Simple span structures are preferred over
continuous structures for railway bridges.
Many of the factors that make continuous
spans attractive for highway bridges are not
as advantageous for railway use. Continuous
spans are also more difficult to replace in
emergencies than simple spans.
(ii) The ratio of live to dead load is much higher
for a railway bridge than for a similarly sized
highway bridge. This can lead to
serviceability issues such as fatigue and
central deflection governing the designs
rather than strength.
(iii) Design impact load on railway bridges is
higher as compared to highway bridges.
(iv) Interruptions in service are typically much
more critical for railway than for highway
agencies. Therefore constructability and
maintainability without disruption to traffic
are crucial for railway bridges.
(v) Since the bridge supports the track
structure, the combination of track and
bridge movement cannot exceed the
tolerances in track standards. Interaction
between the track and bridge should be
considered in designing and detailing.
(vi) Seismic performance of highway and
railway bridges can vary significantly.
Railroad bridges have performed well
during seismic events.
(vii) Track structure (along with guard rail)
serves as an effective restraint (and damping
agent) against bridge displacements in case
of railway bridges.
(viii) Railway bridge owners typically expect a
longer service life from their structures than
highway bridge owner expect from theirs.
(ix) Trains operate in a controlled environment,
which makes type of damage permissible

Page 11

for railway bridges that might not be
acceptable generally for highway users.
3.4 - References
In the formulation of this guideline, assistance
has been derived from the several publications
listed in Appendix - A.

C3.4


Page 12

4. Relevant Codes/
Standards
The several Codes/Standards are necessary
adjuncts to these guidelines and these are
listed in Appendix - B.

C4.0 Relevant Codes/
Standards


Page 13

5. Scope
C5.0 Scope
The provisions of the present guidelines are
applicable for the seismic design of new
railway bridges. These provisions are not
applicable for the seismic evaluation and
retrofitting of the existing railway bridges.

The provisions of these guidelines are for
railway bridges wherein, seismic action is
mainly resisted through flexure of pier and
through abutments, i.e., bridges composed of
vertical pier-foundation system supporting the
deck structure with or without bearings.

For certain bridges with special geometry and
for special locations, additional detailed
analysis, not covered in this guidelines, is
required. These are mentioned in Clause 6.7.
Bridges not requiring seismic analysis are
given in clause 6.5.

The present guidelines also cover the seismic
design of the bridges with seismic isolation
devices.

Some information on post-earthquake
operation and inspection is also included

Seismic evaluation of existing railway bridges
requires much detailed analysis which is
beyond the scope of the present guidelines.
Such detailed analysis is required to assess the
present strength of the materials, to assess the
ductility of the seismic load carrying members,
present utility of the bridge, loading conditions
etc. Specialized literature shall be referred for
this purpose. Some of the references for
seismic evaluation and retrofitting are:
1. AASHTO (1994), Manual for Condition
Evaluation of Bridges, Second Edition,
American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials, Washington
DC, USA.
2. Japan Road Association (1995) - Reference
for Applying Guided Specification to New
Highway Bridge and Seismic Strengthing
of Existing Highway Bridges.
Useful suggestions for evaluation and
strengthening of various components such as
piers/columns can be derived from the
followings documents specially developed for
buildings:
1. FEMA 356 (2000) Prestandard and
Commentary for the Seismic Rehabilitation
of Buildings. Federal Emergency
Management Agency, Washington, D. C.,
USA.
2. ASCE 11-99, Guideline for Structural
Condition Assessment of Existing
Buildings, American Society of Civil
Engineers, USA.
3. IITK-GSDMA Guidelines - Seismic
Evaluation and Strengthing of Building,
IIT Kanpur.
http://www.iitk.ac.in/nicee/IITK-
GSDMA/EQ06.pdf

Page 14

6. General concepts
C6.0 General concepts
6.1 -
Actual forces that appear on portions of
bridges during earthquakes may be greater
than the design seismic forces specified in
these guidelines. However, ductility arising
from material behavior and detailing, and over
strength arising from the additional reserve
strength in them over and above the design
forces, are relied upon to account for this
difference in actual and design lateral loads.
C6.1 -
The earthquake codes provide design forces
which are substantially lower than what a
structure is expected to actually experience
during strong earthquake shaking. Hence, it is
important that the structure be made ductile and
statically redundant to allow for alternate load
transfer paths. Ductile design and detailing
enables a designer to use a lower design force
(i.e., a higher value of response reduction
factor R) than for an ordinarily-detailed
structure.
6.2 -
The response of a structure to earthquake
shaking is a function of the nature of
foundation soil, materials, form, size and mode
of construction, and characteristics and
duration of ground motion. These guidelines
specifies design forces for structures standing
on soils or rocks which do not settle or slide
due to loss of strength during shaking.
C6.2-
Provisions of this guidelines deal with the
inertia forces induced due to ground shaking.
However, other effects of ground shaking like
liquefaction of soil, sliding failure of soil strata
are not included. Some information on soil
liquefaction is included in Appendix G.

6.3 -
The reinforced and prestressed concrete
components shall be under-reinforced so as to
cause a ductile failure. Further, they should be
designed to ensure that premature failure due
to shear or bond does not occur. Stresses
induced in the superstructure due to
earthquake induced ground motion are usually
quite nominal. Therefore, ductility demand
under seismic shaking has not been a major
concern in bridge superstructures during past
earthquakes. However, the seismic response
of bridges is critically dependent on the ductile
characteristics of the substructures. Provisions
for appropriate ductile detailing of reinforced
concrete members given in Appendix A shall
be applicable to substructures. Bridges shall be
designed such that under severe seismic
shaking plastic hinges form in the substructure,
C6.3
Provisions for ductile design and detailing for
reinforced concrete structures are provided in
Appendix C and IS: 13920-1993. However,
provisions for ductile detailing of prestressed
concrete, steel and prefabricated structures are
not yet available in the form of Indian
Standards. If such structures are to be designed
for high seismic zones of the country, it is
expected that the designer will ensure suitable
ductility following the practices of countries,
e.g., USA, Europe, New Zealand and Japan,
with advanced seismic provisions. The ductile
detailing is required for substructures,
foundations and connections only and not of
the superstructure

Page 15

rather than in the deck or the foundation.
6.4 -
Masonry and plain concrete arch bridges with
spans more than 12 m shall not be built in the
seismic zones IV and V.

C6.4
Designers are prohibited to consider masonry
and plain concrete arch bridges of spans more
than 12 m as structural systems for bridges in
high seismic zones, since these systems do not
possess adequate ductility or reserve strength
and may not withstand forces due to strong
ground shaking.
6.5 -
Box and pipe culverts need not be analyzed for
seismic forces.
C6.5-
Existing Bridge Rules also exempt box and
pipe culverts from seismic design.
6.6 -
Following bridges need not be analyzed for
seismic forces :
(a) In Zones II & III, bridges with overall length
less than 60m or spans less than 15m
(b) Single span bridges upto 30m span

However, these bridges shall be provided with:
i. The minimum seating width as per Clause
16.3.
ii. The connections in the restrained direction
between superstructure and substructure
shall be designed for elastic seismic force
from superstructure.
C6.6-
Single span bridges of spans upto 30m are
exempted from seismic analysis. These bridges
comprise of single span resting on abutment
with no intermediate pier. However, minimum
seat width is provided and connections in
restrained direction are designed for seismic
force.

6.7 -
For specific cases of bridges, some additional
studies/analysis should be required, which are
described in Table 1.
C 6.7
Specialist literature shall be referred for
information regarding additional studies like
site specific spectrum, estimation of fault
movement, spatial variation of ground motion,
soil liquefaction etc.
The site specific spectrum studies requires
knowledge about seismic potential of active
faults in that region characteristics of the path
through which seismic wave travel and soil
strata on which structures stands. Such studies

Page 16

are to be performed by experts in the field of
seismology/geology and these shall be peer
reviewed. Following are some of the useful
references on site specific design criteria:
1) Reiter L., Earthquake Hazard Analysis:
Issues and Insights; Columbia University
Press, New York.
2) Kramer S.L., Geotechnical Earthquake
Engineering; Indian Reprint, Pearson
Education, New Delhi, 2003.
3) Housner, G.W. and Jennings P.C.,
Earthquake Design Criteria; Earthquake
Engineering Research Institute, 1982.
4) AERB (1990), Seismic Studies and Design
Basis Ground Motion for Nuclear Power
Plant Sites, AERB Safety Guide No.
AERB/SG/S-11, Atomic Energy
Regulatory Board, India.
Spatial variation of ground motion is relevant
for long continuous bridges and for sites where
geological discontinuity and large variation in
soil property along the bridge length exists.
The difference in the characteristics of the
ground motion at various locations along the
bridge length is of concern in such cases.
Information can be obtained in following
references:
1) Eurocode 8 (2005) Design of structures for
earthquake resistance Part 2: Bridges, pr
En 1998-2, European Committee for
Standardization, Brussels.
2) Der Kiureghian A., and Neuenhofer A.,
1992, Response spectrum method for
multi-support excitations, Journal of
Earthquake Engineering and Structural
Dynamics, Vol. 21, pp 713-740.


Page 17

PROVISIONS

Table 1 - Cases Requiring Special Studies/Analysis
Sr.
No.
Cases in which additional special
studies/analysis is required
Special studies/analysis
1. In zone IV and V, bridges with individual
span length more than 120 m and/or pier
height is more than 30 m.
Modeling of the bridge including geometrical
nonlinearity, P-delta effect and soil-structure
interaction is needed.
Pushover analysis may be done to ascertain the
energy dissipation characteristics of ductile members.
(Details given in APPENDIX I)
2. Continuous deck bridge of length larger than
600 m
Spatial variation of ground motion shall be considered.
3. Geological discontinuity exists at the site Spatial variation of ground motion shall be considered.
4. Bridge site close to a fault (< 10 km) which
may be active.

Site specific spectrum shall be obtained. Else, near-
source modifications as per Clause 8.1.1 and 8.8.3
shall be done. Specialist literature shall be required to
obtain site specific spectrum.
If bridge is crossing the fault, detailed geological
studies shall be performed to estimate past
movements across the fault. Bridge to be designed so
as to withstand the expected fault displacements. Help
from geological / seismological persons with enough
experience will be required to calculate fault
movement.
5. In zone IV and V, if the soil condition is poor,
consisting of marine clay or loose sand (e.g.,
where the soil up to 30m depth has average
SPT N value equal to or less than 20)
Site specific spectrum shall be obtained.
6. Site with loose sand or poorly graded sands
with little or no fines. Liquefiable soil.

Liquefaction analysis is required (Details given in
APPENDIX I). Liquefaction is the act or process of
transforming any substance into a liquid state. In non-
cohesive soils it is the transformation of the soil in the
solid state to the liquefied state due to the increase in
the pore pressure and the consequent reduction in the
effective stress.


Page 18

6.8- Ground Motion
The characteristics (intensity, duration, etc.,) of
seismic ground vibrations expected at any location
depends upon the magnitude of earthquake, the
depth of focus, distance from the epicenter,
characteristics of the path through which the
seismic waves travel, and the soil strata on which
the structure stands. The random ground motions,
which cause the structures to vibrate, can be
resolved in any three mutually perpendicular
directions. Generally, two horizontal and one
vertical component of ground motion is considered.
C6.8- Ground Motion

6.8.1- Vertical Component of Seismic
Action

In some cases, the effect of vertical component of
ground motion has to be specifically considered.
The effect of vertical component is particularly
important in the following components/situations:
a. Prestressed concrete decks.
b. Bearings, hold down devices, and linkages.
c. Horizontal cantilever structural elements
such as cantilevers of deck slabs and
cantilever bridges.
d. Situations where stability (overturning
/sliding) becomes critical.
e. Bridge sites located near fault.

The effect of the vertical seismic component on
substructure and foundation may, as a rule, be
omitted in zones II and III.

C6.8.1 Vertical Component of
Seismic Action

All structures experience a constant vertical
acceleration (downward) equal to gravity (g) at all
times. Hence, the vertical acceleration during ground
shaking can be just added or subtracted to the gravity
depending on the direction of motion.
Vertical acceleration shall be of significant
consideration in bridges with large spans. Reduction
in gravity loads due to vertical component of ground
motion can be particularly detrimental for prestressed
girders. Vertical seismic forces may cause reduction
in stabilizing forces and combined with this, the
horizontal seismic force can cause dislocation of
structures.
6.9 - Assumptions
The following assumptions are made in the
earthquake-resistant design of bridges:
C6.9- Assumptions


Page 19

a) Earthquake causes impulsive ground motions,
which are complex and random in character,
changing in period and amplitude, and each
lasting for a small duration. Therefore,
resonance of the type as visualized under
steady-state sinusoidal excitations will not
occur, as it would need time to build up such
amplitudes.
Note: However, there are exceptions where
resonance-like conditions have been seen to occur
between long distance waves and tall structures
founded on deep soft soils.
The note mentioned after assumption (a) has been
necessitated in view of experience such as that in
Mexico City (1985).
The earthquake occurred 400 km away from the
Mexico City. A great variation in damages was seen
in the Mexico City. Some parts experienced very
strong shaking whereas some other parts of the city
hardly felt any motion. The peak ground acceleration
at soft soils in the lake zone was about 5 times higher
than that at the rock sites though the epicentral
distance was same at both the locations. Extremely
soft soils in lake zone amplified weak long-period
waves. The natural period of soft clay layers
happened to be close to the dominant period of
incident seismic waves and it created a resonance-
like conditions. Buildings between 7 and 18 storeys
suffered extensive damage since the natural period of
such buildings was close to the period of seismic
waves.
b) Earthquake is not likely to occur
simultaneously with wind or maximum flood or
maximum sea waves. Similarly, earthquake
motion need not be considered to occur
simultaneously with other extreme
environmental conditions such as thermal,
which have low probability of occurrences.

The probability of occurrence of strong earthquake
shaking is low. So is the case with strong winds.
Therefore, the possibility of strong ground shaking
and strong wind occurring simultaneously is very
low. Thus, it is commonly assumed that earthquakes
and winds of very high intensity do not occur
simultaneously. Similarly, it is assumed that strong
earthquake shaking and maximum flood or sea
waves (Tsunami) and highest temperature will not
occur at the same time.
c) The value of a elastic modulus of materials,
wherever required, may be taken as for static
analysis unless a more definite value is
available for use in dynamic conditions
It is difficult to precisely specify the modulus of
materials such as concrete, masonry, and soil
because its value depends on factors such as stress
level, loading condition (static versus dynamic),
material strength and age of material.
For such materials, there tends to be large variation
in the value of E. For instance, for concrete, IS
456:1978 recommends E
c
= 5700\f
ck
, where is IS
456:2000 has modified the value to E
c
= 5000\f
ck
;
both under static condition. Further, the actual
concrete strength will be different from the specified
value. Hence, the code simply allows the modulus of
elasticity for static analysis to be used for earthquake
analysis also.


Page 20

7. Conceptual Considerations
Conceptual design suggestions in terms of
configuration, superstructure, substructure and
ground conditions are given in Table 2, along with
the non preferred types, for which special design
and detailing are required. These considerations
shall be followed as much as practically possible
and a balance shall be maintained between
functional requirements, cost and seismic
resistance features.

7.0 Conceptual Considerations
Conceptual considerations are aimed at providing
simplicity, symmetry, and displacement capacity in
the bridge so as to improve its seismic resistance.
This is similar to the role of architectural planning
and detailing in the seismic performance of
buildings. In the past earthquakes it is seen that
bridges with preferred configurations, superstructure,
substructure and ground conditions have performed
better than non preferred type. Bridges of non
preferred types require special considerations in
modeling, analysis, design, and construction.
The selection of an appropriate structure type and
configuration should take into account the seismic
hazard at the site, the soil condition and the bridge
performance requirement. In general, site near active
faults, site with potentially liquefiable or unstable
soil conditions and site with unstable sloping ground
conditions should be avoided, if practical, and
measures to improve the soil conditions should be
considered as an alternative.
Configuration
Criteria for determining an adequate structure
configuration and layout include simplicity,
symmetry and regularity, integrity, redundancy,
ductility and ease of inspection and repair. Bridge
should be simple in geometry and structural
behavior. Simple structure provides a direct and clear
load path in transmitting the inertial forces from
superstructure to ground. The bridge behavior under
seismic loads can be predicted with more certainty
and accuracy with fewer dominant modes of
vibration.
Bridges with features such as extreme curvature or
skew, varying stiffness and mass and abrupt changes
in geometry require special attention in analysis and
detailing to avoid permanent damages and failure.

Superstructure
Simple spans of standard configuration are preferred
by railways since they have performed well during
past earthquakes and are easy to replace if need
arises. In simple spans lateral load on piers depends
on the weight of adjacent spans. If spans are of equal
length, then, all the piers are subjected to almost
same lateral seismic force.
In integral bridges, pier and deck constitute a frame
action which is beneficial in resisting the seismic
forces. Also, unseating of the span does not occur.

Page 21

Since all the piers are connected through deck the
lateral seismic force on a pier depends on stiffness of
pier. In such a case, large lateral force may get
transmitted to one single pier of large stiffness.

In continuous spans all the seismic forces may get
transmitted to one of the abutment. Continuous span
however, reduce the likelihood of unseating at the
pier.

Long spans produce higher load demands on fewer
foundations which will increase foundation
vulnerability and reduce redundancy. Excessive
ballast and other non structural weight should be
avoided as far as practically possible.

Substructure
Wide seat width at the abutment and the pier allow
for large displacements without unseating the bridge
spans. Multiple columns provide redundancy in the
substructure which is needed to survive the higher
level ground motions.

Ground Conditions
The foundation soil should be investigated for
susceptibility to liquefaction and slope failure during
the seismic ground motion. To the extent possible,
bridges in the region of high seismicity should be
founded on stiff, stable soil layers. Large diameter
pile foundations may be used to withstand the slope
failure or carry the bridge loads through liquefiable
soil layer to competent material.

Foundation
Bridges are built either on spread footing or deep
foundation. Bridges on spread footing supported by
firm soil have performed well during earthquakes.
Pile foundation has performed well except when
massive soil failure occurred. Generally the column
yield first; thus limiting the earthquake demand on
foundations. Moreover, the footing and pile cap
should be in deeper level to gain passive resistance.


Page 22

Table 2 Seismically Preferred and not Preferred Aspects of Bridges
Seismically preferred Seismically not preferred
1.0 Configuration
1.1 Straight bridge alignment Curved bridge alignment
1.2 Normal piers Skewed piers
1.3 Uniform pier stiffness Varying pier stiffness
1.4 Uniform span stiffness Varying span stiffness
1.5 Uniform span mass Varying span mass
2.0 Superstructure
2.1 a) Simply supported spans
b) Integral bridges
Continuous spans
2.2 Short spans Long spans
2.3 Light spans Heavy spans
2.4 No intermediate hinges within span Intermediate hinges
3.0 Substructure
3.1 Wide seats Narrow seats
3.2 Multiple column Single column
4.0 Ground conditions
4.1 Stiff, Stable soil Unstable soil


Page 23

PROVISIONS
COMMENTARY
8. Design Criteria

C8.0 Design Criteria
In the existing Bridge Rules, the design seismic
forces for bridges are directly specified; this is often
misunderstood as the maximum expected seismic
force on the bridge under design seismic shaking.
The present guidelines distinguishes the actual forces
appearing on each bridge component during design
earthquake shaking if the entire bridge structure were
to behave linear elastically, from the design seismic
force for that component. This is in line with the
world wide practice in this regard. The actual forces
appearing on each bridge component is obtained by
dividing the realistic seismic force by factor of 2R,
where R is response reduction factor. The realistic
seismic force is the one which will act on each
component if bridge is to remain elastic.
The guidelines makes it clear to the designer that the
design seismic forces on superstructure, substructure
and foundations are only a fraction of the maximum
elastic forces that would appear on the bridge. Only
in connections, the design seismic forces may be
equal to (or more than) the maximum elastic forces
that would be transmitted through them. This is in
stark contrast with the design forces for any other
design loading conditions. For instance, in case of
design for wind effects, the maximum forces that
appear on the structure are designed for and no
reductions are employed.
8.1 - Seismic Zone Map
For the purpose of determining design seismic
forces, the country is classified into four seismic
zones. A seismic zone map of India is shown in Fig.
1. The peak ground acceleration (PGA) (or zero
period acceleration, ZPA), associated with each
zone, is called zone factor, Z. The zone factor is
given in Table 3. Zone factors for some important
towns are given in Appendix D
Table 3 - Zone Factor Z For Horizontal Motion
Seismic
Zone
II III IV V
Z 0.10 0.16 0.24 0.36

C8.1 - Seismic Zone Map
The seismic zone map and zone factors are taken
from IS 1893 (Part 1): 2002. The seismic zoning map
broadly classifies India into zones where one can
expect earthquake shaking of the more or less the
same maximum intensity. The zoning criterion of
the map is based on likely intensity. It does not give
us any idea regarding how often a shaking of certain
intensity may take place in a location (that is,
probability of occurrence or return period). For
example, say area A experiences a maximum
intensity VIII every 50 years and area B experiences
a maximum intensity VIII every 300 years. But both
these areas will be placed in zone IV, even though
area A has higher seismicity. The current trend
worldwide is to specify the zones in terms of ground
acceleration that has a certain probability of being

Page 24

PROVISIONS
COMMENTARY

exceeded in a given number of years.
Zone factor (Z) accounts for the expected intensity of
shaking in different seismic zones Efforts have been
made to specify Z values that represent a reasonable
estimate of PGA in the respective zone. For instance,
Z value of 0.36 in zone V implies that a value of
0.36g is reasonably expected in zone V. But it does
not imply that acceleration in zone V will not exceed
0.36g. For example, during 2001 Bhuj earthquake,
peak ground acceleration of approximately 0.6g was
inferred from data obtained from the Structural
Response Recorder located at Anjar, 44kms away
from the epicenter.
8.1.1- Near Source Effect
For bridges which are within a distance of 10 km
from a known active fault, seismic hazard shall be
specified after detailed geological study of the fault
and the site condition. In absence of such detailed
investigation, the near-source modification in the
form of 20% increase in zone factor may be used.
C8.1.1- Near Source Effect
Seismic hazard analysis shall be performed and site
specific PGA and design acceleration spectrum shall
be developed. Refer table 1 and commentary of
clause 6.7.
If bridge is crossing the fault, detailed geological
studies shall be performed to estimate past
movements across the fault. Bridge to be designed
so as to withstand the expected fault displacements.
Help from geological/seismological persons with
enough experience will be required to calculate fault
movement. In case, such studies are not undertaken,
20% increase in zone factor is recommended.
Further, the vertical ground motion may be taken as
equal to the horizontal ground motion as given in
Clause 8.8.3.
8.2 - Importance Factor
The values of importance factor I, for different
bridges are given in Table 4. The importance factor
reflects strategic importance of the route and
functionality of the bridge in the post earthquake
period.

C8.2 - Importance Factor
Seismic design philosophy assumes that a structure
may undergo some damage during severe shaking.
However critical and important facilities must
respond better in an earthquake than an ordinary
structure. Importance factor is meant to account for
this by increasing the design force level for critical
and important structures.
As per IRS for design of substructure and foundation
of bridges, Important and Major bridges are defined
as follows:
Important Bridges: Important Bridges are those
having a lineal waterway of 300m or a total
waterway of 1000 Sq.m or more and those classified
as important by the Chief Engineer/Chief Bridge
Engineer, depending on considerations such as depth
of waterway, extent of river training works and

Page 25

PROVISIONS
COMMENTARY
Table 4 - Importance Factor for bridges

Category Import
ance
Factor
Bridges included
Category
I
Bridge
1.5 i) All important bridges irrespective of
route.
ii) Major bridges on group A, B and C
routes.
(For route classification see IRPW
Manual)
Category
II
Bridge
1.25 i) Major bridges on all other routes.
ii) All other bridges on group A, B and C
routes.
Other
Bridge
1.0 All other bridges
maintenance problems.

Major Bridges: Major Bridges are those which have
either a total waterway of 18m or more or which
have a clear opening of 12m or more in any one
span.
The importance factor of 1.5 is suggested for bridges
in Group A, B, C routes depending on traffic
intensity. The bridges on other routes, if considered
strategically important due to non-availability of
alternative route nearby, may be designed with
importance factor of 1.25 or 1.5.


Page 26

8.3 - Methods of Calculating
C8.3 - Methods of Calculating
8.3.1 -
The seismic forces for bridges shall be generally
estimated by Seismic Coefficient Method (Single
Mode Method) described in Section 9.0. Response
Spectrum Method (Multi Mode Method) described in
Section 10 shall be used in zones IV and V in
following cases:
(a) Irregular bridge as defined in section 8.3.5.2
(b) Individual span more than 80m
(c) Continuous bridge
(d) Height of top of pier / abutment from the base
of foundation is more than 30m.

C8.3.1
The existing Bridge Rules follow a very simplistic
method for calculating design seismic force. In this
method, design seismic force computation does not
include consideration of flexibility of the bridge.
This implies that all the bridges in a seismic zone,
irrespective of their span, pier height and structural
system adopt the same design acceleration
coefficient.
This guideline includes the effect of bridge flexibility
in its design force computation. Further, it permits
the use of both the Seismic Coefficient Method
(single Mode Method) and the Response Spectrum
Method (Multi Mode Method). The Seismic
Coefficient Method assumes that (a) the fundamental
mode of vibration has the most dominant
contribution to seismic force, and (b) masses and
stiffness are evenly distributed in the bridge resulting
in a regular mode shape.
The seismic coefficient method is applicable when
dynamic behavior of the bridge can be sufficiently
approximated by a single degree of freedom system.
This condition is considered to be satisfied in
following cases:
a) In longitudinal direction of approximately
straight bridges, with continuous deck, the
seismic forces are carried by the piers, and the
total mass of the piers is less than 20% of the
mass of the deck
b) For the above bridge in transverse direction, if
the bridge is approximately symmetric about
the center of the deck, i.e., when the
eccentricity between the center of stiffness of
the supporting members and the center of mass
of the deck does not exceed 5% of the length of
the deck.
c) For bridges with simply supported spans, no
significant interaction between piers is expected
and the total mass of each pier is less than 20%
of the tributary mass of the deck (Tributary
mass of the deck on a pier is the half mass of
the deck on either side of the pier).


Page 27

However, in case of long span bridges, irregular
bridges, higher modes may be important and their
mode shape may not be regular. Hence, for such
bridges this clause suggests the use of multi-mode
analysis namely Response Spectrum Method. It may
be clarified that mass concrete piers, common in
Railway bridges may be analyzed by the Seismic
Coefficient method, regardless of the mass ratio of
pier weight and the superstructure.
8.3.2 -
The Time History method described in Section 11.0
shall be used in following cases:
(i) To verify the result of Response Spectrum
Method for highly irregular bridges in zone IV,
and V.
(ii) Bridges with special devices like Shock
Transmission Units (STU), and seismic
isolation devices, time history method is
mandatory.
C8.3.2 -
Ground motion records to be used in the time history
analysis shall be obtained after site specific studies.
These studies shall be performed by a team of
experts and shall be peer reviewed, i.e., reviewed
independently by other experts.
8.3.3 -
The Pushover analysis described in Section 12.0
may be used to ascertain the nonlinear load
carrying capacity and ductility of pier with more than
50 m height and individual span more than 120 m.

C8.3.3-
International bridge codes are now recommending
use of Pushover Analysis for bridges. Pushover
analysis is a nonlinear analysis which estimates the
nonlinear load carrying capacity of the bridge pier,
and assesses the energy dissipating capacity of
ductile members. This analysis estimates if the
provided ductile detailing is enough to accommodate
seismic loads on the bridge.
8.3.4
For applying seismic forces obtained using Seismic
Coefficient Method or Response Spectrum Method
and for applying earthquake ground motion in Time
History Method (THM), the mathematical model of
bridges shall be used. This model shall
appropriately model the stiffness of superstructure,
bearings, piers and bridge ends. Analysis of bridge
model under dead load, live load and seismic loads
gives bending moment, shear and axial forces in
various bridge components.

C8.3.4 -

Page 28

8.3.5 Regular and Irregular
Bridges
8.3.5 Regular and Irregular
Bridges
8.3.5.1- Regular Bridge
A regular bridge has no abrupt or unusual changes
in mass, stiffness or geometry along its span and
has no large differences in these parameters
between adjacent supports (abutments excluded).
A bridge shall be considered regular for the
purposes of this guidelines, if
C8.5.1.1

(a) It is straight or it describes a sector of an arc
which subtends an angle less than 90 at the
center of the arc, and
(a) Fig C1a represents the straight regular bridge.
Whereas Fig C1 b show the straight bridge with
< 90
0
.

(b) The adjacent piers do not differ in stiffness by
more than 25%. (Percentage difference shall be
calculated based on the lesser of the two
stiffnesses as reference).

(c) If multi-column piers are used then the stiffness
of the stiffest columns within piers shall not be
25% more than the stiffness of the most flexible
column in that pier.

(c) Multi-column pier (bent) is quite commonly used
in highway bridges. They provide frame action in
transverse direction. Similarly for continuous
bridges, frame action in the longitudinal direction
can also be achieved. Details regarding configuration
of multi-column pier for regular bridges are given in
CALTRANS.
Fig C1a Straight Bridge
Fig C1b Regular Bridge with < 90
o
< 90
o

Page 29

8.3.5.2 - Irregular Bridge
All bridges not conforming to Clause 8.3.5.1 shall
be considered irregular. Further, arch bridges of
span exceeding 30m, cable stayed bridges,
suspension bridges, and other innovative bridge
forms shall also be treated as irregular bridges.
C8.3.5.2 -
8.4 - Seismic Weight and Live
Load
Live load used in the calculation of seismic weight
can be different than the live load used in load
combinations. Live load for seismic weight is given
in Clause 8.4.2, whereas live load for load
combination is given in Clause 8.7
C8.4 Seismic Weight and Live
Load
8.4.1- Seismic Weight
The seismic weight of the superstructure shall be
taken as its full dead load plus appropriate amount
of live load. The seismic weight of the substructure
and of the foundation shall be their respective full
dead load. Buoyancy and uplift shall be ignored in
the calculation of seismic weight.
Note In the Seismic Coefficient Method (Clause 9.0), for
simply supported regular bridges, single degree of
freedom (SDOF) model is used to obtain time period and
in this model only 80% of pier weight is considered in the
seismic weight.
C8.4.1 Seismic Weight
The dead load of the superstructure also includes the
superimposed dead load that is permanently fastened
or bonded with its structural self weight. Since there
is a limited amount of friction between the live load
and the superstructure, only a part of the live load is
included in the inertia force calculations.
It is clear that the seismic forces on a bridge
component are generated due to its own mass, and
not due to the externally applied forces on it. The
presence of buoyancy and uplift forces does not
reduce its mass. Thus, the clause requires that
buoyancy and uplift forces be ignored in the seismic
force calculations.
8.4.2- Live load in seismic weight
No live load (train load) shall be considered while
calculating horizontal seismic forces along the
direction of traffic (Longitudinal direction). 50% live
load (excluding impact effect) shall be considered
while calculating horizontal seismic forces in the
direction perpendicular to traffic (transverse
direction).

C8.4.2 Live load in seismic weight
By the live load , one usually refers to vehicular
traffic. Seismic shaking in the direction of traffic
causes the wheels to roll once the frictional forces
are overcome. The inertia force generated by the
vehicle mass in this case is smaller than that if the
vehicle mass were completely fastened to the span.
Further, the inertia force generated by the vehicle
mass due to friction between the superstructure deck
and wheels, is assumed to be taken care of in the
usual design for braking forces in the longitudinal
direction. Thus, live load is ignored while estimating
the seismic forces in the direction of traffic.
On the contrary, under seismic shaking in the
direction perpendicular to that of traffic (transverse
direction), the rolling of wheels is not possible. In
Fig C2: Multi-column Pier (Bent)

Page 30

the transverse direction, the train can slide due to
gap between wheel and rail. Due to this, during
sliding , the entire train load will not contribute to
seismic weight. Hence, only 50 % of design live
load is considered in transverse direction. Existing
Bridge Rules also considers 50% live load in
transverse direction and no live load in longitudinal
direction.
8.4.3 -
The vertical seismic forces shall be obtained by
considering full live load (excluding impact effect)
on the bridge.
C8.4.3
While calculating vertical seismic forces, the seismic
weight shall include full live load. It may be noted
that while calculating lateral seismic forces, 50%
live load is included in seismic weight for transverse
direction, where as no live load is included for
seismic weight in longitudinal direction.
8.4.4- Seismic Mass
The seismic mass of a bridge component is its
seismic weight divided by the acceleration due to
gravity.
C8.4.4- Seismic Mass
Weight = mass x acceleration due to gravity. In SI
system, the unit of weight is Newton and unit of
mass is kilogram.
8.5 - Combination of Seismic
Components
The seismic forces shall be assumed to act in any
direction. For design purpose, the analysis is done
for earthquake motion in two orthogonal horizontal
directions and one vertical direction.
Generally, analysis for horizontal seismic forces is
adequate. When vertical motion is to be considered,
the design seismic forces shall be combined as per
clause 8.5.3.
C8.5 - Combination of Seismic
Components
The design ground motion can occur along any
direction of a bridge. Moreover, the motion has
different directions at different time instants. The
earthquake ground motion can be thought of in
terms of its components in the two horizontal
directions and one vertical direction.
8.5.1 -
For regular bridges, the two orthogonal horizontal
directions are usually the longitudinal and
transverse direction of the bridges (Fig 2a). For
such bridges analysis shall be done for seismic
forces in longitudinal and transverse directions. The
seismic force resultants (Bending Moment, Shear
Force and Axial Force) at any component obtained
from the analysis in longitudinal and transverse
directions shall be considered separately.

C8.5.1 -
For regular bridges, the two orthogonal horizontal
directions (say x- and y-directions) are usually the
longitudinal and transverse directions of the bridge.
For such bridges, it is sufficient to design the bridge
for seismic forces acting along each of the x- and y-
directions separately. During earthquake shaking,
when the resultant motion is in a direction other than
x and y, the forces can be resolved into x- and y-
components, which the elements in the two principal
directions are normally designed to withstand.

Page 31

X
y
M = Bending Moment in y-direction when force is applied in X-
Direction
X
x
M = Bending Moment in x-direction when force is applied in X-
Direction
Y
y
M = Bending Moment in y-direction when force is applied in Y-
Direction
Y
x
M = Bending Moment in x-direction when force is applied in Y-
Direction
For Straight Bridge,
X
y
M and
Y
x
M are zero.
X- and Y- indicate global axes; x- and y- are local
axes for column/pier.

8.5.2 -
For irregular bridges, particularly, skew bridge (Fig.
2b), design seismic force resultants shall be
obtained along x-and y-direction. The design
seismic force resultant (Bending Moment, Shear
Force and Axial Force) at any component shall be
obtained as follows:
(a)
2 1
3 0 r . r
(b)
2 1
3 0 r r .

where
=
1
r Force resultant due to full design seismic
force along x direction,
=
2
r Force resultant due to full design seismic
force along y direction.

C8.5.2 -
In case of irregular bridges, particularly those with
skew, design should be done by considering the
seismic force component in x-direction and y-
direction. In such a case, the bridge should also be
designed for earthquake forces acting along the
directions in which the structural systems of the
substructures are oriented. One way of getting
around this without having to consider too many
possible earthquake directions is to design the
structure for:
(a) full design force along x-direction (ELx) acting
simultaneously with 30% of the design force in
the y-direction (ELy); i.e., (ELx+0.3ELy), and
(b) full design force along y-direction (ELy) acting
simultaneously with 30% of the design force in the
x-direction (ELx); i.e., (0.3ELx+ELy).
This combination ensures that the components
(particularly the substructure) oriented in any
direction will have sufficient lateral strength. In case
vertical ground motions are also considered, the
same principle is then extended to the design force
combinations in the three principal directions.
Fig. 2 a: Seismic forces for Straight Bridge
(Clause 8.5.1)
Y
X
X
y
M
X
x
M
Y
y
M
Y
x
M
y
x

Page 32

Bridge Plan Global X-Y axes
y
x

x
X
x
M

Y
x
M
y
x
Y
y
M
(Local x-x and y-y axes)
X
y
M
Fig. 2 b: Combination of orthogonal seismic
forces for Skew Bridge (Clause 8.5.2).

Design Seismic Force Resultant for Bending
Moment

Moments for
ground motion
along X-axis
Moments for
ground motion
along Z-axis
Y
x
X
x x
M . M M 3 0 + =
Y
y
X
y y
M . M M 3 0 + =

Design
Moments
Y
x
X
x x
M M . M + 3 0 =
Y
y
X
y y
M M . M + 3 0 =
where, M
x
and M
z
are absolute moments
about local axes.

8.5.3-
When vertical seismic forces are also considered,
(Clause 6.8.1), then for regular bridges, the design
seismic force resultants shall be obtained for the X-,
Y- and Z-direction separately. For irregular bridges,
the design seismic force resultant at any
component shall be computed as follows:
(a)
3 2 1
3 0 3 0 r . r . r
(b)
3 2 1
3 0 3 0 r . r r .
(c)
3 2 1
3 0 3 0 r r . r .

Where
2 1
r r and are as defined in Clause 8.5.2,
and
3
r is the force resultant due to full design


Page 33

seismic force along the vertical or z-direction
direction.
8.5.4 -
As an alternative to the procedure in 8.5.2 and
8.5.3, the forces due to the combined effect of two
or three components can be obtained on the basis
of square root of sum of square (SRSS) that is

2
2
2
1
r r + or
2
3
2
2
2
1
r r r + +
Where
3 2 1
r , r r and are as defined in Clause 8.5.2
or 8.5.3.
C8.5.4 -
When seismic force is applied in X-direction, the
bending moments in column are
X
x
M and
X
y
M . x-
and y- are local directions. Similarly, for seismic
force in Y-direction, the bending moment in column
are
Y
x
M and
Y
y
M . The design moment,
X
M in x-
direction and in y-direction is given by is given by,
=
X
M
2 2
+ ) M ( ) M (
X
y
X
x
and
=
Y
M
2 2
+ ) M ( ) M (
Y
y
Y
x

These two orthogonal components are combined by
using SRSS rule. The graphical representation is
shown in Fig. 2b.

8.6 - Damping and soil Properties C8.6 - Damping and soil properties
8.6.1 - Damping
In general, 5% damping shall be considered.

C8.6.1 Damping
Damping value of 5% is suggested for all types of
bridges. It is expected that in most of the bridges,
substructure will be of concrete.
8.6.1.1-
If well foundation is used, then 10% damping shall
be used.

C8.6.1.1
Generally piers are considered fixed at the top of the
well foundation, i.e., foundation is considered to be
rigid. For such models, increased damping of 10%
may be used to account for the additional energy
dissipation due to interaction between well
foundation and adjoining soil. Alternatively, a
rigorous soil-structure interaction analysis can be
performed by modeling the well foundation and the
surrounding soil.

Page 34

8.6.1.2-
In case the guard rails are effectively provided, on
single span of bridge upto 30 m length, 10 %
damping in longitudinal direction can be
considered. However, in the transverse direction
damping will not change.

C8.6.1.2-
Railway track along with effectively provided guard
rails provides a continuous load path in longitudinal
direction. Thus, for short bridges, they help in
enhancing the participation of abutment and
adjoining soil in the shaking in longitudinal
direction. Hence, damping is increased for 10% for
such cases. A similar provision is given in AREMA
for short bridges.
8.6.2 Increase in Allowable Pressure in
Soils
When earthquake force is included then allowable
pressure in soil and rock shall be increased as
stipulated in Table 5. Bearing pressure for
foundation and pile capacity shall be determined by
working stress method only.

C8.6.2 Increase in Allowable
Pressure in Soils
Many modern codes, e.g., the International Building
Code (IBC) 2000), classify the soil type as per
weighted average in top 30 m based on:
- Soil shear wave velocity, or
- Standard penetration resistance, or
- Soil un-drained shear strength
8.6.3-
The values for allowable bearing pressure in soil
given in Table 5 applies to the upper 30m of the soil
profile. Profiles containing distinctly different soil
layers shall be subdivided into layers, each
designated by a number that ranges from 1 (at the
top) to n (at the bottom), where there are a total of n
layers in the upper 30 meters, and a weighted
average will be obtained as follows:
=
=
=
n
1 i
i
i
n
1 i
i
N
d
d
N
where
=
n
i
i
d
1
is equal to 30 m, N
i
is the standard
penetration resistance of layer i, not to exceed 100
blows per 300 mm as directly measured in the field
without correcting, and d
i
is the thickness of any
layer i between 0 and 30m.
C8.6.3-
8.6.4 Soil Structure Interaction
Soil flexibility should be considered in the seismic
analysis of bridges, whenever deemed necessary.
C8.6.4 Soil Structure Interaction
Soil flexibility has beneficial as well as adverse
effect on seismic response of structures. Due to soil

Page 35

This is particularly important for foundations in soft
soil conditions and in cases where deep
foundations are used. Soil flexibility leads to longer
natural period and hence lowers seismic forces,
however, on the other hand, it results in larger
lateral deflections. Soil parameters, like, elastic
properties and spring constants shall be properly
estimated. In many cases, one gets a range of
values for soil properties. In such cases, the highest
values of soil stiffness shall be used for calculating
the natural period and seismic forces, and lowest
value shall be used for calculating the deflection.
flexibility, time period increases, which in turn, leads
to reduction in seismic forces. On the other hand, due
to soil flexibility the lateral deflection of structure
increases, which may require inclusion of P-Delta
effect in the analysis and may affect the stability of
the structure.

Page 36

Table 5 - Percentage of Permissible Increase in Allowable Bearing Pressure or Resistance of Soils
(Clause 8.6.3)

Sl
No.
Foundation Type of soil Mainly Constituting the Foundation

Type I Rock or Hard Soil Type II Stiff Soil Type III Soft Soils
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
i) Piles passing through any soil
but resting on soil type I
50 50 --
ii) Piles not covered under item i
-- 25 --
iii) Raft foundations
50 50 --
iv) Combined isolated RCC footing
with tie beams
50 25 --
v) Isolated RCC footing without tie
beams, or unreinforced strip
foundations.
50 25 --
vi) Well foundation
50 25 --
NOTES
1. The allowable bearing pressure shall be determined in accordance with IS 6403 or IS 1888.
2. If any increase in bearing pressure has already been permitted for forces other than seismic forces, the total increase in
allowable bearing pressure when seismic force is also included shall not exceed the limits specified above.
3. Desirable minimum field values of N- If soils of smaller N-values are met, compacting may be adopted to achieve these
values or deep pile foundations going to stronger strata should be used.
Seismic Zone
Level
Depth below
Ground (in
meters)
N-Values Remarks
III, IV and V
5
10
15
20
II (for important
Structures only)
5
10
15
20
For values of
depths between 5m
and 10m, linear
interpolation is
recommended.

4. The values of N (uncorrected values) are at the founding level and the allowable bearing pressure shall be determined in
accordance with IS 6403 or IS 1888.

5. The piles should be designed for lateral loads neglecting lateral resistance of soil layers liable to liquefy.
6. IS 1498 and IS 2131 may also be referred.

Type of soils
Soil Type Definition
Type I: Rock or Hard Soils
- Well graded gravel (GW) or well graded sand (SW) both with less than 5% passing 75 m
sieve (Fines);
- Well graded Gravel Sand mixtures with or without fines (GW-SW);
- Poorly graded Sand (SP) or clayey sand (SC), all having N above 30;
- Stiff to hard clays having N above 16, where N is the Standard Penetration Test value.
Type II: Stiff Soils
- Poorly graded sands or Poorly graded sands with gravel (SP) with little or no fines having

Page 37

N between 10 and 30;
- Stiff to medium stiff fine-grained soils, like Silts of Low compressibility (ML) or Clays of
Low Compressibility (CL) having N between 10 and 16.
Type III: Soft Soils
All soft soils other than SP with N<10. The various possible soils are
- Silts of Intermediate compressibility (MI);
- Silts of High compressibility (MH);
- Clays of Intermediate compressibility (CI);
- Clays of High compressibility (CH);
- Silts and Clays of Intermediate to High compressibility (MI-MH or CI-CH);
- Silt with Clay of Intermediate compressibility (MI-CI);
- Silt with Clay of High compressibility (MH-CH).

8.7 - Combination of Seismic
Design Forces with Other Forces
The design seismic force resultant at a cross-
section of a bridge component shall be
appropriately combined with those due to other
forces as per Table 12 of IRS Concrete Bridge
Code (2004). However, in lieu of combination 2 of
Clause 11.0 of IRS Concrete Bridge Code, following
load combinations shall be used :
(A) Ultimate limit state design
1) 1.25DL + 1.5 DL(S) +1.5EQ + 1.4 PS+ 1.7 EP
2) 1.25DL + 1.5DL(S) + 0.3 (LL + LL(F)) + 1.2EQ
+ 1.7 EP + 1.4PS + 1. 4HY + 1.4BO
3) 0.9DL + 0.8DL(S) + 1.5EQ + 1.4 PS + 1.7 EP
(B) Serviceability Limit State
1) 1.0 DL+1.2 DL(S) +1.0 EQ
2) 1.0 DL + 1.2 DL(S)+0.3(LL+LL(F))+1.0EQ
(C) During the construction stage, following load
combination shall be used:
1.0DL + 1.2DL(S) + 0.8EQ + 1.0ER + 1.3EP +
1.0PS + 1.0HY + 1.0BO
Where,
DL = dead load,
DL(S) = superimposed dead load,
LL = live load,
LL (F) = live load on footpath,
C8.7 - Combination of seismic
Design Forces with Other
Forces
For a very busy railway track, it is expected that on a
bridge, on an average a heavy train will pass once in
15 minutes. A train of 500 m length at a speed of 80
kmph will take about 30 sec to cross a bridge of 30 m
span. Thus, there is 1-in-30 chance that train will be
present on a bridge during earthquake. For other
scenario of train speeds and bridge lengths, the
probability of a train being on bridge at any time will
vary from 1- in- 20 to 1- in- 50. From this point of
view, the partial safety factor for live load is 0.3.
IRS Steel Bridge code and IRS Bridge Sub- structure
& Foundation code mention working stress method
for steel bridges and substructure and foundation.
When working stress method is used, the load
combination corresponding to Serviceability Limit
State shall be used. The increase in permissible
stresses as specified in the respective code may be
used for seismic load combinations. Here, it is to be
noted that although the earthquake loads have
increased but due to recognition of ductility and
flexibility and the rationalization of load
combinations and importance factor, one will still get
a reasonable design.
The load combination A3 is useful not only for
assessing the critical combination for overturning
effect but also for stress reversal effect. Earthquake
load include lateral as well as vertical amount as per
clause 8.5


Page 38

EQ = earthquake load,
EP = earth pressure,
ER = erection load such as cranes, machines etc.
PS = prestressing load,
HY = hydrodynamic load,
BO = buoyancy load, ,
SH = shrinkage load,
CR = creep load,
TE = temperature load.
The live load (LL) includes impact effect,
longitudinal forces (tractive and braking), and
centrifugal force.
The seismic load combinations from various codes
are listed below:
a) Existing IRS Concrete Code
IRS Concrete Code :
Ultimate Limit State
1) 1.4DL + 2.0DL(S) + 1.6EQ
2) 1.4DL + 2.0DL(S) + 1.25EQ + 1.7EP +
1.25LL(F) + 1.75LL
Serviceability Limit State
1) 1.0DL + 1.2DL(S) +1.0EQ
2) 1.0DL + 1.2DL(S) + 1.0EQ + 1.0LL(F) + 1.0 LL
b) AREMA
1.0 (DL + EP + BO + PS + EQ) -- Concrete Structure
1.0 (DL + EP + BO + EQ) --- Steel structure
c) AASHTO
(1.25 or 0.9) DC + (1.4 or 0.25) DD + (1.5 or 0.65)
DW + (1.5 or 0.9)EH + (1.35 or 0.9) EV + (1.5 or
0.75)ES + 1.0EL + 1.0PS + (1.25 or 0.9) CR + (1.25
or 0.9)SH + 0.5

( LL + IM + CE + BR + PL + LS ) +
WA+ FR +EQ
For permanent loads, the maximum and minimum
value of load factor is given. Designer shall use those
values which produce the most critical combination
or worst effect. For example, if load A produces
the effect opposite to that of load B, then,
minimum value of load factor shall be used for load
A along with the maximum value for load B.
d) TRANSIT (New Zealand)
1) (1.35 or 0.8)DL + EL +1.35EP+1.35OW + SG +
ST + EQ + 0.33TP+ GW

2) 1.35DL+ 1.35EL+1.35EP + 1.35OW + 1.35SG +
0.45EQ + 1.49CN + GW

DL + EL + GW + EP + OW + SG + ST + EQ +
0.33TP
DL + EL + GW + EP + OW + SG + 0.33EQ + CN


Page 39

e) Indian Road Congress (IRC)
1.0DL + 0.5LL + 0.5TR + 0.5BR + 1.0BO + 1.0EQ +
0.5CF + 1 EP + 1.0 WC + 1.0 IM + 1.0TE + 1.0 WP
+ 1.0 GE + 1.0DE+ 1.0 BF
For Construction Condition
1.0DL + 1.0BO + 0.5EQ + 1 EP + 1.0 WC + 1.0
Erection Effect

DC = dead load of structural components and
nonstructural elements, DD = downdrag force, DL =
dead load, DW = dead load of wearing surfaces and
utilities, EH = horizontal earth pressure load, EP =
earth pressure, ES = earth surcharge load, EL =
miscellaneous locked-in force effects resulting from
the construction process, including jacking apart of
cantilevers in segmental construction, EV = vertical
pressure from dead load of earth fill, PS = secondary
forces from post-tensioning, CR = force effects due
to creep, SH = force effect due to shrinkage, IM =
vehicular dynamic load allowance, CE = vehicular
centrifugal force, BR = vehicular breaking force, PL
= pedestrian live load, LS = live load surcharge, WA
= water load and stream pressure, FR = friction load,
EQ = earthquake load, OW = ordinary water pressure
and buoyancy, SG = shortening effects, ST =
settlement, CN = construction loads, including loads
on an incomplete structure, TR = tractive effect, BR
= breaking effect, TE = temperature effect, GE =
grade effect, BF = bearing friction, WC = water
current, WP = wave pressure.
8.8 - Vertical Motions
The seismic zone factor for vertical ground motions,
when required (see Clause 6.8.1), may be taken as
two-thirds of that for horizontal motions given in
Table 3.

C8.8 - Vertical Motions
Usually the vertical motion is weaker than the
horizontal motion. On an average, peak vertical
acceleration is one-half to two-thirds of the peak
horizontal acceleration. While the 1984 edition of IS
1893 and existing Bridge Rules specify vertical
coefficient as one-half of horizontal, in the 2002
edition of IS 1893 peak vertical acceleration has
been specified as two-thirds of the peak horizontal
acceleration.
8.8.1-
For superstructure with span upto 80 m, the effect
of vertical motion can be considered by analyzing
C8.8.1-
Long span bridges are more sensitive to vertical
motion and analysis for vertical acceleration shall be

Page 40

the superstructure for 25% additional dead weight
in upward and downward direction.
carried out. For spans less than 80 m, simplified
approach, taken form CALTRANS is suggested.
8.8.2-
For superstructure with span more than 80m,
analysis for vertical ground motion shall be done.
Such analysis requires time period of
superstructure in vertical direction. Time period for
the superstructure has to be worked out separately
using the property of the superstructure, in order to
estimate the seismic acceleration coefficient (Sa/g)
for vertical acceleration. It can be done by free
vibration analysis of superstructure using standard
structural analysis software. However, for simply
supported superstructure with uniform flexural
rigidity, the fundamental time period T
v
, for vertical
motion can be estimated using the expression
EI
m
L
T
V
2
2
= , where L is the span, m is the
mass per unit length, and EI is the flexural rigidity of
the superstructure.
When ultimate limit state is used, effective flexure
rigidity equal to 50% of gross flexural rigidity shall
be taken for concrete superstructure (RC and
Prestressed girders, slab decks).
C8.8.2-
Vertical component of ground shaking can make the
superstructure to vibrate in vertical plane. In short
span bridges, superstructure will be quite rigid and
its time period will be very low. However, in long
span bridges, superstructure could be flexible. For
continuous superstructure, time period of
superstructure can be obtained by modeling it using
general purpose structural analysis software.

8.8.3
For locations, within 10 km of active fault, seismic
zone factor for vertical ground motion may be taken
as equal to that for horizontal motion. (which shall
include the 20% increase in horizontal PGA as per
Clause 8.1.1).
C8.8.3
In the regions very close to active fault, ground
motion characteristics could be quite different. In
near-source regions, seismic hazards shall be based
on detailed geological study of fault and local site
condition. In absence of such detailed study, the
zone factor for vertical motion is taken as same as
that for horizontal motion. It is to be noted that, for
such near source locations, the zone factor for
horizontal motion has already been enhanced by
20%. Thus, the zone factor for the horizontal and
vertical motion in zone V would be 0.36 x 1.2 =
0.432g.


Page 41

PROVISIONS
COMMENTARY
9. Seismic Coefficient Method
(Single mode Method)
The method can be employed by using the
following step-wise procedure:
a) Obtain the horizontal elastic acceleration
coefficient due to design earthquake, which is
same for all components. (Clause 9.1)
b) Obtain the seismic weight of each component.
(Clause 8.4)
c) Obtain the seismic inertia forces generated in
each component by multiplying quantities in (a)
and (b) above. (Clause 9.2.1)
d) Apply these inertia forces generated in each of
the components at the center of mass of the
corresponding component, and conduct a
linear elastic analysis of the entire bridge
structure to obtain the stress resultants at each
cross-section of interest.
e) Obtain the design stress resultants in any
component by dividing the maximum elastic
stress resultants obtained in (d) above by the
response reduction factor prescribed for that
component. (Clause 9.3)
C9.0 Seismic Coefficient
Method (Single mode Method)
The seismic coefficient method is applicable for
bridges as described in Clause 8.3.


Page 42

PROVISIONS
COMMENTARY
9.1 - Elastic Seismic Acceleration
Coefficient
The Elastic Seismic Acceleration Coefficient A
h
due
to design earthquake along a considered direction
shall be obtained as
2
a
h
S Z
A I
g
=
where
Z = Zone Factor, given in Table 3,
I = Importance Factor, given in Table 4,
a
S
g
= Spectrum Acceleration Coefficient along the
considered direction given as follows:

For rocky, or hard soil sites (Type I)
=
33 . 0
/ 00 . 1
50 . 2
T
g
S
a

00 . 3
00 . 3 40 . 0
40 . 0
>
< s
s
T
T
T

For medium soil sites (Type II)
=
45 . 0
/ 36 . 1
50 . 2
T
g
S
a

00 . 3
00 . 3 55 . 0
55 .. 0
>
< s
s
T
T
T

For soft soil sites (Type III)

=
56 . 0
/ 67 . 1
50 . 2
T
g
S
a

00 . 3
00 . 3 67 . 0
67 . 0
>
< s
s
T
T
T

T = Fundamental natural period of the bridge along
the considered direction.
The soil types are described in Table 5.
A plot of
a
S
g
is given in Fig.3 for 5% damping. For
other damping values, the multiplying factors are
given in Table 6.

C9.1 - Elastic Seismic Acceleration
Coefficient
As compared to the existing Bridge Rules, here, new
zone map as per IS 1893(Part 1) and response
spectrum similar to IS 1893 (Part 1):2002 is used.
Zone Factor (Z)
Refer commentary of Clause 8.1
Importance Factor (I)
Refer commentary of Clause 8.2
Spectrum Acceleration Coefficient (Sa/g)
This is obtained from the design response spectrum,
which is a plot of maximum acceleration of structure
as a function of time period of structure. The time
period of bridge, depends on its flexibility, and
hence, spectrum acceleration coefficient accounts for
the effect of flexibility of the bridge on the design
acceleration. This design acceleration spectrum is
same as the one given in IS 1893 (Part 1):2002,
except for its variation in short period range, i.e.
T<0.1 sec and in long period range, i.e., T > 3 sec.
As compared to the spectrum of IS 1893 (Part 1), in
the short period range (0 < T < 0.1), the ascending
portion of the spectrum has been replaced by a
constant value. This implies that between 0 to 0.1
sec, the value of spectrum acceleration will be on
higher side. There are several reasons for this
conservatism. For instance, ductility does not help in
reducing the maximum forces if natural period is in
this range of 0 - 0.1 sec. Hence, it is necessary to
raise the level of spectrum in this range. Also, since
the acceleration response spectrum has a very steep
slope in the range 0-0.1 sec, any small
underestimation of the natural period T may lead to a
significant reduction in the seismic force. In the long
period range, the 1/T variation has been replaced by
constant value, which essentially ensures certain
minimum level of design acceleration even for very
flexible structures.
Damping Factors
The design acceleration spectrum given in Figure 3 is
for damping value of 5 percent of critical damping.
Ordinates for other values of damping can be
obtained by multiplying the value for 5 percent
damping with the factors given in Table 6. These
factors are same as those given in IS 1893 (Part
1):2002.

Page 43

PROVISIONS
COMMENTARY

Table 6 Multiplying Factors for Other Damping
percentages

Damping % Factors
0 3.20
2 1.40
5 1.0
7 0.90
10 0.80
15 0.70
20 0.60
25 0.55
30 0.50

9.1.1 Fundamental Natural Period
Fundamental time period of the bridge member is to
be calculated by any rational method of analysis.
The fundamental period can also be calculated by
the method given below:
(1) For simply supported bridges, the design
vibration unit consists of one pier and a
superstructure portion supported by it. The
fundamental natural period T shall be
C9.1.1 - Fundamental Natural Period
In simply supported bridges, one pier along with
appropriate weight of adjoining spans constitute one
design vibration unit and is idealized as single-
degree-of-freedom (SDOF) system. Figure C3a and
Fig. C3b respectively show design vibration unit in
longitudinal and transverse directions. Considering
pier to be a cantilever, the lateral deflection, o due to
S
p
e
c
t
r
u
m

A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

C
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

(
S
a
/
g
)

Fundamental Natural Period T (s)
Fig. 3 Response Spectrum for 5% damping
for Seismic Coefficient Method (Clause 9.0)

Page 44

PROVISIONS
COMMENTARY
calculated from the following equation:
T 2 =
Where, o = displacement in meter at the acting
position of inertial force of the superstructures
when the force corresponding to the full weight
of superstructure, appropriate amount of live
load, and 80% weight of the substructure is
assumed to act in the direction of inertial force.
Alternatively, the fundamental natural period T
(in seconds) of pier/abutment of the bridge
along a horizontal direction may be estimated
by the following expression:
2
1000
W
T
F
=
W = Full Wight of the superstructure, 80%
weight of substructure, and appropriate amount
of live load in kN.
F = Horizontal force in kN required to be
applied at the centre of mass of superstructure
for one mm horizontal deflection at the top of
pier/abutment for the earthquake in the
transverse direction, and the force to be
applied at the top of the bearings for the
earthquake in the longitudinal direction.
(2) For multi-span integral bridges (continuous
bridges), the design vibration unit consists of a
number of substructures and superstructure
portions supported by it (Fig. C-3c). The
fundamental natural period (T ) shall be
calculated by any suitable method. For
example, Rayleighs method may be used as
follows:
2 = T

( )
}
}
=
ds s u s W
ds s u s W
2
) ( ) (
) (
o
( ) = s W Weight of the superstructure and
substructure at position s (kN)
= ) (s u Displacement at position s caused in the
acting direction of inertial force when the
force corresponding to the weight of the
superstructure and substructure above the
lateral force P, can be obtained as
eff
p
EI
PH
3
3
= o

In the seismic weight, full weight of superstructure
(pier) shall be considered. However, when a single
pier and corresponding superstructure is idealized as
SDOF system, only 80% weight of substructure
(pier) is considered. This is so, because the
distributed weight of the pier is lumped at the top
level. During lateral ground motion, the lateral
seismic force on pier would be distributed along its
height. In the SDOF model, the lateral seismic force
corresponding to pier weight is to be lumped at the
top and hence only 80% pier weight is included in
the seismic weight. The appropriate amount of live
load implies that 50% live load in transverse
direction and no live load in longitudinal direction.
In response spectrum analysis (Clause 10.0), where
free vibration analysis is carried out to obtain natural
time period, total weight of substructure is
considered.

Continuous bridge; F = fixed and M = movable bearings
Fig. C3a Design vibration unit in longitudinal
direction

Fig. C3b Design vibration unit in transverse
For transverse direction

Page 45

PROVISIONS
COMMENTARY
ground surface for seismic design is assumed
to act in the acting direction of inertial force.
Note - In general pier shall be considered fixed at the
foundation level. However, in case of soft soil or
deep foundations, soil flexibility may be considered
in the calculation of fundamental natural period as
per the Clause 8.6.4.

For some standard bridge spans , with specified pier
geometry and heavy mineral loading, time periods
are given in Table C1.The values give some idea
about the range of time periods of simply supported
railway bridges

Table C1 Time period of some standard railway
bridges
L. = Longitudinal direction
T. = Transverse direction
Following assumption are made in the above
calculations:
1) Pier diameter is 1.5 m for pier of 6 m and 8 m
height.
Pier diameter is 2 m for pier of 10 m, 12 m and 15
m height.
Pier diameter is 3 m for pier of 20 m, 25 m and 30
m height.
2) Seismic weight has been calculated as:
a) Longitudinal direction Total DL of
superstructure + 80 % DL of pier
b) Transverse direction - Total DL of
superstructure + 80 % DL of pier + 50 % LL
3) Effective moment of inertia, I
eff
= 0.75 I
g
Span
(m)
24.4
(HM Std)
45.7
(HM Std)
76.2
(HM Std)
Pier
ht.(m)
L. T. L. T. L. T.
6 0.21 0.38 0.30 0.51 0.45 0.69
8
0.34 0.60 0.47 0.79 0.70 1.07
10
0.32 0.50 0.41 0.65 0.57 0.86
12
0.44 0.67 0.55 0.86 0.77 1.13
15
0.65 0.96 0.81 1.22 1.10 1.60
20
0.67 0.82 0.74 0.97 0.90 1.20
25
1.03 1.23 1.12 1.42 1.33 1.73
30
1.46 1.71 1.57 1.95 1.83 2.35
For longitudinal direction
Fig. C-3c Design vibration unit for Continuous Bridge

Page 46

PROVISIONS
COMMENTARY
4) DL of superstructure and LL for heavy mineral
loading is taken from RDSOs design document
9.1.1.1-
For ultimate limit state, the cracked flexural stiffness
of reinforced concrete pier shall be used. The
cracked flexural stiffness is the initial slope of the
moment curvature (M-|) curve and is given by

where,
M
y
is the moment capacity of the column/pier
section at the first yield of the reinforcing steel, and
y
is the yield curvature.
In the absence of more rigorous estimate, effective
moment of inertia, I
eff
, can be taken as 0.75 times
gross moment of inertia, I
g
.
C9.1.1.1-
CALTRANS, AASSHTO and Eurocode use cracked
flexural stiffness. For piers/columns which are
compression members, the effective flexural stiffness
is considered to be 0.5 to 0.7 times gross flexural
stiffness, depending on the level of axial stress.

9.2 - Maximum Elastic Forces and
Deformations
The inertia forces due to mass of each component
or portion of the bridge as obtained from Clause
9.2.1 shall be applied at the center of mass of the
corresponding component or portion of the bridge.
A linear static analysis of the bridge shall be
performed for these applied inertia forces to obtain
the force resultants (e.g., bending moment, shear
force and axial force) and deformations (e.g.,
displacements and rotations) at different locations
in the bridge. The stress resultants
V
e
and
deformations so obtained are the maximum elastic
force resultants (at the chosen cross-section of the
bridge component) and the maximum elastic
deformations (at the chosen nodes in the bridge
structure), respectively.

C9.2 - Maximum Elastic Forces and
Deformations
The seismic forces, thus obtained on each component
of bridge are used in linear static analysis of bridge
to obtain the response quantities such as bending
moment, shear force, axial force and deformation.
An adequate mathematical model of bridge shall be
made and seismic forces shall be applied at the
centre of mass of each component. Mathematical
model of 2-span bridge is shown in Fig C3. Here
piers (or column) are modeled by three frame
elements. Likewise superstructure is modeled using
four frame elements. Such mathematical model can
also be analyzed by using standard structural analysis
software. Seismic forces along with various loads
(such as DL, LL) shall be applied on the model and
analysis shall be done to obtain the response
quantities (bending moment, shear force, axial force
and deformation).

Element
Node
Fig C3:- Mathematical Model of Bridge
y
y
eff c
M
I E =

Page 47

PROVISIONS
COMMENTARY

9.2.1- Inertia Force Due to Mass of Each
Bridge Component
The inertia force due to the mass of each bridge
component (e.g., superstructure, substructure and
foundation) under earthquake ground shaking along
any direction shall be obtained from
e
h
F A W =
where
A
h
= Elastic Seismic Acceleration Coefficient along
the considered direction of shaking obtained
as per Clause 9.1, and
W = Seismic weight as discussed in Clause 8.4.
C9.2.1 - Inertia Force Due to Mass of
Each Bridge Component
The inertia force due to the mass of a bridge
component under earthquake ground shaking in a
particular direction depends on the elastic seismic
acceleration coefficient computed for shaking along
that direction. Clearly, this acceleration coefficient
will be different along different directions owing to
different natural periods along those directions.
Moreover, seismic weight will also be different in
the longitudinal and transverse directions due to
different amount of live load in the two directions.

9.2.2- Elastic Seismic Acceleration
Coefficient for Portions of
Foundations below Scour Depth
For portions of foundations at depths of 30m or
below from the scour depth (as defined in Clause
14.1), the inertia forces as defined in Clause 9.2.1
due to that portion of the foundation mass may be
computed using the elastic acceleration coefficient
taken as 0.5A
h
, where A
h
is as obtained from
Clause 9.2.
For portions of foundations placed between the
scour depth and 30m below the scour depth, the
inertia force as defined in Clause 9.2.1 due to that
portion of the foundation mass may be computed
using the elastic seismic acceleration coefficient
obtained by linearly interpolating between the value
A
h
at scour depth and 0.5A
h
at a depth 30 m below
scour depth, where A
h
is as specified in Clause 9.2.
C9.2.2 - Elastic Seismic Acceleration
Coefficient for Portions of
Foundations below Scour Depth
The propagation of waves within the body of the
earth is modified at the surface of the earth owing to
the wave reflections at the boundary surface. For this
reason, it is generally accepted that the shaking is
relatively more violent at the surface, than below the
ground. Hence, the guidelines permit reduction in the
elastic seismic acceleration coefficient A
h
for portions
of foundations below scour depth.
9.3 - Design Seismic Force
Resultants for Bridge
Components
The design seismic force resultant V at a cross-
section of a bridge component due to earthquake
shaking along a considered direction shall be given
C9.3 - Design Seismic Force
Resultants for Bridge
Components
Response Reduction Factor
The basic philosophy of earthquake resistant design
is that a structure should not collapse under strong

Page 48

PROVISIONS
COMMENTARY
by
R
V
V
e
=
where
e
V = Maximum elastic force resultant at the
chosen cross-section of that bridge
component from Clause 9.2, and
R = Response Reduction Factor for the component
as given in Table 7.
Response Reduction Factor shall not be applied for
calculation of design displacements.

earthquake shaking, although it may undergo some
structural as well as non-structural damage. Thus, a
bridge is designed for much less force than what
would be required if it were to be necessarily kept
elastic during the entire shaking. Clearly, structural
damage is permitted but should be such that the
structure can withstand these larger deformations
without collapse. Thus, two issues come into picture,
namely (a) ductility, i.e., the capacity to withstand
deformations beyond yield, and (b) over strength.
Over strength is the total strength including the
additional strength beyond the nominal design
strength considering actual member dimensions and
reinforcing bars adopted, partial safety factors for
loads and materials, strain hardening of reinforcing
steel, confinement of concrete, presence of masonry
in fills, increased strength under cyclic loading
conditions, redistribution of forces after yield owing
to redundancy, etc. Hence, the response reduction
factors R used to reduce the maximum elastic forces
to the design forces reflect these above factors.
Clearly, the different bridge components have
different ductility and over strength. For example,
the superstructure has no or nominal axial load in it,
and hence its basic behavior is that of flexure.
However, the substructure (piers) which is subjected
to significant amount of axial load undergoes a
combined axial load-flexure behavior. It is well
known that piers are much more ductile than the
superstructures. Also, the damage to the substructure
is more detrimental to the post-earthquake
functioning of the bridge than damage to the
superstructure. In the second case, the span alone
may have to be replaced, while the first requires
replacement of the entire bridge and minor
modifications may not help. Thus, the R factors for
superstructures are kept at a lower value than those
for substructures. The superstructure is essentially
expected to behave elastically and hence R value is
taken as unity. A similar argument can be given for
the R values of foundations which are also lower
than those for substructures.
An important issue is that of connections, which
usually do not have any significant post-yield
behavior that can be safely relied upon. Also, there is
no redundancy in them. Besides, there is a possibility
of the actual ground acceleration during earthquake
shaking exceeding the values reflected by the seismic
zone factor Z. In view of these aspects, the
connections are designed for the maximum elastic
forces (and more) that are transmitted through them.

Page 49

PROVISIONS
COMMENTARY
Thus, the R factors for connections are recommended
to have values less than or equal to 1.0.
The R values for ductile frame type pier is taken as
3.25 as against 2.5 for single pier. For ductile RC
buildings, the value of R is 5.0 (IS1893 (Part
1:2002)). The lower value of R for pier is due to less
redundancy as compared to buildings and non-
availability of alternate load path. In American code
the value for ductile frame type pier is 5.0 as
compared to R = 8 for ductile RC building frames. In
Eurocode the behavior factor, q is taken as 3.5 for
ductile RC pier as against 5.0 for ductile RC building.
It is expected that ductile structural forms,
particularly for substructures are inevitably used in
all important bridges and in high seismic zones. As
has been observed in the past earthquakes, ductile
structures out-perform non-ductile structures even
though they may have been designed for lower force.


Page 50

PROVISIONS
Table 7: Response Reduction Factor R for Bridge Components and Connections
R
Substructure
RCC Piers with ductile detailing
- Single Column, Wall Type 2.5
- Frame Type 3.25
RCC Piers without ductile detailing
- Single Column, Wall Type 2.0
- Frame Type 2.5
Steel Framed Construction 2.5
Steel Framed Piers (with properly designed cross bracings) 3.5
Masonry/PCC piers (unreinforced )* 1.5
RCC Abutment 2.0
Masonry/PCC Abutment 1.5
Connections (including bearings)
Superstructure to abutment 0.8
Superstructure to column or pier 1
Columns or piers to foundations 1
Expansion joints within a span of the superstructure 0.8
Superstructure 1.0
Foundations ** 1.5
* This pier is not allowed in seismic zone IV and V
** For stability analysis of well foundation by conventional method, seismic forces can be
further reduced by a factor of 2.0.
Notes: 1. Response reduction factor is not to be applied for the calculation of displacements.
2. R value for foundations, also refer Clause 15.1
3. For connections, also refer Clause 16.1.1
4. Usually superstructure are rigid and are unlikely to posses much ductility, and they are
usually designed for elastic forces. However, if Earthquake forces with R=1 , are very
high and if they govern the design of superstructure ,then one should obtain the
maximum load carrying capacity of the pier ( which is designed as ductile member), and
superstructure shall be designed for the forces equal to maximum load carrying capacity
of the ductile member i.e. pier.


Page 51

10. Response Spectrum
Method (Multi mode Method)
The Response Spectrum Method requires the
evaluation of natural periods and mode shapes of
several modes of vibration of the structure. This
method requires dynamic analysis, by a
competent structural engineer.
C10.0 - Response Spectrum
Method (Multi mode
Method)
Every structure has finite number of modes of
vibrations. For example, a 2-DOF system has two mode
shapes as shown in Fig C5. The natural time period
corresponding to the k
th
mode is called natural time
period (T
k
) of k
th
mode.

For obtaining the natural frequencies and mode shapes,
free vibration analysis (also called eigen value analysis)
of the structure is to be carried out.
In seismic coefficient method (single mode method),
only one mode of vibration was considered. The time
period for this mode was obtained in a very simplistic
fashion (Clause 9.1.1) without performing the free
vibration analysis. In response spectrum method, the
natural periods and mode shapes obtained using free
vibration analysis are used to obtain seismic force.
Sufficient number of modes shall be used so that sum
of modal mass of considered modes is more than 90%
of the total mass of the structure.
10.1 - Elastic Seismic
Acceleration Coefficient in Mode
k
The elastic seismic acceleration coefficient
k
A
for mode k shall be determined by:
( )
k a k
g / S I
Z
A =
2

where Z and I are as defined in Clause 8.1, and
C10.1 - Elastic Seismic Acceleration
Coefficient in Mode k
For the fundamental mode of vibration i.e., the first
mode of vibration, the shape of acceleration response
spectrum is same as the one used in the seismic
coefficient method. However, for higher modes (i.e., k
> 1), the ascending part of the spectrum between 0 to
0.1 sec can be used. Since, the fundamental mode
makes the most significant contribution to the overall
response and the contribution of higher modes is
2-DOF Model 1
st
Mode Shape 2
nd
Mode Shape
Fig C5 2-DOF Model and Mode Shapes

Page 52

k
a
g
S
|
|
.
|
\
|
is the seismic acceleration coefficient for
mode k given by expression
For rocky, or hard soil sites (Type I)
<
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
00 3 33 0
00 3
40 0 50 2
.
k
T .
.
k
T 0.40
k
1.00/T
.
k
T .
k
g
a
S

For medium soil sites (Type II)
<
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
0 3 45 0
00 3
55 0 50 2
.
k
T .
.
k
T 0.55
k
1.36/T
.
k
T .
k
g
a
S

F For soft soil sites (Type III)

<
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
00 3 56 0
00 3
67 0 50 2
.
k
T .
.
k
T 0.67
k
1.67/T
.
k
T .
k
g
a
S

where
k
T is the natural period of vibration of mode
k of the bridge. For modes other than the
fundamental mode, the bridge flexibility factor
k
a
g
S
|
|
.
|
\
|
for sec . T
k
1 0 s may be taken
as:
k
k
a
T
g
S
15 1+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|

A plot of
k
a
g
S
|
|
.
|
\
|
versus T
k
is given in Fig. 4 for 5%
damping. Table 6 gives the multiplying factors for
obtaining spectral values for various other
damping percentages.

relatively small, this is now permitted by several codes.
Damping factor
For higher modes, the value of acceleration response
spectrum at T = 0 will remain unity irrespective of the
damping value. Ordinates for other values of damping
can be obtained by multiplying the value for 5 percent
damping with the factors given in Table 5. Note that
the acceleration spectrum ordinate at zero period equals
peak ground acceleration regardless of the damping
value. Hence, the multiplication should be done for T
0.1sec only. For T = 0, multiplication factor will be 1,
and values for 0T<0.1sec should be interpolated
accordingly.


Page 53

| | m

10.2 - Inertia Force due to Mass
of Bridge at Node j in Mode k
The effect of seismic shaking can be quantified as
concentrated seismic inertia forces and moment
corresponding to the translational and rotational
degrees of freedom, respectively, at each node of
the discretised model of the bridge structure (a
typical descritised model is shown in Fig. C3).
Each mode of vibration contributes to these
seismic inertia forces and moments. The
maximum elastic force at j
th
node in k
th
mode is
given by
F
k
j
= m
j
k
P
k
A
k
g

The force vector
{ }
e
k
F of maximum elastic inertia
forces at different nodes in mode k of vibration
due to earthquake shaking along a considered
direction shall be obtained as:

{ } | |{ }
e
k k k k
F m P A g =
where = Seismic mass matrix of the bridge
structure, as defined in Clause 10.2.1,
{ }
k
= Mode shape vector of vibration mode k of
the bridge structure obtained from free
vibration analysis,
k
P = Modal participation factor of vibration
mode k of the bridge structure for a given
direction of earthquake shaking
C10.2 - Inertia Force due to Mass of
Bridge at Node j in Mode k
The expression for force at j
th
node in k
th
mode k is
obtained through a routine solution procedure for
analysis of elastic structures subjected to seismic
ground motion represented by its pseudo-acceleration
response spectrum. The mathematical model of the
bridge structure (Fig. C3) should properly account for
all stiffness and masses. A suitable number of
intermediate nodes are required for each bridge
component to properly estimate the stress resultants
caused by the seismic inertia forces generated. In doing
so, it will be advantageous to follow the current
AASHTO code practices. Rotational moment of inertia
of certain masses in the bridge structure may become
important particularly in case of joint elements; the
same may be incorporated in the matrix of seismic
weights as mass moment of inertia times acceleration
due to gravity.

S
p
e
c
t
r
u
m

A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

C
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

(
S
a
/
g
)
k

Natural Period (T
k
)
Fig. 4 Acceleration response spectrum for 5%
damping to be used for response spectrum
method
To be used for k =
To be used for k > 1

Page 54

=
{ } | |{ }
{ } | |{ }
1
T
k
T
k k
m
m

= ,
k
A = Elastic seismic acceleration coefficient for
mode k as defined in Clause 10.1,
g = Acceleration due to gravity, and
{} 1 = Vector consisting of unity (one) associated
with translational degrees of freedom in
the considered direction of shaking, and
zero associated with all other degrees of
freedom.
10.2.1 Seismic Mass Matrix
The seismic mass matrix of the bridge structure
shall be constructed by considering its seismic
mass lumped at the nodes of discretisation. The
seismic mass of each bridge component shall be
estimated as per Clause 8.4, and shall be
proportionally distributed to the nodes of
discretisation of that bridge component.
C10.2.1 - Seismic Mass Matrix
The seismic weight of each bridge component is
proportionally distributed to its end and intermediate
nodes as lumped masses considering its geometry.
These lumped masses are used to form the matrix of
seismic weights keeping in mind that the mass lumped
at a node contributes to all the translational degrees of
freedom at that node

Page 55

10.3 - Maximum Elastic Forces
and Deformations
The maximum elastic seismic forces in mode k
obtained from Clause 10.2 shall be applied on the
bridge and a linear static analysis of the bridge
shall be performed to evaluate the maximum
elastic force resultants
e
k
F (e.g., bending moment,
shear force and axial force) and the maximum
elastic deformations (e.g., displacements and
rotations) in mode k at different locations (or
nodes) in the bridge for a considered direction of
earthquake shaking.
The maximum elastic force resultants
e
net
F and the
maximum elastic deformations, due to all modes
considered, for the considered direction of
earthquake shaking, shall be obtained by
combining those due to the individual modes as
follows:
(a) If the structure does not have closely-spaced
modes, then the maximum response due to all
modes considered may be estimated by the
square root of sum of squares (SRSS) method as:
( )
=
=
m
k
k
1
2

where
k
= Absolute value of response in mode k, and
m = Number of modes being considered

(b) If the structure has a few closely-spaced
modes, then the maximum response (
*
) due to
these modes shall be obtained by the absolute
sum method as:
=
=
r
c
c
1

*

where the summation is for the closely-spaced
modes only. This maximum response due to
closely-spaced modes (
*
) is then combined with
those of the remaining well-separated modes by
the square root of sum of square (SRSS) method
in a) above.
C10.3 - Maximum Elastic Forces
and Deformations
The modal response quantities (e.g., bending moment,
shear force, axial force, displacements and rotations at
any location of the bridge) in each mode k need to be
combined to obtain the maximum response due to all
modes considered. Studies on modal response
combinations show that when modal frequencies are
well-separated, the Square Root of Sum of Squares
(SRSS) Method provides reasonable estimates. If two
modal frequencies are separated from each other upto
or equal to 10% of the smaller one, then the two modes
may be termed as closely-spaced modes. However,
when modal frequencies are closely-spaced or nearly
closely-spaced, the SRSS method gives poor results.
There is another method for modal combination,
called, Complete Quadratic Coefficient (CQC)
Method. This method provides in general, reasonably
good estimates of the overall response, irrespective of
whether the modal frequencies are closely-spaced or
well-separated. However, the CQC method assumes
that the modal damping ratio is same for all the modes
of vibration. In case it is not so, reference shall be
made to literature for suitable expressions for modal
response combination.


Page 56

10.3.1
The number of modes to be considered in the
analysis shall be such that at least 90% of the total
seismic mass of the structure is included in the
calculations of response for earthquake shaking
along each principal direction. If modes with
natural frequency beyond 33 Hz are to be
considered, modal combination (Clause 10.3 (a)
and 10.3 (b)) shall be carried out only for modes
with natural frequency less than 33 Hz. Modes
with natural frequency exceeding 33 Hz shall be
treated as rigid modes and accounted for through
missing mass correction discussed below:
At degree of freedom j, the missing mass is given
by
1
(1 )
n
j j k kj j
k
C m P m
=
=
where
=
k
P Modal participation factor for mode k,
=
kj
Mode shape coefficient for j
th
, degree of
freedom in k
th
mode of vibration
=
j
m Total mass of the j
th
mode,
=
j
c Fraction of missing mass for j
th
mode.
Lateral force associated with missing mass is
|
.
|
\
|
= I
Z
m c F
j j
missing
j
2

The structure will be statically analyzed for this set
of lateral inertial forces and response
g sin mis
will
be obtained. The response
g sin mis
will be
combined with response for flexible modes by
the square root of sum of square (SRSS) method
in a) above.

C10.3.1-
Standard text books on structural dynamics cover
details of response spectrum method, number of modes
to be included and missing mass corrections.

10.4 - Design Seismic Force
Resultants in Bridge
Components
The design seismic force resultant
net
V at any
cross-section in a bridge component for a
considered direction of earthquake shaking shall
Resultants in Bridge Components
As discussed in the commentary of 9.3, various
components of the bridge do not enjoy the same level
of ductility and over strength. Hence, the level of
design seismic force vis--vis the maximum elastic
force that will be experienced by the component if the
entire bridge were to behave linearly elastic, varies for

Page 57

be determined as

R
F
V
e
net
net
=
where the maximum elastic force resultant
e
net
F
due to all modes considered is as obtained in
Clause 10.3, and Response Reduction Factor R of
that component of bridge is as per Table 7.
However, Response Reduction Factor shall not be
applied for calculation of design displacements.

10.5 - Multi-directional Shaking
When earthquake ground shaking is considered
along more than one direction, the design seismic
force resultants obtained from Clause 9.3 or 10.4
at a cross-section of a bridge component due to
earthquake shaking in each considered direction,
shall be combined as per Clause 8.5.

different bridge components. The values of the
response reduction factor R given in Table 7 reflect the
same.

C10.5- Multi-directional Shaking


Page 58

11. Time History Method
In Time History Method, dynamic analysis of
bridge is carried out for specified earthquake
ground motion. In this method, dynamic response
(i.e. response varying with time) is obtained.
C11.0 Time History Method
In Seismic Coefficient Method and Response Spectrum
Method, static seismic forces are obtained, and static
analysis is carried out to obtain the response. However
in Time History Method, dynamic analysis of
mathematical model using ground motion time history
is performed and dynamic response is obtained.
11.1 - Modeling of Bridge
In order to carryout time history analysis, a
suitable mathematical model of the bridge shall be
developed. The model shall adequately represent
the mass distribution and stiffness of
superstructure, bearings, pier, abutment and
foundation. The damping characteristics shall also
be adequately included in the model. For analysis
in transverse direction, 50% mass of live load shall
be included in the model. The pier can be
considered to be fixed at the foundation level.

C11.1 Modeling of Bridge
The mathematical model of bridge using frame
elements for pier and deck is shown in Fig C3. The pier
is divided in three elements. General purpose finite
element software can be used to accurately model the
mass, stiffness and damping properties of bridge. The
column could be considered fixed at the top of the
foundation irrespective of scour depth. (Fig. C6)

11.2 - Analysis
Analysis may be carried out using modal
superposition method or direct numerical
integration. In modal superposition method, the
number of modes shall be such that more than
90% of bridge mass shall participate in the
direction under consideration. Time step to be
used in the analysis shall be suitably chosen and
sensitivity of the solution to time step shall be
ascertained.
C11.2 Analysis
Modal superposition method can be used for linear
analysis only. Direct numerical integration can be used
for linear as well as nonlinear analysis. Time step shall
be less than the one twentieth of the time period of
highest mode. Time step will also depend on frequency
content of the input ground motion.

Pier
Fig. C6 - Pier Fixed at top of foundation
h
Normal ground level
Ground level
after scour

Page 59

11.3 - Ground Motion
Ground acceleration time histories shall have
characteristics that are representative of seismic
environment of the site and local site conditions.
Time histories from actual recorded events with
similar magnitude, fault distance and local site
condition shall be selected.
The ground motions selected shall have peak
ground acceleration value of Z x I, where, Z is
zone factor and I is importance factor. At least
three ground motions shall be used, and
maximum response of the three cases, shall be
taken as design value. If more than seven time
histories are used, then, average response can be
used as design value.
C11.3 Ground Motion
Seismic environment characteristics to be considered
are: Tectonic environment, earthquake magnitude, type
of fault, seismic source to site distance, local site
conditions.
It is desirable that time histories recorded during events
with similar magnitude and source-to-site distance shall
be used.
Expertise will be needed in selecting time histories to
be used in time history analysis.
11.3.1 Scaling of Time Histories
Time histories to be used in the analysis, shall be
suitably scaled so as to match the design
response spectra. The response spectra of time
history shall be matched with the design spectra
given by
) g /
a
S ( I Z x ) T ( S =
The matching shall be such that the average
response spectra of the selected time histories
shall not be less than the above mentioned design
spectra in the periods ranging from 0.2T and 1.5T,
where T is the fundamental time period of the
bridge in the direction under consideration.

C 11.3.1 Scaling of Time Histories
It is desirable that the recorded ground motions selected
for the analysis have a response spectrum which has
overall level and shape similar to the design response
spectra. This would avoid very large scaling factors and
change in the spectral content of ground motions.
The factor corresponds to partial load factor used in
load combinations n clause 8.7.
11.3.2 Ground Motions for Two- and
Three-Dimensional Analysis
For 2-dimesional analysis, ground motion consists
of horizontal acceleration time history in the
direction under consideration. If vertical ground
motion is to be considered, then, vertical
acceleration time history is also used.
For 3-dimenstional analysis, ground motions
consist of pairs of time histories of appropriate
components of horizontal accelerations. For each
pair of horizontal acceleration time histories,
C11.3.2 Ground Motions for Two- and
Three-Dimensional Analysis
For a bridge with multi-column piers, the 2-
Dimensional model for longitudinal direction is shown
in Fig C7. For this model, the X-component of ground
motion will be used. For analysis in transverse
direction, the model is shown in Fig C8. For this
model, the Z-component of ground motion will be
used.
On the other hand, if 3-dimensional model of the bridge
is used Fig C9, then both the component will be applied

Page 60

SRSS response spectrum shall be obtained. This
SRSS response spectrum shall be scaled suitably
to match with the design response spectrum as
described in Clause 11.3.1. If required the vertical
acceleration time history shall also be considered.
together.

If required, the vertical component of ground motion
shall also be used along with the horizontal
components.
11.4 - Interpretation of Time
History Analysis Results
11.4 Interpretation of Time History
Analysis Results
11.4.1 Linear Analysis
From the time history of the response quantity of a
particular member, the maximum value will be the
design value. This maximum value shall be
divided by 2R, where R is the response reduction
factor for that member. While using this design
value in the load combination of Clause 8.7, the
factor 2.0 associated with earthquake load shall
not be used.
C11.4.1 Linear Analysis
The design response spectra is taken as ZI(S
a
/g), and
hence, response of each component for a particular load
combination is obtained by dividing the result by a
factor of 2R.
Fig C7- 2-Dimensional Model
for longitudinal Direction
Fig C8 - 2-Dimensional
Model for Transverse
Direction
Y
X
) t ( x
g

Y
Z
) t ( z
g

Fig C9 - 2-Dimensional Model of Bridge
) (t x
g

) (t z
g


Page 61

11.4.2 Nonlinear Analysis
Nonlinear analysis is used for verifying if the
provided strength is sufficient to accommodate the
expected inelastic deformation. For the nonlinear
analysis, the bridge model shall include nonlinear
properties.
In the analysis, ground motions in two directions
shall be applied simultaneously along with the
dead loads and other loads.
The results of nonlinear analysis shall not be
divided by factor 2R.
C11.4.2 Nonlinear Analysis
In nonlinear analysis, the bridge is analyzed for actual
earthquake ground motion and not the design
earthquake ground motion. Hence, results are not
divided by 2R.
Since nonlinearities in the structure will be explicitly
modeled in Nonlinear analysis, the division of 2R is not
done.


Page 62


12. Pushover Analysis
The design force is obtained by dividing the elastic
force by R value. In some instances, mentioned in
Table.1 energy dissipating capacity may be
ascertained by a push over analysis to ensure that
the required displacement demand is being met
with. The details regarding push over analysis are
given in Appendix E.

C12.0 Pushover Analysis


Page 63

13. Superstructure C13. - Superstructure
13.1-
The superstructure shall be designed for the
design seismic forces specified in Clauses 9.0 or
10.0 along with the other appropriate loads.
The superstructure shall be designed for lesser of
following forces:
a) Elastic seismic forces i.e. seismic forces with
R= 1.0
b) Forces developed when over strength plastic
moment hinges are formed in the
substructure. As described in Appendix A.
C13.1
For seismic analysis in lateral directions, seismic forces
will be governed by the time period of the combined
system of substructure and substructure. For obtaining
vertical forces on superstructure, time period of
superstructure will have to be obtained. Usually
superstructures are quite rigid in vertical direction,
except for long span bridges. The elastic seismic force
obtained as per Clause 9.0 or Clause 10.0 shall be
applied along with the other loads (like DL, LL, etc.)
on the mathematical model of the superstructure and
linear static analysis shall be carried out. If necessary,
the vertical seismic forces shall also be considered.
13.2 -
Under simultaneous action of horizontal and
vertical accelerations, the superstructure shall
have a factor of safety of at least 1.5 against
overturning. In this calculation, the forces to be
considered on the superstructure shall be the
maximum elastic forces generated in the
superstructure, as calculated using Clauses 9.2
and 10.3.
C13.2 -
Since the supporting width of the span in the transverse
direction is relatively small in comparison with that in
the longitudinal direction, overturning of
superstructures (that are resting on the substructure
without being monolithically connected) in the
transverse direction may be possible under the
combined action of seismic forces along transverse and
vertical directions. Of course, in these calculations, the
direction of vertical seismic force shall be taken so as
to produce the worst effect.
Railway bridges invariably contain guard rails, which
are likely to provide resistance to overturning in
transverse direction.
13.3 -
The superstructure shall be secured to the
substructure, particularly in seismic zones IV and
V, through vertical hold-down devices and anti-
dislodging elements in horizontal direction as
specified in Clauses 13.3.1 and 13.3.2,
respectively. These vertical hold-down devices
and anti-dislodging elements may also be used to
secure the suspended spans, if any, with the
restrained portions of the superstructure.
However, the frictional forces shall not be relied
upon in the design of these hold-down devices or
C13.3 -
This clause makes it mandatory in high seismic
regions to have suitable linking devices provided
between the superstructure and substructure if they had
not been monolithically connected, and between the
suspended spans, if any, and restrained portion of the
superstructure.
(a) vertical hold-down devices to prevent the
superstructure from lifting off from its supports
atop the substructure particularly under vertical
seismic forces combined with the transverse
seismic forces, and

Page 64

anti-dislodging elements.

(b) Horizontal linkage elements to prevent excessive
relative deformations between portions of the
superstructure or between the superstructure and
substructure.
The vertical hold down devices and anti-dislodging
elements provide second line of protection against
excessive displacements due to seismic loads. The anti-
dislodging elements shall be provided in longitudinal
as well as transverse direction, even if appropriate seat
width as per clause 16.3 is provided.
13.3.1 - Vertical Hold-Down Devices
In zone IV and V, vertical hold-down devices shall
be provided at all supports (or hinges in
continuous structures), where resulting vertical
force due to the maximum elastic horizontal and
vertical seismic forces (combined as per Clause
8.5) opposes and exceeds 50% of the dead load
reaction.
C13.3.1 - Vertical Hold-Down Devices
Vertical hold-down devices are considered essential to
minimize the potential of adverse effects (like uplifting
and overturning) of vertical seismic excitation. The
provisions for design force of vertical hold-down
devices have been adapted from the AASHTO code.

13.3.1.1 -
Where vertical force U, due to the combined effect
of maximum elastic horizontal and vertical seismic
forces, opposes and exceeds 50%, but is less
than 100%, of the dead load reaction D, the
vertical hold-down device shall be designed for a
minimum net upward force of 10% of the
downward dead load reaction that would be
exerted if the span were simply supported.

C13.3.1.1 -
13.3.1.2 -
If the vertical force U, due to the combined effect
of maximum horizontal and vertical seismic forces,
opposes and exceeds 100% of the dead load
reaction D, then the device shall be designed for a
net upward force of 1.2(U-D); however, it shall not
be less than 10% of the downward dead load
reaction that would be exerted if the span were
simply supported.
C13.3.1.2 -

Page 65

13.3.2-Horizontal Linkage Elements
Horizontal linkage elements are anti-dislodging
devices. Positive horizontal linkage elements (high
tensile wire strand ties, cables, and dampers) shall
be provided between adjacent section of the
superstructure at supports and at expansion joints
within a span.
C13.3.2 Horizontal Linkage Elements
Horizontal linkage elements are used to prevent the
dislodging of the superstructure. This second line of
defense or the additional safety against the excessive
horizontal movement is provided either by connecting
the superstructure with substructure with the help of
chain (Fig C 10a) or by connecting the two adjoining
superstructure spans (Fig. C 10b).

Horizontal linkage elements and anti- dislodging
devices are quite commonly used in highway bridges.
In case of railway bridges, guard rails are invariably
present at both the ends of bridge, These guard rails ,
which run throughout the length of the bridge and
covers all the spans, if fastened properly and anchored,
are likely to provide good resistance to sliding and
overturning of end spans.

(a) Superstructure connected to substructure
Girder
Substructure Anchor bolt
Fig C10 Horizontal Linkage element
(b) Linkage element connecting adjacent spans
Girder Girder
Pier

Page 66

13.3.2.1
The linkage shall be designed for at least the
elastic seismic acceleration coefficient A
h
times
the weight of the lighter of the two connected
spans or parts of the structure.
C13.3.2.1
The design seismic force for each bridge component is
only a fraction of the maximum elastic force that can be
sustained by it, if it were to remain completely elastic
during earthquake shaking. However, the deformations
calculated from the linear analysis of the bridge
subjected to these design forces are much smaller than
the actual deformations that may be experienced during
seismic shaking.
13.3.2.2-
If the linkage is at locations where relative
deformation are permitted in the design then,
sufficient slack must be allowed in the linkage so
that linkages start functioning only when the
relative design displacement at the linkage is
exceeded.
C13.3.2.2-
Unseating of superstructure from the substructure or
the suspended span from the restrained portion are the
possible consequences if the actual deformations are
not accounted for in the design of the supports at these
interface points. Sometimes, the two portions that move
relative to each other are securely fastened by positive
horizontal linkage elements. These devices are usually
high tensile wire strand ties, cables or dampers. For the
purposes of the design of these devices, the
recommendations from the AASHTO code are used.
The design forces specified are conservative to provide
increased protection at a minimum increased cost.
13.3.2.3-
When linkages are provided at columns or piers,
the linkage of each span may be connected to the
column or pier instead of the adjacent span.
C13.3.2.3

13.3.2.4-
Reaction blocks (or seismic arrestors) when used
as anti-dislodging elements shall be designed for
seismic force equal to 1.5 times the elastic seismic
coefficient multiplied by tributary weight of spans
corresponding to that pier/abutment.
C13.3.2.4-
Due to the presence of guard rails, which are likely to
offer resistance to sliding during seismic event, the
strength requirements of anti-dislodging elements can
be reduced.


Page 67


Shock absorber
Abutment
Concrete block
Steel bracket
Abutment
Shock absorber
Fig C11a Reaction blocks in longitudinal
Reaction
block
Reaction
block
Pier
Fig C11b Reaction blocks in transverse direction
Rails
Bearings

Page 68

14. Substructure C14.0 Substructure
14.1 - Scour Depth
The scour to be considered for design shall be
based on mean design flood. In the absence of
detailed data the scour to be considered for
design shall be 0.9 times the maximum design
scour depth.
Note: The designer is cautioned that the maximum
seismic scour case may not always be governing
design condition.
C14.1 Scour Depth
IRS on sub-structure and foundation of bridges gives
details of scour depth.
14.2 - Hydrodynamic Force C14.2 - Hydrodynamic Force
14.2.1-
For the submerged portion of the pier, the total
horizontal hydrodynamic force along the direction
of ground motion is given by

e h e
W A C F =
where
e
C is a coefficient given by Table 8,
depending on the height of submergence of the
pier relative to that of the radius of a hypothetical
enveloping cylinder (Fig. 5); and A
h
is the elastic
seismic acceleration coefficient as per Clause 9.1
or 10.1; and
e
W is the weight of the water in the
hypothetical enveloping cylinder. The pressure
distribution due to hydrodynamic effect on pier is
given in Fig. 6; the coefficients C
1
, C
2
, C
3
and C
4

in Fig. 6 are given in Table 9.

C14.2.1-
This clause is retained as given in IS: 1893-1984,
except that A
h
replaces o
h
. Again, as stated earlier in
this guideline, A
h
is different from o
h
. Hence, the
hydrodynamic forces calculated as per this code will be
much higher than those estimated as per IS: 1893-
1984.


Page 69

14.2.2-
In response spectrum analysis, to account for
hydrodynamic pressure, additional weight of water
shall be added over the submerged depth of pier.
The weight of water to be added at a height of
3/7H from the ground level, is given by:

0 0
3
(1 )
4 4
P
WP
bH b
W W A
a H
=
for b/H < 2.0

0 0
3
(0.7 )
4 10
P
WP
bH b
W W A
a H
=
for 2.0 < b/H < 4.0

0 0
9
40
P
WP
bH
W W A
a
=
for 4.0 < b/H
where,
b = structural width perpendicular to hydrodynamic
pressure,
a =structural width in the direction of
hydrodynamic pressure,
A
o
= sectional area of the substructure, and
W
o
= density of water.
Hp = pier height
H = height of submerged portion of pier

C14.2.2-
The expression for W
WP
is taken from Japanese
highway bridge code. In response spectrum analysis,
mathematical model of the bridge is analyzed. For
including the hydrodynamic force effect in this model,
an additional weight is to be included. The mass
corresponding to this added weight would generate the
inertia force which shall be same as the hydrodynamic
force. The expression for W
WP
is similar to C
e
W
e
term
given in Clause 14.2. A comparison of W
WP
and C
e
W
e

for a wall type pier is shown below:
Pier Height = 8m, Pier sectional area = 1 x 3 m
2
,
Water depth, H = 2/3 x 8 = 5.33 m

Case I) Seismic loading along 3 m face :

Radius of enveloping circle = 0.5 m, H = 5.33 m
H / radius = 5.33 / 0.5 = 10.66 ; C
e
= 0.73
and W
e
= w
o
x x

(radius)
2
x H
= 1 x 3.1428 x (0.5)
2
x 5.33 = 4.184
C
e
x W
e
= 0.73 x 4.184 = 3.05
b = 1 m, a = 3 m, A
o
= 1 x 3 = 3 m
2

0 0
3
(1 )
4 4
P
WP
bH b
W W A
a H
=

W
WP
= 3.81
Case II) Seismic loading along 1 m face :

Radius of enveloping circle = 1.5 m, H = 5.33 m
H / radius = 5.33 / 1.5 = 3.5 ; C
e
= 0.73
and W
e
= w
o
x x radius
2
x H
= 1 x 3.1428 x (1.5)
2
x 5.33 = 37.7
C
e
x W
e
= 0.73 x 37.7 = 27.5
b = 3 m, a = 1 m, A
o
= 3 x 1 = 3 m
2

0 0
3
(1 )
4 4
P
WP
bH b
W W A
a H
=


Page 70

W
WP
= 30.9
Thus, the values of C
e
W
e
and W
WP
are comparable for
both the directions of seismic loading.

PROVISIONS
Table - 8. Values of
e
C

|
|
.
|
\
|
Cylinder Enveloping of Radius
(H) Portion Submerged of Height

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

C
e

0.39

0.58

0.68

0.73

Table - 9. Coefficients C
2
, C
3
and C
4
as a function of C
1

1
C
2
C
3
C
4
C
0.1 0.410 0.026 0.9345
0.2 0.673 0.093 0.8712
0.3 0.832 0.184 0.8013
0.4 0.922 0.289 0.7515
0.5 0.970 0.403 0.6945
0.6 0.990 0.521 0.6390
0.8 0.999 0.760 0.5320
1.0 1.000 1.000 0.4286

Page 71

PROVISIONS

Direction of
Seismic Shaking
Fig. 5: Hypothetical Enveloping Cylinders to Estimate Hydrodynamic Forces on Substructures due
to Seismic Shaking (Clause 14.2)
Fig. 6: Hydrodynamic Pressure Distribution on the Substructure due to Steam Flow (Clause
14.2.2)
C
1
H
C
4
H
C
3
F
(Resultant of pressure on
shaded area up to depth C
1
H) C
2
p
b

p
b
= 1.2F/H
p
b

H

Page 72

PROVISIONS
COMMENTARY

14.2.3 - Analysis for Vertical
Acceleration
While carrying out the analysis for vertical
acceleration, the added mass of water for
hydrodynamic effect shall not be considered.

C14.2.3 -Analysis for Vertical Acceleration
In vertical direction, water mass will not apply any
hydrodynamic pressure on substructure. Hence, added
mass of water is n ot considered for vertical direction.
14.3 - Design Seismic Foce
The design seismic forces for the substructure
shall be obtained as the maximum elastic force on
it (as defined in Clause 14.3.1) divided by the
appropriate response reduction factor given in
Table 7.

The clause is meant to ensure ductile behavior of the
substructure. In R.C. members, flexural failure can be
ductile if the member is detailed appropriately. On the
other hand, shear failure is brittle. Hence, the columns
are designed and detailed for flexure first. Then, using
the principle of capacity design, one calculates how
much is the maximum possible earthquake force that
this column can sustain in the event of strong shaking.
Since the shear failure is a brittle failure, shear design
for columns is carried out for this upper bound load.

14.3.1 - Maximum Elastic Seismic
Forces
The maximum elastic seismic force resultants at
any cross-section of the substructure shall be
calculated considering the following forces:
(a) Maximum elastic seismic forces transferred
from the superstructure to the top of the
substructure
(b) Maximum elastic seismic forces applied at its
center of mass due to the substructures own
inertia forces. Reduction due to buoyancy
shall be ignored in the calculation of seismic
weight.
(c) Hydrodynamic forces acting on piers as per
Clause 14.2, and
(d) Modification in earth-pressure due to
earthquake acting on abutments as per
Appendix F.
C14.3.1 - Maximum Elastic Seismic Forces


Page 73

PROVISIONS
COMMENTARY
14.4 - Substructure of
Continuous Girder
Superstructure
C14.4 Substructure of Continuous
Girder Superstructure.
14.4.1 -
When the superstructure of a multi-span bridge
consists of a single continuous girder resting on a
restrained bearing (in longitudinal direction) over
one of the piers and on sliding bearings over the
other piers, the design seismic force at the top of
the substructures along the longitudinal direction
of the bridge shall be taken as follows:
(a) For the pier supporting the restrained bearing,
it shall be the full elastic seismic force
transmitted from the superstructure to the top
of the pier in the longitudinal direction divided
by the appropriate response reduction factor,
assuming no friction between the other sliding
bearings and the corresponding piers.
(b) For the other piers supporting the sliding
bearings, it shall be the horizontal friction
force generated on the pier due to the
superstructure resting on the pier considering
the maximum possible friction between the
sliding bearings and the top of the pier.
C14.4.1
14.4.2
In transverse direction, the seismic force from
superstructure is to be transmitted to the
substructures in proportion to their lateral stiffness.

C14.4.2 -
14.4.3 -
While considering the stability of the substructure,
such as, wingwalls, abutments etc., against
overturning, the minimum factor of safety shall be
1.5 under simultaneous action of maximum elastic
seismic forces in both horizontal and vertical
directions during the earthquake.
C14.4.3 -


Page 74

PROVISIONS
COMMENTARY
15. Foundations C15.0 - Foundations
15.1 -
The foundations of all bridges shall be designed to
resist lesser of the following forces:
(a) Design seismic forces obtained from Clauses
9.3 or 10.4 using value of R as 1.5.
(b) Forces developed when over strength plastic
moment hinges are formed in the substructure,
as described in Appendix A.
Note For stability analysis of well foundation by
conventional method, seismic forces can be further
reduced by a factor of 2.0.
C15.1 -
15.2 -
Not withstanding the provisions in relevant codes,
the following factor of safety shall be adopted for
seismic design of foundation under ultimate
condition:
Factor of safety against overturning - 1.5
Factor of safety against sliding - 1.25

Notes:
Note 1: No live load to be considered when the net
effect has a stabilizing effect.
Note 2: Area under tension need not be checked
provided above criteria for overturning and sliding is
satisfied.
C15.2 -
15.3 -
In loose sands or poorly graded sands with little
or no fines, vibrations due to earthquake may
cause liquefaction or excessive total and
differential settlements. In Zones IV and V, the
founding of bridges on such sands should be
avoided unless appropriate methods of
compaction or stabilization are adopted.
Liquefaction analysis procedure is given in
APPENDIX G. Foundation should be taken to
sufficient depth below the layers of soil which are
C15.3
Damages to foundations have very serious implications
from structural safety considerations. Also, foundation
repairs are very expensive as it is very difficult to
access and to make alterations in them. Hence, it is
required to ensure that these are not damaged. This
clause is intended to achieve the objective that in case
of severe ground shaking, the foundation is not
damaged. This is done first by requiring a much lower
value of response reduction factor for foundation than
for the substructure, i.e., a much higher design seismic

Page 75

PROVISIONS
COMMENTARY
susceptible to liquefaction.

coefficient for foundation than that for the substructure.
However, this is qualified through the concept of
capacity design.
Since the seismic forces are inertia induced, the
foundation can never experience a seismic force higher
than what the substructure is capable of transmitting to
it. The attempt is to obtain this upper-bound force that
can be transmitted by the substructure by calculating
its overstrength plastic moment capacity. The code
requires the lower of (a) and (b) of Clause 15.1 to be
used in design of the foundation.


Page 76

PROVISIONS
COMMENTARY
16. Connections
The connection between the superstructure and
substructure is achieved through bearings. The
primary functions of the bearings are to resist the
vertical loads due to dead load and live load and
to allow for superstructure movements (translation
and rotation) due to live load and temperature
changes. The design of bearings is governed by
the force to be resisted and the extent of
movement (translation and rotation) it can
accommodate. During seismic event, the lateral
seismic forces from superstructure are transferred
to substructure through bearings. The bearing
shall possess sufficient strength to resist these
seismic forces.
C16.0 - Connections
Usually bearings are provided at the connection
between superstructure and substructure. The
connection between adjacent sections of superstructure
(expansion joints etc.) and the connections between
substructure and foundation also needs to be adequately
designed and detailed for seismic loads.
16.1 - Design Force for
Connections
C16.1 - Design Force for Connections
16.1.1 Seismic Zone II and III
The connections between adjacent sections of the
superstructure or between the superstructure and
the substructure shall be designed to resist at
least horizontal seismic force in the restrained
directions equal to 0.2 times the vertical dead load
reaction at the bearing, irrespective of the number
of spans.
C16.1.1 Seismic Zone II and III
In low seismic regions, the effort in the seismic design
of the bridges is reduced to some extent by this clause
by requiring only a simple design force calculation for
the restrained supports (e.g., rocker or elastomeric
bearings). The clause, same as that in the AASHTO
code, is considered to provide a somewhat
overestimate of the design force.
16.1.2 Seismic Zone IV and V
The connection between the superstructure and
substructure, and the substructure and foundation
shall be designed to resist the smaller of the
following forces:
a) Maximum elastic horizontal seismic force
obtained from analysis and transferred
through the connection in the restrained
directions, divided by the appropriate
Response reduction factor R as applicable to
connections, which are given in Table 7.
b) Maximum horizontal force, when over strength
plastic moment hinges are formed in the
substructure.
C16.1.2 Seismic Zone IV and V
The most common cause for earthquake disasters in
case of bridges is the failure of connections,
particularly those between superstructure and the
substructure. Hence, extra caution is needed to ensure
the safety of connections. This is done in this
guidelines by requiring the value of response reduction
factor for bridges as 0.8 or 1.0, which implies that the
design force for connections obtained is equal to (or
more than) the maximum expected elastic force.
However, by allowing the designer to use the lower
value from (a) and (b) above for design of connections,
the code brings in the capacity design concept. Force
obtained by (b) above provides an upper-bound on the
inertia force that can be developed in the superstructure
before the substructure becomes plastic. Once the

Page 77

PROVISIONS
COMMENTARY
substructure becomes plastic, the bridge will not be
able to sustain higher inertia forces.
16.2 - Displacements at
Connections
C16.2 Displacement at
Connections
16.2.1 - Separation between Adjacent
Units
When relative movement between two adjacent
units of a bridge are designed to occur at a
separation/expansion joint, sufficient clearance
shall be provided between them, to permit the
calculated relative movement under design
earthquake conditions to freely occur without
inducing damage. Where the two units may be out
of phase, the clearance to be provided may be
estimated as the square root of the sum of
squares of the calculated displacements of the two
units under maximum elastic seismic forces given
by Clauses 9.2 or 10.3.

C16.1.1 - Separation Between Adjacent
Units
When two adjacent units are designed such that relative
movement between them is expected to occur at their
separation joint, then adequate clearance is necessary
between them to avoid pounding and the consequential
damage. Probability that the maximum out of phase
movement of the two adjacent portions will occur at the
same time is very low. To provide the clearance equal
to cumulative sum of the displacements of the two units
at the separation would be too conservative. Thus, this
clause proposes that the square root of the sum of
squares of the calculated displacements of the two units
under the earthquake forces may be provided as the
clearance.
16.3 - Minimum Seating Width
Requirements
The widths of seating W (in mm) at supports
measured normal to the face of the
abutment/pier/pedestal of bearings/restrained
portion of superstructure from the closest end of
the girder shall be the larger of the following:
(a) 1.4 times the calculated displacement under
the maximum elastic seismic forces estimated
as per Clauses 9.2 or 10.3, to account for
uncertainty in deflection calculation; and

(b) the value specified below:

300 + 1.5L + 6H
p
for seismic zones
II and III
W = 500 + 2.5L + 10 H
p
for seismic zones
IV and V

where
C16.3 - Minimum Seating Width
Requirement
The connections between superstructures and
substructures are designed for forces specified under
Clause 16.1. Even though these values are
conservative, there still will remain possibilities of the
actual seismic force in the connections exceeding the
actual strength of the connections. Also, in bridges the
substructures are liable to undergo large displacements
due to dynamic earth-pressures. Under these
conditions, it is possible that the superstructure span
may get separated from the connection. At this
instance, if adequate width is available on top of the
substructure for the superstructure span to rest (despite
being separated from the connections), then at least the
superstructure span is prevented from being dislodged
from its support. Clearly, if the superstructure is still
resting atop the substructure, the cost of repairing the
connection and restoring the superstructure to its
desired position is far more economical than having to
rebuild the superstructure afresh if it falls off from the
substructure.

Page 78

PROVISIONS
COMMENTARY
L = Length (in meters) of the superstructure to
the adjacent expansion joint or to the end of
superstructure. In case of bearings under
suspended spans, it is sum of the lengths of the
two adjacent portions of the superstructure. In
case of single span bridges, it is equal to the
length of the superstructure.
For bearings at abutments, H
p
is the average
height (in meters) of all columns supporting the
superstructure to the next expansion joint. It is
equal to zero for single span bridges. For bearings
at columns or piers, H
p
is the height (in meters) of
column or pier. For bearings under suspended
spans, Hp is the average height (in meters) of the
two adjacent columns or piers.
Graphical representation of seating widths is
shown in Fig. 7.

Hence, this clause attempts that even under maximum
expected deformations, possibility of collapse or loss
of span are minimized through conservative provisions
of minimum seating widths. The values of seating
widths recommended for high seismic regions are
higher than those for low seismic regions; this is
because of higher potential of connection failures in
high seismic zones. The minimum seat width is
required in longitudinal as well as transverse direction.
Based on the data supplied by RDSO, minimum seat
width for different types of bridges is given in Table
C2

The Minimum seating width given in various codes are:

(A) AREMA:
W =(305+2.5L+10H
p
)x(1+0.000125S
2
) mm
S = skew angle in degrees
(B) TAIWAN HSR:
W =(500+2.5L+10H
p
) mm

( C) JAPAN HIGHWAYS
700 + 5 L

Slab/Girder
Abutment
(a) Abutment
W
Slab/Girder Slab/Girder
Pier Top
(b) Column or Pier
L
1

L
2

W
1

W
2

Suspended
Restrained
Portion
(c) Suspended Span on Restrained Portion of
Superstructure
L
1

L
2

W
Fig. 7: Minimum Width of Seating of Spans on
Supports (Clause 16.3)
L
G.L.
Height of Pier (H
p
)

Page 79

Table C2 Seating width for standard Railway bridges (supplied by RDSO)
a
b
c
g g
e e
f f
d
a = Nominal Clear Span
b = Centres of Bearings
c = Over all length of Girder/Slab
d = Centres to Centres of Piers
e = Width of Piers at Top
f = Centres of Bearings on piers
g = Clearance between spans
w w
w
w
SLAB/GIRDER
c
g g
d
e a e
b f f
PIERS
BEARINGS
w = Minimum width of seating of spans on supports
a
w
w
(c-a)/2
SPAN
b c
PIERS
d e
PIERS
f g
255 915 4575 4500 4320 3660 632 420 75
255 995 5565 5490 5310 4570 634 460 75
255 1065 7165 7090 6910 6100 638 495 75
300 1150 10300 10200 10900 9150 646 525 100
300 1200 13400 13300 13100 12200 654 550 100
600 1800 26200 26050 25600 24400 686 825 150
700 2100 32600 32450 31900 30500 702 975 150
900 2450 48150 47850 47250 45700 740 1075 300
1000 3000 64000 63700 63000 61000 780 1350 300
1100 3700 79900 79600 78800 76200 819 1700 300
1800 4300 95800 95200 94000 91500 858 1850 600
1800 5000 898 2200 600
400 18300 19400 19650 1500 19800 675 150 670
5500 2000 700 2400 937
Note:- 1. ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN MILLIMETRES.
WIDTH FROM SEISMIC
ELEVATION
PLAN
*
-W=500+2.5L+10Hp. for Seismic Zones IV and V.
*
Hp = Height of Pier in meters.
L = Length in meters of Superstructure to the adjacent expansion joint
or to the end of Superstructure.
(NOT TO SCALE)
3050 3710 3890 3960 915 255 76 420 629
B-PSC GIRDERS
12200 13300 13100 13400 1200 300 100 550 654
45100 46850 46150 48150 2000 3050 60 875 740
12200
9150
13300
10200
13100
10900
13400
10300
1200
1150
300
300
100
100
550
525
654
646
30500
24400
18300
32450
26050
19650
25600
31900
19400
26200
32600
19800
600 1800
2100 700
1500 400
150
150
150
825
925
675
686
702
670
MINIMUM SEATING WIDTH REQUIREMENT FOR SLABS (PSC & RC
BALASTLESS), PSC GIRDERS & STEEL/COMPOSITE GIRDERS
421
515
539
563
402
444
492
468
421
411
388
392
444
388
392
411
402
392
381
383
378
379
-W=300+1.5L+6Hp. for Seismic Zones II and III.
*
A-SLABS (PSC & RC BALLASTLESS)
C-STEEL/COMPOSITE GIRDERS
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
2. RETROFITTING REQUIRED IN ZONE IV & V.
3. MINMUM SEATING WIDTH SHOWN IN THIS TABLE IS SUTABLE UPTO 12 HIGH PIERS.

Page 80

PROVISIONS
COMMENTARY
17. Special Ductile Detailing
Requirements for Bridges
Substructures
The design seismic force for bridges is lower than
the maximum expected seismic force on them.
However, to ensure good performance at low cost,
the difference in the design seismic force and the
maximum expected seismic force shall be
accounted for through additional safety provisions
in design / detailing. (These provisions are meant
for bridges having reinforced concrete
substructures; however, if steel substructures are
used in high seismic zones, reference should be
made to specialist literature.) APPENDIX C
describes the detailing procedure.

C17.0 Special Ductile Detailing
Requirements for Bridges
Substructures


Page 81

PROVISIONS
COMMENTARY
18. Special Devices
Special devices like seismic isolation devices,
shock transmission units (STU) and dampers may
be employed to improve the seismic performance
of bridges. However, appropriate analysis and
testing shall be carried out before installation.
C18.0 Special Devices
18.1 - Seismic Isolation Devices
Section 19 provides details regarding bridges with
seismic isolation.
C18.1 Seismic Isolation Devices

18.2 - Shock Transmission Units
Multi-span bridges with continuous superstructure
may be provided with restrained bearings over
only one pier/abutment. In order to distribute the
seismic forces generated by the superstructure to
other pier(s)/abutment(s), STUs may be
introduced after adequate testing, between
superstructure and other pier(s)/abutment(s)
where free/guided bearings are used. However,
specialist literature shall be consulted for the
details of such STUs and for their design in
bridges subjected to seismic effects. STUs should
facilitate the breathing of the bridge due to thermal
and shrinkage effects.
STUs shall be accessible for inspection and
maintenance/replacement.
C18.2 Shock Transmission Units
Shock Transmission Unit (STU) also called Lock-Up
Device (LUD) creates a rigid link at a movable
connection between superstructure and pier/abutment
during a shock loading. This facilitates the transfer of
lateral load (of shock loading) to piers. An STU
comprises of a cylinder filled with fluid and a piston
with holes moves against the fluid. This fluid with
thexotropic property moves smoothly and slowly under
slow motion causing loads (Like temperature related
movements). But when subjected to sudden motion
causing loads (like during breaking or seismic loads),
the fluid cant flow through. This creates a rigid link.

Pier
Super Structure
STU unit
Fig C12 Typical Shock Transmission Unit

Page 82

PROVISIONS
COMMENTARY


Page 83

PROVISIONS
COMMENTARY
19. Bridges with Seismic
Isolation
C19.0 Bridge With Seismic
Isolation
19.1 - General
Seismic isolation devices (bearings) are deployed
below the deck and on the top of the pier (Fig. 8).
These shall be used for stiff bridges with time
period less than 1 sec. The reduction in forces is
achieved either by lengthening of time period or
increase of damping or both of them. The effect of
lengthening of period and increase of damping on
the design force is explained in Fig. 9. The
increase in damping is achieved by hysteretic
energy loss. The isolation bearing is idealized as
bilinear spring with hysteresis as shown in Fig. 10;
where, K
u
is elastic stiffness, K
d
is post elastic
stiffness, Q
d
is characteristic strength and K
eff
is
effective stiffness.
With the use of isolation devices, the lateral
displacement of superstructure increases. This
increase in displacement shall not cause any
adverse effect. Isolation bearings shall not be
used for bridges which (a) are on soft soil, (b)
which have long natural time period, and (c) which
may experience uplift at bearing support. Isolation
bearings shall be firmly fixed to the superstructure
and substructure by anchor bolts and shall be
easily accessible for replacements.

C19.1 General
A bridge without base isolation has lower time period.
In Fig. 9, the spectral acceleration corresponding to non
isolated bridge is A
1
. With the deployment of base
isolation, the time period increase to T
e
and damping
also increases. For this increased damping the spectral
acceleration is given by solid line in Fig 9. Thus, the
spectral acceleration for time period T
e
become A
3
.
Thus, presence of base isolation reduces spectral
acceleration from A
1
to A
3
.
Seismic isolation consists essentially of the mechanism,
which decouple the structure, or its contents, from
potentially damaging earthquake induced ground,
and support, motions. This decoupling is achieved by
increasing the flexibility of the system, together with
providing appropriate damping. In many, but not all,
the seismic isolation system is mounted beneath the
structure and is referred to as base isolation.
The basic intent of seismic isolation is to increase the
fundamental period of vibration such that the structure
is subjected to lower earthquake forces. However, the
reduction in forces is accompanied by an increase in
displacement demand that must be accommodated
within the flexible mount. Furthermore, flexible
bridges can move under service loads. When seismic
isolation is used, the overall structure is considerably
more flexible and provision must be made for
substantial horizontal displacement.
The concept of isolation for bridge is fundamentally
different than for building structures. There are a
number of features of bridges which differ from
building and which influence the isolation concept:
1) Most of the weight is concentrated in the
superstructure, in a single horizontal plane.
2) The superstructure is robust in terms of resistance to
seismic loads but the substructure (piers and
abutments) are vulnerable.
3) The seismic resistance is often in two orthogonal
horizontal directions, longitudinal and transverse.
4) The bridge must resist significant service lateral
loads and displacements from wind and traffic loads

Page 84

PROVISIONS
COMMENTARY
and from creep, shrinkage and thermal movements.
The objective of isolation a bridge structure also
differs. In a building, isolation is installed to reduce the
inertia force transmitted into the structure above in
order to reduce the demand on the structural elements.
A bridge is typically isolated immediately below the
isolators by reducing the inertia loads transmitted from
the superstructure.
Although the type of installation shown in Fig. 8 is
typical of most isolated bridges, there are number of
variations. For example, the isolator may be placed at
the bottom of bents; partial isolation may be used if
piers are flexible (bearing at abutments only): a
rocking mechanism for isolation may be used.


Page 85

PROVISIONS
COMMENTARY

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
PERIOD (sec)
S
P
E
C
T
R
A
L

A
C
C
E
L
E
R
A
T
I
O
N

(
S
a
/
g
)
Period of non-
isolated bridge
Period of
isolated bridge
Isolated modes with damping
equal to effective damping of
Structural modes
with 5% damping
Composite spectrum
for isolated bridge
Period Shift
T
ef f
A
2
A
3
A
1
IS 1893 Zone V
Soil Type I
(5% damped)
Fig.8 Bridge with seismic isolation (Clause 19.0)
Fig.9 Effect of isolator on spectral acceleration (Clause 19.0)

Page 86

PROVISIONS
COMMENTARY

19.2 - Design Criteria
A site-specific seismic hazard analysis shall be
carried out to develop design ground motion for
base-isolated bridges. This study shall be carried
out by professionals with acknowledged expertise
to do so and will usually involve geological,
seismological, geotechnical and structural inputs.
However, if the design ground motion thus arrived
at gives a design less conservative than that from
design response spectrum given by . .
2
a
S Z
I
g
| |
|
\ .
,
then the latter shall govern the design. The
response reduction factor for the substructure
shall be taken as half of the values given in
Table7. However, the value of response reduction
factor shall not be less than 1.0.

C19.2 Design Criteria

Fig.10 Bilinear force-deflection model for isolator (Clause 19.0)
Force F
max

K
d
F
y

Q
d
Displacement
A
max
EDC
Q
d
= Characteristics Strength
F
y
= Yield Force
F
max
= Maximum Force
K
d
= Post-elastic stiffness
K
u
= Elastic (unloading) stiffness
K
eff
= Maximum bearing displacement
EDC = Energy dissipated per cycle = Area of hysteresis loop (shaded)

K
u

K
eff

K
u


Page 87

PROVISIONS
COMMENTARY
19.3 - Analysis Procedure
The seismic coefficient method (single mode
method) or response spectrum method
(multimode method) can be used. The isolation
system shall be idealized as bilinear system (Fig.
10) with linear stiffness as K
eff
. The analysis shall
be done using upper bound properties and lower
bound properties. The upper bound properties,
which would result in higher value of K
eff
, would
give higher force, and the lower bound properties
would give higher deflection. The maximum and
minimum values are obtained by multiplying K
d

and Q
d
with the property modification factors,
which depend on velocity, temperature, aging,
scragging, travel and contamination. The values of
property modification factors are described in
Appendix H.
From the analysis, the isolator deflection, d
i
, shall
be obtained. Then, the design force for isolator is
F = K
eff
. d
i
. If uniform load method is used, then,
isolator displacement is given by
=
2
250
h eff
i
I
A T
d
B
mm,
where, 2
eff
eff
W
T
K g
t =
Since, the isolator unit has low stiffness, the
displacement increases. The clearance in the two
orthogonal directions shall be the maximum
displacement determined in each of the directions
from the analysis. The clearance shall not be less
than

2
200
h eff
I
A T
B
mm
where, B
I
is the damping coefficient corresponding
to the effective damping ratio of the isolator unit.
The value of B
I
shall be taken from Table 10.

C19.3 Analysis Procedure
Details regarding uniform load method are given in
AASHTO Guide Specifications for Isolated Bridges
(Reference No. 13 in Annexure A1)

Page 88

PROVISIONS
COMMENTARY

Table 10. Damping Coefficient for Isolated
Bridges, B
I

Damping (Percentage of critical)

s 2 5 10 20 30 40 50
B
I
0.8 1 1.2 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.0
In the uniform load method, earthquake force, F =
(A
h
). W is applied on the structure. Here, W is
weight of the bridge, and A
h
is the design seismic
coefficient corresponding to time period, T
eff
and
damping coefficient, B
I
.
19.4 - Requirements on Isolator
Unit
C19.4 Requirement on Isolator
Unit
19.4.1 - Non-seismic Lateral Forces
The isolation system must resist all Non-seismic
lateral load combinations applied above the
isolation unit. The rigidity against these lateral
forces shall be established with the help of tests. If
the temperature is likely to be very low in winter,
then, the effect of low temperature on either
coefficient of friction, shear modulus etc. shall be
properly considered. The isolator shall not lose its
effectiveness due to low temperature.
C19.4.1 Non-seismic Lateral Forces
This requirement is to ensure that the flexible isolator
has enough rigidity to resist frequently occurring wind
and other service loads.

Page 89

PROVISIONS
COMMENTARY
19.4.2 - Lateral Restoring Force
The isolator unit has more flexibility and high
energy dissipating capacity. Hence, in order to
avoid cumulative displacement, it must have
sufficient restoring force at any given displaced
position. In order to ensure that the restoring force
is not too less, it is recommended that at any
displacement less than the design displacement,
the tangent stiffness shall be such that the natural
period shall not be more than 6 sec. The restoring
force at any displacement shall be more than the
restoring force at lower displacement. If the
restoring force is constant for all displacements,
then, this force shall be at least equal to 1.05
times the characteristics strength, K
d
. It is
important to note that the forces which do not
depend on the displacements, such as damping
force may not be used to meet the minimum
restoring force requirement.

C19.4.2 Lateral Restoring Forces
In the long period range, response spectrum gives very
low value of design acceleration. Hence, there is a
limit of 6 sec on fundamental natural period.
19.4.3 - Vertical Load and Rotational
Stability
In laterally undeformed state, the isolation system
shall provide a factor of safety of at least three
against the vertical loads. It shall also be shown to
be stable under 1.2 times the dead load and
vertical load due to seismic force. Further, its
stability against the lateral displacement equal to
the offset displacement and 1.1 times the total
design displacement shall be checked.
The isolator shall have the rotation capacity to
accommodate rotation due to dead load, live load
and construction misalignment, which shall not be
less than 0.005 radians.
C19.4.3 Vertical Load and Rotational
Stability
The buckling load capacity of bearing can be
calculated using following relation:
1 2
1 2
2 2
6
r
cr
r
S S GA
P
S S GA
t
t

S
1
= shape factor of the rubber bearing and for the
lead-plugged rubber bearing it is defined as
b pl
r r
A A
B t t

,
A
b
= bonded area and A
pl
= area of
lead-plug
S
2
= second shape factor (aspect ratio) defined as
r
B
T

A
r
= overlap area between the top-bonded and bottom-
bonded elastomer areas of a displaced bearing, as
shown in Fig. 12
Buckling load capacity under vertical load can be
calculated for non-seismic displacement by replacing
A
r
by A
b
in the above relation.
For circular

For square

Page 90

PROVISIONS
COMMENTARY

19.5 - Tests on Isolation System C19.5 Tests on Isolation System
19.5.1 System Characterization Test
This is to establish characteristics of isolation unit
and its various components.
C19.5.1 System Characterization Test

19.5.2 Prototype Test
This is to establish deformation and damping
characteristics of the isolator unit.
C19.5.2 Prototype Test

Rectangular
( )
2
1
sin
4
2cos
= c c
| |
c =
|
\ .
r
r
B
A
d
B
Circular
B1
Bonded dimension
B2
( )
2 1 1
=
r
A B B d
dt
Fig. C12 Overlap area A
r

B
Bonded dimension

Page 91

PROVISIONS
COMMENTARY
19.5.3
These tests are done at manufacturing units and
the specimens involved in the test are not used.
The prototype test is to be conducted on at least
two specimen of full size. The system
characterization tests are conducted on various
components as per the requirements of the
corresponding IS codes.
C19.5.3

19.5.4
A shake table test on model not less than 1/4
th
of
full model shall be done. Scale factors for this test
shall be well established. Wear or travel and
fatigue tests are conducted to check if the
movements due to thermal displacements and live
load rotation can be accommodated. The thermal
displacements and live load rotations shall
correspond to at least 30 years of expected
movement. The tests shall be applied at the
design contact pressure and at 20
0
C 8
0
C. The
rate of application shall be not less than 63.5
mm/minute.
C19.5.4

19.5.5
The tests shall be done for following minimum :
Bearings 1.6 km
Dampers attached to the web of the neutral axis
1.6 km
Dampers attached to the girder bottom 3.2 km.
C19.5.5
19.5.6
The prototype specimen shall be tested in the
following sequence for prescribed number of
cycles:
C19.5.6


Page 92

Table 11: Sequence for Testing of Bearing
Test Description
(A) Component
Thermal
Three fully reversed cycle of loads at a lateral displacement corresponding to
the maximum thermal displacement. The test velocity shall not be less than
0.075 mm per minute.
Wind and
braking
Twenty fully reversed cycles between limits of plus and minus maximum load
for a total duration not less than 40 seconds. After the cyclic testing, the
maximum load shall be held for 60 seconds.
Seismic -1
Three fully reversed cycles of loading at each of the following multiples of the
total design displacement: 1.0, 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, 1.0, and 1.25 in the sequence
mentioned. The results of test corresponding to design displacement are used
for finding stiffness and damping properties.
Seismic -2
Fully reversed cycles of loading at design displacement for 25 cycles. The test
shall be started from a displacement equal to the offset displacement.
The prototype
specimen shall
be tested in the
following
sequence for
prescribed
number of
cycles: Wind
and braking
Three fully reversed cycles between limits of plus and minus the maximum
load for a total duration not less than 40 seconds. After the cyclic testing, the
maximum load shall be held for 60 seconds. This test is done to ascertain the
survivability of the isolator after the major earthquake.
(B) Prototype
Seismic
performance
verification
Three fully reversed cycles of loading at the deign displacement. The test
verifies service load performance after the major earthquake.
Vertical load
The vertical load carrying capacity shall be demonstrated under 1.2DL + LL
(seismic) + additional vertical load due to overturning moment.


Page 93

19.5.7
The force deflection characteristics of the isolator
shall be based on cyclic load test results (seismic
test described above) for each fully reversed cycle of
loading (Fig. 10). The effective stiffness of an
isolator unit shall be calculated for each cycle of
loading as follows:
p n
eff
p n
F F
K

=
A A

where, A
P
and A
n
are maximum positive and
negative displacements and F
P
and F
n
are maximum
positive and negative forces at A
P
and A
n

respectively (Fig. 10).

C19.5.7

19.5.8
The equivalent viscous damping ratio (|) is given by

The total EDC area shall be taken as the sum of the
areas of all isolator units. The hysteresis loop area of
each isolator unit shall be taken as the minimum
area of the three loops established at the design
displacement, d
i
is the design displacement at the
centre of rigidity of the isolation system in the
direction under consideration.
C19.5.8

n
p
F
n
F
p
Displacement
Force
k
eff
Force
Displacement
n
p
F
n
F
p
k
eff
Fig. C13 Hysteretic Behavior
Fig. C14 Visco-elastic Behavior
( )
2
1
2
eff i
Total EDC area
K d
|
t
=

Page 94

19.6 - System Adequacy
In the above mentioned tests, the performance of
isolator unit is considered to be satisfactory, if the
following conditions are satisfied:
(i) The force deflection plots, of all tests on
prototype specimen (excluding viscous damper
component) shall show positive incremental
force-carrying capacity so as to meet the
restoring force requirements.
(ii) In the thermal test on prototype, the maximum
measured force shall be less than the design
value.
(iii) In the other tests on prototype, the maximum
displacement shall be less than the design
displacement.
(iv) In the three cycles of seismic tests, the average
effective stiffness shall be within 10% of the
value used in the design.
(v) In the seismic test, in each of the three cycles,
the measured minimum effective stiffness shall
not be less than the 80% of the maximum
effective stiffness.
(vi) In the second seismic test (Seismic -2), the
minimum effective stiffness shall not be less
than 80% of the maximum effective stiffness.
Similarly, the minimum area under EDC shall
not be less than 70% of the maximum EDC
area.
C19.6 System Adequacy
19.7 - Requirements for
Elastomeric Bearings
In addition to the normal tests and designs, which
are done for non-seismic conditions, the elastomeric
bearings shall comply with the design described in
this section. The elastomeric bearings shall use steel
reinforcement; the use of fabric reinforcement is not
permitted.
C19.7Requirements for
Elastomeric Bearings
19.7.1 Shear Strain Components for
Isolation Design
The various components of shear strain in the
bearing shall be computed as:
19.7.1 Shear Strain Components for
Isolation Design


Page 95

Table .12 Shear Strain Components

Component Shear strain
Shear strain due to vertical load
| |
+
|
\ .
1
2
2
1
3
2 (1 2 )
8
3 1
4
r
c
r
S P
A G kS
GkS
P
K
GkSA

Shear strain due to non-seismic lateral
displacement
,
s
s s
r
T
A
=

Shear strain due to seismic lateral
displacement
,
i
s e q
r
d
T
=

Shear strain due to rotation
2
2
r
i r
B
t T
u
=
Where,
K is the bulk modulus of the elastomer, in the
absence of measured data, the value of K may be
taken as 2000 MPa. The shape factor, S
1
shall be
taken as the plan area of the elastomer layer divided
by the area of perimeter free to bulge.
A
s
is non seismic lateral displacement resulting from
creep, post-tensioning, shrinkage and thermal
effects,
d
i
is seismic lateral displacement,
is design rotation and shall not be less than 0.005
rad.
T
r
is total elastomer thickness,
k is the material constant, and
t
i
is the thickness of i
th
layer.
B is bonded plan dimension or bonded diameter in
loaded direction of rectangular bearing or diameter
of circular bearing

for S
1
s 15

for S
1
> 15

Page 96

19.7.2 - Load Combinations
The elastomeric bearing shall satisfy the following
load combinations of shear strains:

c
s 2.5

c
+
s,s
+
r
s 5.0
c
+
s,eq
+ 0.5
r
s 5.5
where, shear strains are as explained in Table 12
above.
C19.7.2 Load Combinations
19.7.3 - Construction Requirements
In addition to non-seismic construction requirements
following shall be met with:
(i) The layers of elastomeric bearings shall integrally
bond during vulcanization and cold bonding is not
allowed.
(ii) A 5-minute proof load test with 1.5 times the
dead load and live load shall be conducted on
each bearing. There shall be no bulging due to
poor lamination.
(iii) All bearings shall be tested in combined
compression and shear. The bearings may be
tested in pairs. The compressive load shall be
average dead load of all bearings and they shall
be subjected to five fully reversed cycles of
loading at the total design displacement or 50%
of elastomer thickness. For each group of similar
types of bearings, the effective stiffness and EDC
shall be averaged. For individual bearings, the
effective stiffness shall be within 20% of design
values and EDC shall not be less than 25% of the
design value. The average value of effective
stiffness of a group shall be within 10% of design
value and the EDC value shall not be less than
15% of the design value.
After all the tests, all the bearing shall be visually
inspected for defects. If there is lack of bond
between rubber and steel, or laminate placement
fault, or permanent deformation or surface cracks on
rubber that are wider or deeper than 2/3
rd
rubber
thickness, then, the bearing shall be rejected.
C19.7.3 Construction Requirements


Page 97

20. Post earthquake Operation
and Inspection
C20. Post earthquake
Operation and Inspection
The response of railway tracks and bridges to an
earthquake would depend on distance from
epicenter and nature of attenuation.The post
earthquake train operations in the region shall be
cautiously started. The guidelines given in Appendix
- I shall be followed, which have been based on
AREMA Railway Engineering Manual. Detailed
procedure for post earthquake operations and
inspection is explained in Appendix I.


Page 98

Appendix (A) References
In the formulation of this guideline, assistance has been derived from the following publications:
1) Manual for Railway Engineering, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way
Association (AREMA), USA, 2007.

2) AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO), USA, 2007.
3) Seismic Design Criteria, California Department of Transportation (CALTRANS), USA, 2006.
4) Design of Structures for Earthquake Resistance, Eurocode 8: Part 2: Bridges, European
Committee for Standardization, 2005.

5) Bridge Manual, TRANSIT, Wellington, New Zealand, 2005.

6) Specifications for Highway Bridges, Part V Seismic Design Japan Road Association, 2003.

7) Seismic Design for Railway Structures, Railway Technical Research Institute (RTRI), Japan,
2000.

8) Seismic Design Criteria for High Speed Rail Project, National Center for Research on
Earthquake Engineering, Taiwan, 1992.
9) Murty, C.V.R. and Jain, S.K. A Proposed Draft for Indian Code Provisions on seismic design for
bridges-Part I: Code, Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol.26, No. 3, 223-234, 2000.

10) Murty, C.V.R. and Jain, S.K. A Proposed Draft for Indian Code Provisions on seismic design for
bridges-Part II: Code, Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol.27, No. 2, 79-89, 2000

11) Skinner ,R.I. , Kelly , T.E. and Robinson , B. Seismic Isolation for Designers and Structural
Engineers, Robinson Seismic Ltd.

12) AASHTO Guide Specifications for Seismic Isolation Design American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), USA, 2000.


Page 99

Appendix (B) Relevant Codes and Standards

The following Codes/Standards are necessary adjuncts to these guidelines:

1) IRC:6 Standard Specification and Code of Practice for Road Bridges, 2000

2) IRC:83 (Part III) Standard Specification and Code of (Part III) Practice for Road Bridges
Section IX: - Bearings, 2002

3) IRS Code of Practice For Plain, Reinforced & Prestressed Concrete For General Bridge
Construction, Third Revision, 2004

4) IRS Code of Practice For the Design of Sub-Structures and Foundation of Bridge, Second
Revision,2004

5) IRS Code of Practice For the Design of Steel or Wrought Iron Bridges Carrying Rail, Road or
Pedestrian Traffic, Second Revision, 2004

6) IRS Bridge Rules specifying the Loads for Bridge Design of Super Structure and Sub- Rules
Structure of bridges, Second Revision, 2004

7) IS 1893 Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures, 1984

8) IS 1893 (Part I) Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures, Part I: General
Provisions and Buildings, 2002

9) IS 1893 (Part 3) Draft Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures, Bridges and
Retaining Walls, 2008

10) IS 13920 Ductile Detailing of Reinforced Concrete Structure Subjected to Seismic Forces-Code
of Practice, 1993


Page 100

Appendix (C) Ductile Detailing Specifications
(Clause 17.0)
C-0 General
The detailing rules given have been chosen with the intention that reliable plastic hinges should
form at the top and bottom of each pier column, or at the bottom only of a single stem pier under
horizontal loading and that the bridge should remain elastic between the hinges (Fig. C-1). The aim is to
achieve a reliable ductile structure. Repair of plastic hinges is relatively easy.

Design strategy to be used is based on assumption that the plastic response will occur in the
substructure. However, in case of a wall type substructure, the nonlinear behavior may occur in the
foundation-ground system.

C-1 Specification

C-1.1 Minimum grade of concrete should be M25 (f
ck
= 25 MPa).

C-1.1 Steel reinforcement of grade Fe 415 (see IS 1786: 1985) or less only shall be used. However, high
strength deformed steel bars of grades Fe 500, having elongation more than 14.5 percent and conforming
to other requirements of IS 1786 : 1985 may also be used for the reinforcement.

C-2 Layout
(a) The use of circular column is preferred for better plastic hinge performance and ease of
construction.
(b)The bridge must be proportioned and detailed by the designer so that plastic hinges occur only
at the controlled locations (e.g., pier column ends) and not in other uncontrolled places.

C-3 Longitudinal Reinforcement
The area of the longitudinal reinforcement shall not be less than 0.8 percent nor more than 6
percent, of the gross cross section area A
g.
Splicing of flexural region is not permitted in the plastic hinge
region. Lap shall not be located within a distance of 2 times the maximum column cross-sectional
dimension from the end at which hinging can occur. The splices should be proportioned as a tension
splice.
C-3.1 Curtailment of longitudinal reinforcement in piers due to reduction in seismic bending moment
towards top.
C-3.1.1 The reduction of longitudinal reinforcement at mid-height in piers should not be carried out except
in tall pier.

C-3.1.2 In case of high bridge piers such as of height equal to 30m or more, the reduction of
reinforcement at mid height may be done. In such cases the following method should be adopted:
(i) The curtailment of longitudinal reinforcement shall not be carried out in the section six times the least
lateral column dimension from the location where plastic hinge is likely to occur.


Page 101

(ii) The interval between hoop ties is specified to be less than 150mm in a reinforcement position. The
interval between hoop ties shall not change abruptly, the change must be gradual.

C-4 Transverse Reinforcement
The transverse reinforcement for circular columns shall consist of spiral or circular hoops.
Continuity of these reinforcements should be provided by either (Fig. C -.2(a) or C-2.(b)):
(a) Welding, where the minimum length of weld should be 12 bar diameter, and the minimum weld
throat thickness should be 0.4 times the bar diameter.
(b) Lapping, where the minimum length of lap should be 30 bar diameters and each end of the bar
anchored with 135 hooks with a 10 diameter extension into the confined core.
Splicing of the spiral reinforcement in the plastic hinge region should be avoided.
In rectangular columns, rectangular hoops may be used. A rectangular hoop is a closed stirrup,
having a 135 hook with a 10 diameter extension at each end that is embedded in the confined core
(Figure C.2.c). When hoop ties are joined in any place other than a corner the hoop ties shall overlap
each other by a length 40 bar diameter of the reinforcing bar which makes the hoop ties with hooks as
specified above.
Joint portion of hoop ties for both circular and rectangular hoops should be staggered.

C-5 Design of Plastic Hinge Regions

C-5.1 Seismic Design Force for Substructure
Provisions given in Appendix - C for the ductile detailing of RC members subjected to seismic
forces shall be adopted for supporting components of the bridge. The design shear force at the critical
section(s) of substructures shall be the lower of the following:
(a) Maximum elastic shear force at the critical section of the bridge component divided by the response
reduction factor for that components as per Table 7, and
(b) Maximum shear force that develops when
(i) the substructure has maximum moment that it can sustain (i.e., the overstrength plastic
moment capacity as per Clause C-5.2) in single-column or single-pier type substructure.
(ii) plastic moment hinges are formed in the substructure so as to form a collapse mechanism in
multiple-column frame type or multiple-pier type substructures, in which the plastic moment
capacity shall be the overstrength plastic moment capacity as per Clause C-5.2.
In a single-column type or pier type substructure, the critical section is at the bottom of the column or pier
as shown in Figure C-1(a). And, in multi-column frame-type substructures or multi-pier substructures, the
critical sections are at the bottom and/or top of the columns/piers as shown in Figure C-1(b).

C-5.2 Over strength Plastic Moment Capacity
The over strength plastic moment capacity at a reinforced concrete section shall be taken as 1.3
times the ultimate moment capacity based on the usual partial safety factors recommended by relevant
design codes for materials and loads, and on the actual dimensions of members and the actual
reinforcement detailing adopted.

C-5.3 Special Confining Reinforcement:
Special confining reinforcement shall be provided at the ends of pier columns where plastic hinge

Page 102

can occur. This transverse reinforcement should extend for a distance from the point of maximum
moment over the plastic hinge region over a length l
0
. The length l
0
shall not be less than,
(a) 1.5 times the column diameter or 1.5 times the larger cross sectional dimension where yielding
occurs
(b) 1/6 of clear height of the column for frame pier (i.e when hinging can occur at both ends of the
column)
(c) 1/4 of clear height of the column for cantilever pier (i.e when hinging can occur at only one end of
the column)
(d) 600 mm

C-5.4 Spacing of Transverse Reinforcement
The spacing of hoops used as special confining reinforcement shall not exceed
(i) 1/5 times the least lateral dimension of the cross section of column,
(ii) 6 times the diameter of the longitudinal bar,
(iii) 150 mm

The parallel legs of rectangular stirrups shall be spaced not more than 1/3 of the smallest
dimension of the concrete core or more than 350 mm centre to centre. If the length of any side of the
stirrups exceeds 350 mm, a cross tie shall be provided. Alternatively, overlapping stirrups may be
provided within the column.

C-5.5 Amount of Transverse Steel to Be Provided

C-5.5.1 The area of cross section, A
sh
, of the bar forming circular hoops or spiral, to be used as special
confining reinforcement, shall not be less than

y
ck
c
g
k sh
f
f
A
A
SD A
(
= 1 09 . 0

or,

whichever is the greater
where
A
sh
= area of cross-section of circular hoop
S = pitch of spiral or spacing of hoops in mm
D
k
= Diameter of core measured to the outside of the spiral or hoops in mm
f
ck
= characteristic compressive strength of concrete
f
y
= yield stress of steel (of circular hoops or spiral )
A
g
= gross area of the column cross section
A
c
= Area of the concrete core =
2
4
k
D

y
ck
k sh
f
f
SD . A 024 0 =

Page 103

C-5.5.2 The total area of cross-section of the bar forming rectangular hoop and cross ties, A
sh
to be used
as special confining reinforcement shall not be less than
0.24 1.0
g
ck
sh
r y
A
f
A Sh
A f
(
=
(

or,
0.096
ck
sh
y
f
A Sh
f
=
where
h = longer dimension of the rectangular confining hoop measured to its outer face
A
r
= Area of confined core concrete in the rectangular hoop measure to its outer side dimensions.
Note: Crossties where used should be of the same diameter as the peripheral hoop bar and A
k
shall be
measured as the overall core area, regardless the hoop area. The hooks of crossties shall engage
peripheral longitudinal bars.

C-5.5.2.1 Unsupported length of rectangular hoops shall not exceed 300mm.
C-5.5.3 For ductile detailing of hollow cross-section of pier special literature may be referred. Some of
the provisions for hollow RC piers are:
i) For hollow cylindrical piers, in the plastic hinge region, the ratio of internal diameter to thickness should
not exceed 8.0.
ii) For wall type hollow piers, in the plastic region, the ratio of clear width of the wall to thickness should
not exceed 8.0.
C-6 Design of Components between the Hinges

Once the position of the plastic hinges has been determined and these regions detailed to ensure
a ductile performance, the structure between the plastic hinges is designed considering the capacity of
the plastic hinges. The intention here is:
(i) To reliably protect the bridge against collapse so that it will be available for service after a
major shaking.
(ii) To localize structural damage to the plastic hinge regions where it can be controlled and
repaired.
The process of designing the structure between the plastic hinges is known as capacity design.

C-6.1 Column Shear and Transverse Reinforcement

To avoid a brittle shear failure design shear force for pier shall be based on overstrength moment
capacities of the plastic hinges and given by:

h
M
V
O
u

=


Page 104

where
=
O
M the sum of the overstrength moment capacities of the hinges resisting lateral loads, as
detailed. In case of twin pier this would be the sum of the overstrength moment capacities at the top and
bottom of the column. For single stem piers the overstrength moment capacity at the bottom only should
be used.

h = clear height of the column in the case of a column in double curvature; height to calculated point of
contra-flexure in the case of a column in single curvature.

Outside the hinge regions, the spacing of hoops shall not exceed half the least lateral dimension of the
column, nor 300 mm.

C-7 Design of Joints:

Beam-column joints should be designed properly to resist the forces caused by axial loads,
bending and shear forces in the joining members. Forces in the joint should be determined by considering
a free body of the joint with the forces on the joint member boundaries properly represented.

The joint shear strength should be entirely provided by transverse reinforcement. Where the joint
is not confined adequately (i.e. where minimum pier and pile cap width is less than three column
diameters) the special confinement requirement should be satisfied.
C-7.1 Ductility of all the joints in the structure may be ensured by offsetting the splices / couplers where
the area of reinforcement provided is at least twice the required by analysis staggered 600 mm minimum.
C-7.2 The pier foundation joint or the slab pier joint (in case of integral slab bridges ) must be
checked for principal tensile stress in the concrete around the junction , following an appropriate
prevailing method. The un-cracked joint may be designed by keeping the principal stresses in the joint
region below direct tension strength of concrete. If the joint cannot be prevented from cracking, additional
vertical stirrups may be added to the external concrete region around the column.
The joint stresses may be assumed to disperse 45 around the column as per prevailing practices.
Following references may be useful:
1. Paulay, T. and Priestley, M.J.N., Seismic Design of Reinforced Concrete and Masonry Buildings
John Wiley and Sons. Inc., 1992.
2. Xiao, Y., Seismic Design of Reinforced Concrete Bridges, McGraw Hill , 1989.


Page 105

Elevation Section AA
a. Single column or pier type substructures

Elevation Section AA
(b) Multi-column or frame type substructures
Fig. C-1: Potential location of plastic hinges in substructures (Clause C-0).
Earthquake
Earthquake
Force
Potential Plastic
Hinge Regions
Pile Cap
Pile
Column Cap
A
A
Piles
Column Cap
Earthquake Force
Earthquake
Potential Plastic
Hinge Regions
A
A

Page 106

(c) Rectangular hoops
(Fig. C-2: Transverse reinforcement in column (Clause C-4)
(a) Welding in Circular hoops (b) Lapping in circular hoops

Page 107

Appendix (D) Zone Factors for Some Important Towns
(Clause 8.1)

Town Zone Zone Factor, Z Town Zone Zone Factor, Z
Agra III 0.16 Kanchipuram III 0.16
Ahmedabad III 0.16 Kanpur III 0.16
Ajmer II 0.10 Karwar III 0.16
Allahabad II 0.10 Kohima V 0.36
Almora IV 0.24 Kolkata III 0.16
Ambala IV 0.24 Kota II 0.10
Amritsar IV 0.24 Kurnool II 0.10
Asansol III 0.24 Lucknow III 0.16
Aurangabad II 0.10 Ludhiyana IV 0.24
Bahraich IV 0.24 Madurai II 0.10
Bangalore II 0.10 Mandi V 0.36
Barauni IV 0.24 Mangalore III 0.16
Bareilly III 0.16 Monghyr IV 0.24
Belgaum III 0.16 Moradabad IV 0.24
Bhatinda III 0.16 Mumbai III 0.16
Bhilai II 0.10 Mysore II 0.10
Bhopal II 0.10 Nagpur II 0.10
Bhubaneswar III 0.16 Nagarjunasagar II 0.10
Bhuj V 0.36 Nainital IV 0.24
Bijapur III 0.16 Nasik III 0.16
Bikaner III 0.16 Nellore III 0.16
Bokaro III 0.16 Osmanabad III 0.16
Bulandshahr IV 0.24 Panjim III 0.16
Burdwan III 0.16 Patiala III 0.16
Calicut III 0.16 Patna IV 0.24
Chandigarh IV 0.24 Pilibhit IV 0.24
Chennai III 0.16 Pondicherry II 0.10
Chitradurga II 0.10 Pune III 0.16
Coimatore III 0.16 Raipur II 0.10
Cuddalore III II 0.16 Rajkot III 0.16
Cuttack III 0.16 Ranchi II 0.10
Darbhanga V 0.36 Roorkee IV 0.24
Darjeeling IV 0.24 Rourkela II 0.10
Dharwad III 0.16 Sadiya V 0.36
Dehra Dun IV 0.24 Salem III 0.16
Dharampuri III 0.16 Simla IV 0.24
Delhi IV 0.24 Sironj II 0.10
Durgapur III 0.16 Solapur III 0.16
Gangtok IV 0.24 Srinagar V 0.36
Guwahati V 0.36 Surat III 0.16
Goa III 0.16 Tarapur III 0.16
Gulbarga II 0.10 Tezpur V 0.36
Gaya III 0.16 Thane III 0.16
Gorakhpur IV 0.24 Thanjavur II 0.10
Hyderabad II 0.10 Thiruvananthapuram III 0.16
Imphal V 0.36 Tiruchirappali II 0.10
Jabalpur III 0.16 Thiruvennamalai III 0.16
Jaipur II 0.10 Udaipur II 0.10
Jamshedpur II 0.10 Vadodara III 0.16
Jhansi II 0.10 Varanasi III 0.16
Jodhpur II 0.10 Vellore III 0.16
Jorhat V 0.36 Vijayawada III 0.16
Kakrapara III 0.16 VIshakhapatnam II 0.10
Kalapakkam III 0.16

Page 108

Appendix (E) Pushover Analysis
(Clause 12.0)
E-1 Pushover analysis is performed to explicitly ascertain the displacement capacity of the bridge
structure. This analysis is explained for the reinforced concrete structures. This is done with the help of
static nonlinear analysis, in which nonlinear properties of concrete and reinforcing steel are used. The
displacement capacity shall be greater than the displacement demand. The procedure explained herein,
is based on Caltrans (2006).

E-2 Displacement demand
The displacement demand is twice the elastic displacement obtained using a linear analysis. This
displacement demand is doubled due to use of factor Z/2 in the seismic force calculation for linear
analysis. The single mode method (Clause 9.0) or multi mode method (Clause 10.0) may be used as per
the requirements of Clause 8.3.1. From the displacement demand, A
D
, the displacement ductility demand
is obtained as
Y D D
/ =
where, A
Y
is yield displacement of the system from its initial position to the formation of plastic hinge.
E-3 Displacement capacity
The local displacement capacity of a member is obtained from its curvature capacity, which is determined
from the moment curvature (M-|) analysis. The expected stress strain curve or material properties of
concrete and steel are used. For confined concrete, the Manders model shown in Fig. E-1 is used, and
the stress-strain model shown in Fig. E-2 is used for steel. The moment curvature analysis obtains the
curvatures associated with a range of moments for a cross-section, based on the strain compatibility force
equilibrium conditions. The M-| curve (Fig. E-3) can be idealized with an elastic perfectly plastic curve to
estimate the plastic moment capacity of a cross-section. The idealized plastic moment capacity is
obtained by balancing the areas between the actual curve and the idealized curve beyond the first
reinforcing bar yield point (Fig. E-3).

Fig E-1 Stress strain model for concrete
Fig E-2 Stress strain model for steel

Page 109

Here, M
p
is the plastic moment capacity , M
y
is the first reinforcing bar yield point & M
ne
is the expected
nominal moment capacity, |
u
is the curvature capacity at the failure limit state defined as the concrete
strain reaching c
cu
or the confinement reinforcing steel reaching the reduced ultimate strain c
cu
R
. Similarly,
|
Y
is the idealized yield curvature defined by an elastic-perfectly plastic representation of M-| curve (Fig.
E-3).The idealized plastic curvature capacity, |
P
, which is assumed constant over plastic hinge length, L
P

is given by |
P
= |
u
- |
Y.
The hinge length, L
P
in mm is given by
L
P
= 0.08L + 0.022f
ye
d
bl
> 0.044f
ye
d
bl
for columns (mm, MPa)
L
P
= G + 0.044f
ye
d
bl
for horizontally isolated flared columns

Here, G is the gap between the isolated flare and the soffit of the bent cap. With reference to Fig. E-4, the
plastic rotation capacity, u
P
= L
P
x |
P
and

Then, the total displacement capacity of the column is given by
A
c
= A
Y
col
+ A
P

where, A
Y
col
is the idealized yield displacement of the column (Fig. E-4).

Fig. E-4 Lateral displacement capacity of fixed base column
|
.
|
\
|
= A
2
P
P P
L
L u
Fig. E-3 Moment curvature (M-| ) curve
Idealized curve
Actual curve

Page 110

The displacement capacity A
c
thus obtained shall be greater than the demand A
D
obtained from linear
static analysis. The above described procedure to obtain the displacement capacity is for a cantilever
column, fixed at the base and free at the top. Similarly, analysis can be done for fixed-fixed column. For a
frame type substructure, M-| curve is to be given for each member and the analysis becomes more
involved, for which help of standard software may be required.
It shall be ensured that the flexural hinge occurs prior to shear failure of column, and hence, the nominal
shear capacity shall be greater than the shear force corresponding to plastic hinge. Similarly, capacity
protection shall be provided to the other adjacent components such as bent cap, pile cap etc.


Page 111

Appendix (F) Dynamic Earth Pressure
(Clause 14.3.1)
F-1. Dynamic earth pressure on abutments

F-1.1 Lateral Earth Pressure - The pressure from earth fill behind retaining walls during an earthquake
shall be as given in F.1.1.1 to F.1.4.1. In the analysis, cohesion has been neglected. This assumption is
on conservative side.

F-1.1.1 Active Pressure Due to Earth fill - The general conditions encountered for the design of
retaining walls are illustrated in Fig. F 1. The total active pressure exerted against the wall shall be the
maximum of the two given by the following expression:
2
1
(1 )
2
AE h AE
E H A K = (F.1.)
Where the seismic active earth pressure coefficient K
AE
is given by
2
2
2
cos ( ) sin( )sin( )
1
cos( )cos( ) cos cos cos( )
AE
i
E
i
| u | | | u
| u | u | | u
(
+ c
= +
(
c + + c + +
(

(F.2.)
and where
= unit weight of soil (kN/m
3
)
H = height of wall in (m)
=angle of friction of soil (
0
)
=angle of friction between soil and abutment (
0
)
A
h
=elastic seismic coefficient [see Clause 9.1]
A
v
= vertical seismic coefficient its value being taken consistently throughout the stability analysis of wall
Failure Surface
K
h
W
w
(1-K
v
)
Gravity Wall
Active wedge
E
AE
Failure Surface
(1-K
v
)
w
K
h
W
Cantilever Wall
Figure F 1: Seismic Active Earth Pressure on Retaining Walls
Active wedge
E
AE

i
k
v
w
s

k
h
W
s

W
s

-|
o
|
R
h
a

H
E
AE


Page 112

equal to 2/3 A
h
. (
0
)
i=backfill slope angle (
0
)
=slope of wall to the vertical, negative as shown (
0
)
F.1.1.2 Point of Application From the total pressure computed as above subtract the static active
pressure obtained by putting in the expression given by equation F.1and F.2. The
remainder is the dynamic increment. The static component of the total pressure shall be applied at an
elevation H/3 above the base of the wall. The point of application of the dynamic increment shall be
assumed to be at mid-height of the wall.

F.1.2 Passive Pressure Due to Earth fill The total passive pressure against the walls shall be the
minimum of the two given by the following expression:
2
1
(1 )
2
PE V PE
E H A K = (F.3.)
Where the seismic passive earth pressure coefficient K
PE
is given by

2
2
2
cos ( ) sin( )sin( )
1
cos( ) cos( ) cos cos cos( )
PE
i
E
i
| u | | | u
| u | u | | u
(
+ + c +
=
(
c + c +
(

(F.4.)
F.1.2.2 Point of application - From the static passive pressure obtained by putting 0
h v
k k u = = = in the
expression given by equation F.3 and F.4, subtracts the total pressure computed as above. The
remainder is the dynamic decrement .The static component of the total pressure shall be applied at an
elevation H/3 above the base of the wall. The point of application of the dynamic decrement shall be
assumed to be at an elevation 0.66 H above the base of the wall.

F.1.3 Active Pressure Due to Uniform Surcharge - The active pressure against the wall due to a
uniform surcharge of intensity q per unit area of the inclined earth fill surface shall be:
cos
( ) (1 )
cos( )
AE q V AE
qH
E A K
i
|
|
=
(F.5.)
F.1.3.1 Point of application- The dynamic increment in active pressure due to uniform surcharge shall
be applied at an elevation of 0.66H above the base of the wall, while the static component shall be
applied at mid-height of the wall.
F.1.4 Passive Pressure Due to Uniform Surcharge-The passive pressure against the wall due to a
uniform surcharge of intensity q per unit area of the inclined earth fill shall be:
cos
( )
cos( )
PE q PE
qH
P K
i
|
|
=

(F.6.)
F.1.4.1 Point of application- The dynamic decrement in passive pressures due to uniform surcharge
shall be applied at an elevation of 0.66h above the base of the walls while the static component shall be
applied at mid-height of the wall
0 = = = A A
h v
v
A
h
A
tan
=
1
1 -

Page 113

F.2 Effect of Saturation on Lateral earth Pressure
F.2.1 For saturated earthfill, the saturated unit weight of the soil shall be adopted in the Equation F.1
F.2.2 For submerged earthfill, the dynamic increment (or decrement) in active and passive earth
pressures during earthquakes shall be found from expressions given in equation F.2 and F.4 with the
following modifications:
a) The value of o shall be taken as the value 1/2 of o for dry backfill.
b) The value of shall be taken as follows:
(
=

) 1 (
tan
1
v b
h t
A
A

u (F.7.)
Where
= saturated unit weight of soil (kN/m
3
)
= submerged unit weight of soil (kN/m
3
)
A
h
= elastic seismic coefficient
=vertical seismic coefficient= 2/3 A
h

c) Buoyant unit weight shall be used in equation F.1 and F.3 as the case may be
d) From the value of earth pressure found out as above, subtract the value of earth pressure determined
by putting but using buoyant unit weight. The remainder shall be dynamic increment.
F.2.3 Hydrodynamic pressure on account of water contained in earthfill shall not be considered separately
as the effect of acceleration on water has been considered indirectly.

F.3 Partially Submerged Backfill
The situations with partial submerged backfill may be handled by weighing unit weights based on the
volume of soil in the failure wedge above and below the phreatic surface as shown in Figure F2. Equation
F.7 shall be used to calculate using instead of . Then total active and passive pressure can be
obtained from equation F.1 and F.2 using equivalent unit weight ( )
F.4 Concrete or Masonry Inertia Forces - Concrete or masonry inertia forces due to 'horizontal and
vertical earthquake accelerations are the products of the weight of wall and the horizontal and vertical
seismic coefficients respectively.

NOTE - To ensure adequate factor of safety under earthquake condition, the design shall be such that the
factor of safety against sliding shall be 1.2 and the resultant of all the forces including earthquake force
shall fall within the middle three-fourths of the base width provided. In addition, bearing pressure in soil
should not exceed the permissible limit.

v
A
0 = = = A A
h v

Page 114

Figure F 2: Effective unit weight for partially submerged backfills
Tan(90
0
-o) =

OR

Area = Area
1
+ Area
2

e
=

e
=

e
=

l
h
2

h
1

h
l
2

o
Notes:
(1) Exact solution when r
u
= 0.
(2) Approximate Solution when r
u
> 0.


Page 115

Appendix (G) Simplified Procedure for Evaluation of
Liquefaction Potential
(Clause 15.4)
G-1 Cohesionless Soils
Due to the difficulties in obtaining and laboratory testing of undisturbed representative samples from most
potentially liquefiable sites, in-situ testing is often relied upon for assessing the liquefaction potential of
cohesionless soils. Liquefaction potential assessment procedures involving both the SPT and CPT are
widely used in practice. The most common procedure used in engineering practice for the assessment of
liquefaction potential of sands and silts is the Simplified Procedure
1
. The procedure may be used with
either SPT blow count, CPT tip resistance or shear wave velocity measured within the deposit as
discussed below:
Step 1: The subsurface data used to assess liquefaction susceptibility should include the location of the
water table, either SPT blow count (N), or tip resistance of a standard CPT cone ( )
c
q or the shear wave
velocity, mean grain size( )
50
D , unit weight, and fines content of the soil (percent by weight passing the
IS Standard Sieve No. 75 ).
Step 2: Evaluate the total vertical stress ( )
v
o and effective vertical stress ( )
v
o' for all potentially
liquefiable layers within the deposit.
Step 3: The following equation can be used to evaluate the stress reduction factor
d
r :
m 3 2 z 9.15 for z 0267 . 0 174 . 1 r
and m 9.15 z for z 00765 . 0 1 r
d
d
s < =
s =

where z is the depth below the ground surface in meters.
Step 4: Calculate the critical stress ratio induced by the design earthquake, CSR, as;
( ) ( )
v v d max
/ r g / a 65 . 0 CSR o o ' =
where
v
o

and
v
o '

are the total and effective vertical stresses, respectively, at depth z,
max
a is the peak
horizontal ground acceleration (PHGA), and g is the acceleration due to gravity. In the absence of site-
specific estimates of
max
a , the PHGA may be estimated by
max
/ / a g ZIS g = , where Z is the zone factor
obtained from Table-3 as described earlier, I is the importance factor as per Table-4 and / Sa g is
spectral acceleration coefficient obtained from Clause 9.1. For estimating the vertical total and effective
stresses, the water table should be assumed at the highest piezometric elevation likely to be encountered
during the operational life of the dam or the embankment except where there is a free standing water
column. For assessing liquefaction potential of soil layers underneath free standing water column, the
height of free standing water should be neglected and water table should be assumed at the soil surface.

1
Youd, T.L., Idriss, I.M., Andrus, R.D., Arango, I., Castro, G., Chtristian, J.T., Dobry, R., Finn, W.D.L.,
Harder, L.F., Hynes, M.E., Ishihara, K., Koester, J.P., Liao, S.S.C., Marcuson III, W.F., Martin, G.R.,
Mitchell, J.K., Moriwaki, Y., Power, M.S., Robertson, P.K., Seed, R.B., Stokoe II, K.H. 2001. Liquefaction
resistance of soils: Summary report from the 1996 NCEER and 1998 NCEER/NSF workshops on
evaluation of liquefaction resistance of soils. J. of Geotech. and Geoenv. Engrg., ASCE. 127(10): 817-
833.

Page 116

For assessing liquefaction susceptibility using the SPT go to Step 5a, for the CPT go to Step 5b, and the
shear wave velocity go to Step 5c, to compute cyclic resistance ratio (CRR
7.5
) for M
w
7.5 earthquakes.
Cyclic resistance ratio, CRR for sites for earthquakes of other magnitudes or for sites underlain by non-
horizontal soil layers or where vertical effective stress exceeds 1 atmospheric pressure is estimated by
multiplying CRR
7.5
by three correction factors, K
m
, K
and K
respectively. Here correction factors for

magnitude sloped stratigraphy and effective stress has been denoted with symbols K
m
, K
and K
,
respectively. These correction factors are obtained from figures G-1, G-2 and G-3.
Step 5a:
Evaluate the standardized SPT blow count (
60
N ) which is the standard penetration test blow count for a
hammer with an efficiency of 60 percent. Specifications of the standardized equipment corresponding to
an efficiency of 60 percent are given in Table G-1 in the absence of test-specific energy measurement.
The standardized SPT blow count is obtained from the equation:
60 60
.C N N =
where
60
C is the product of various correction factors. Correction factors recommended by various
investigators for some common SPT configurations are provided in Table G-2.
Calculate the normalized standardized SPT blow count, ( )
60 1
N using ( )
60 60 1
N C N
N
= , where ( )
60 1
N

is
the standardized blow count
normalized to an effective overburden pressure of 98 kPa in order to eliminate the influence of confining
pressure. Stress normalization factor C
N
is calculated from following expression:
( )
2 / 1
/
v a N
P C o' =
Subjected to 2 s
N
C , where P
a
is the atmospheric pressure. However, the closed-form expression
proposed by Liao and Whitman (1986) may also be used:
( )
2 / 1
/ 1 79 . 9
v N
C o' =
The Critical Resistance Ratio (CRR) or the resistance of a soil layer against liquefaction is estimated from
Figure A-5 for representative ( )
60 1
N value of the deposit.
Step 5b:
Calculate normalized cone tip resistance, ( )
cs N c
q
1
, using ( ) ( ) ( )
a c
n
v a c cs N c
P q P K q o' =
1

where
c
q is the measured cone tip resistance corrected for thin layers, exponent n has a value of 0.5 for
sand and 1 for clay, and K
c
is the correction factor for grain characteristics estimated as follows.
64 . 1 for 88 . 17 75 . 33 63 . 21 581 . 5 403 . 0
and 64 1 for 0 . 1
2 3 4
> + + =
s =
c c c c c c
c c
I I I I I K
. I K

The soil behavior type index,
c
I , is given by ( ) ( )
2 2
log 22 . 1 log 47 . 3 F Q I
c
+ + =
where ( ) | |( )
n
v a a v c
P P q Q o o ' = , ( ) | | 100 q f F
v c
= o , f is the measured sleeve friction and n
has the same values as described earlier. Assess susceptibility of a soil to liquefaction using Figure G-6.
The CRR for a soil layer is estimated from Figure A-6 using the ( )
cs N c
q
1
value representative of the layer.
Although soils with I
c
>2.6 are deemed non-liquefiable, such deposits may soften and deform during
earthquakes. General guidance is not available to deal with such possibilities.
Softening and deformability of deposits with I
c
>2.6 should thus be treated on a material specific basis.

Page 117

Step 5c:
Calculate normalized shear wave velocity,
1 s
V , for clean sands using: ( )
25 . 0
1 v a s s
P V V o' = subjected to
s s
V V s 3 . 1
1
.
The CRR for a soil layer is estimated from Figure G-7 using the
1 s
V value representative of the layer.
Appropriate CRR-
1 s
V curve should be used in this assessment depending on the fines content of the
layer.
Step 6: Correct CRR
7.5
for earthquake magnitude (M
w
), stress level and for initial static shear using
correction factors k
m
, k
o
and k
o
, respectively, according to:
o o
k k k CRR CRR
M
. .
5 . 7
=
where, k
m
, k
o
k
o
are correction factors, respectively for magnitude correction (Figure G-1), effective
overburden correction (Figure G-2) and sloping ground correction (Figure G-3), in combination with Figure
G-4. The Critical Stress ratio CRR
7.5
is estimated from Figure G-5 for SPT, Figure G-6 for CPT and Figure
G-7 for shear wave velocity data.
Step 7: Calculate the factor of safety against initial liquefaction, FS , as:
CSR CRR FS / =

where CSR is as estimated in Step 4 and CRR is from Step 6a, 6b or 6c. When the design ground
motion is conservative, earthquake-related permanent ground deformation is generally small if 1 . 1 FS > .
G-2 Cohesive Soils
Cohesive soils are often deemed to be non-liquefiable if any one of the following conditions is not
satisfied (Figure G-8a):
- Percent (by weight) finer than 5 m s 15 %
- w
l
s 35 %
- w
n
s 0.9 w
l

where w
l
is the Liquid Limit and and w
n
is the Natural Moisture Content, respectively. These conditions
are collectively referred to as the Chinese Criteria. Since the Chinese Criteria are not always
conservative, Seed et al. (2003)
2
recommend the following alternative (Figure G-8b):
- Cohesive soils should be considered liquefiable if w
l
s 37 %, I
p
s 12 % and w
n
s 0.85 w
l
, where I
p
is
the Plasticity Index
- Liquefaction susceptibility of soils should be considered marginal if w
l
s 47 %, I
p
s 20 % and
w
n
s 0.85 w
l
, where I
p
is the Plasticity Index and for such soils liquefaction susceptibility should be
obtained from laboratory testing of undisturbed representative samples
Cohesive soils should be considered non-liquefiable if w
l
> 47 % or I
p
> 20 % or w
n
> 0.85 w
l
, where I
p
is
the Plasticity Index

2
B. Seed, K. O. Cetin, R. E. S. Moss, A. M. Kammerer, J. Wu, J. M. Pestana, M. F. Riemer, R.B. Sancio, J.D. Bray,
R. E. Kayen, and A. Faris 2003. Advances in Soil Liquefaction Engineering: A Unified and Consistent Frame
Work, Proceedings of 26th Annual ASCE Los Angeles Geotechnical Spring Seminar, Keynote Presentation,
Long Beach, California.


Page 118

Table G-1: Recommended Standardized SPT Equipment.
Element Standard Specification
Sampler Standard split-spoon sampler with: (a) Outside
diameter = 51 mm, and Inside Diameter = 35 mm
(constant i.e., no room for liners in the barrel)
Drill Rods A or AW-type for depths less than 15.2 m; N- or
NW-type for greater depths
Hammer Standard (safety) hammer: (a) drop hammer (b)
weight = 65 kg; (c) drop = 750 mm (d) delivers 60%
of the theoretical potential energy
Rope Two wraps of rope around the pulley
Borehole 100 to 130mm diameter borehole
Drill Bit Upward deflection of drilling mud (tricone or baffled
drag bit)
Blow Count Rate 30 to 40 blows per minute
Penetration Resistant Count Measured over range of 150 to 450 mm of
penetration into the ground
Notes:
(1) If the equipment meets the above specifications, N = N
60
and only a correction for overburden are needed.
(2) This specification is essentially the same to the ASTM D 1586 standard.

Page 119

Table G-2: Correction Factors for Non-Standard SPT Procedures and Equipment.

Notes : N = Uncorrected SPT blow count.
C
60
= C
HT
C
HW
C
SS
C
RL
C
BD
N
60
= N C
60

C
N
= Correction factor for overburden pressure
(N
1
)
60
= C
N
N
60
= C
N
C
60
N
Correction for Correction Factor
Nonstandard Hammer Type
(DH= doughnut hammer; ER =
energy ratio)
C
HT
=0.75 for DH with rope and pulley
C
HT
=1.33 for DH with trip/auto and ER = 80
Nonstandard Hammer Weight or
Height of fall
(H = height of fall in mm; W = hammer
weight in kg)
762 5 . 63
=
W H
C
HW

Nonstandard Sampler Setup
(standard samples with room for
liners, but used without liners
C
SS
=1.10 for loose sand
C
SS
=1.20 for dense sand
Nonstandard Sampler Setup
(standard samples with room for
liners, but liners are used)
C
SS
=0.90 for loose sand
C
SS
=0.80 for dense sand
Short Rod Length C
RL
=0.75 for rod length 0-3 m
Nonstandard Borehole Diameter C
BD
=1.05 for 150 mm borehole diameter
C
BD
=1.15 for 200 mm borehole diameter

Figure G-1: Magnitude Correction factor
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

S
c
a
l
i
n
g

F
a
c
t
o
r
,

K
m


Page 120

Figure G-2: Stress correction factor

Figure G-3: Correction for initial static shear (Note: Initial static shear for an embankment
may be estimated from Figure A-4)

v ho
/ o t o =


Page 121

| |
Z
P
x o o| o
to
= +

2
1
2 log
x e
R
x x
R
o o| o
(
= + +
(

xz
P
Z t o
to
=

1
1 2 2 2
2
2 1
( log )
e
R P
x z
R
o
o| o o
o to

= + + +
` `
) )

1
2 2 2
2
max
1
( )
e
R PZ
Log
R
t o
to
= +
Figure G-4: Initial static shear under an embankment

Page 122

Figure G-5: Relationship between CRR and (N
1
)
60
for sand for M
w,
7.5 earthquakes
C
R
R
7
.
5

(N
1
)
60


Page 123

Figure G-6: Relationship between CRR and (q
c1N
)
cs
for M
w,
7.5 earthquakes

C
R
R
7
.
5

C
R
R
7
.
5

(q
c1N
)
cs
Vs
1
m/s
Figure G-7: Relationship between CRR and Vs
1
for M
w,
7.5 earthquakes

Page 124

Figure G-8a: The Chinese Criteria (Seed et.al., 2003)

Figure G-8b: Proposal of Seed et al. (2003)
Liquefiable if %finer
than 5m 15
w
l

(
%
)

0 100
0
100
w
n
= 0.9w
l
w
l
= 35

Not Liquefiable
I
p

(
%
)

0 100
0
100
Liquefiable if W
n
0.85W
l
12
20
47
Test if W
n
0.85W
l
37
W
l
(%)

Page 125

Appendix (H) System property modification factors
(Clause 19.3)
H-1 General
K
d,max
= K
d
x
max,Kd
and K
d,min
= K
d
x
min,Kd

Q
d,max
= Q
d
x
max,Qd
and Q
d,min
= Q
d
x
min,Qd

These factors are given by
min,Kd
=
min,t,Kd
x
min,a,Kd
x
min,v,Kd
x
min,tr,Kd
x
min,c,Kd
x
min,scrag,Kd

max,Kd
=
max,t,Kd
x
max,a,Kd
x
max,v,Kd
x
max,tr,Kd
x
max,c,Kd
x
max,scrag,Kd

min,Qd
=
min,t,Qd
x
min,a,Qd
x
min,v,Qd
x
min,tr,Qd
x
min,c,Qd
x
min,scrag,Qd

max,Qd
=
max,t,Qd
x
max,a,Qd
x
max,v,Qd
x
max,tr,Qd
x
max,c,Qd
x
max,scrag,Qd

Where,
t = factors to account for effect of temperature
a = factors to account for effect of aging
v = factors to account for effect of velocity (including freq. for elastomeric bearings)
tr = factors to account for effect of travel (wear)
c = factors to account for effect of contamination (in sliding system)
scrag = factors to account for effect of scragging a bearing (in elastomeric systems)

H-2 Elastomeric bearings

Factors for
min

min
= 1.0 for K
d
and Q
d

Factors for
max

max,v
= Established by test
max,c
= 1.0
max,tr
= Established by test
max,a
= See Table G 2.1
max,t
= See Table G 2.2
max,scrag
= See Table G 2.3

Page 126

max,t

Minimum Temp
for design
d
Q
d
K
C
0

1
HDRB
2
HDRB
2
LDRB
1
HDRB
2
HDRB
2
LDRB
21 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
0 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.1
-10 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.2 1.1
-30 2.5 2.0 1.5 2.0 1.4 1.3
HDRB = High damping rubber bearing
LDRB = Low damping rubber bearing
1
Large difference in scragged and unscragged properties (more than 25%)
2
Small differences in scragged and unscragged properties

max,scrag

d
Q
d
K
LDRB
HDRB
with 15 0.
eff

HDRB with
15 0.
eff

LDRB
HDRB with
15 0.
eff

HDRB
with 15 0.
eff

1.0 1.2 1.5 1.0 1.2 1.8

max,a

d
K
d
Q
Low-Damping
natural rubber
1.1 1.1
High-Damping rubber with small difference between scragged and
unscragged properties
1.2 1.2
High-Damping rubber with large difference between scragged and
unscragged properties
1.3 1.3
Lead - 1.0
Neoprene 3.0 3.0
Table H - 2.1: Value of
max,a

max,t

max,scrag


Page 127

H-3 Sliding Isolation system

Factors for
min

min
= 1.0 for K
d
and Q
d

max,a

Unlubricated
PTFE
Lubricated
PTFE
Bimetallic Interfaces

Sealed Unsealed Sealed Unsealed Sealed Unsealed
Normal 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 2.0 2.2
Severe 1.2 1.5 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.5

max,c

Unlubricated
PTFE
Lubricated
PTFE
Bimetallic
Interfaces
Sealed with stainless steel surface facing down 1.0 1.0 1.0
Sealed with stainless steel surface facing up* 1.1 1.1 1.1
Unsealed with stainless steel surface facing down 1.1 3.0 1.1
Unsealed with stainless steel surface facing up Not Allowed Not Allowed Not
Allowed

max,c
Cumulative Travel

(M)
Unlubricated
PTFE*
Lubricated
PTFE
1005
< 2010 1.1 1.1 To be established by test
> 2010 1.1 3.0 To be established by test

Factors for
max

max,scrag
= does not apply
max,v
= does not apply
max,a
=

See Table H 3.1
max,c
=

See Table H 3.2
max,tr
=

See Table H 3.3
max,t
=

See Table H 3.4
Condition
Environment
Table H 3.1 : Value of
max,a

Table H 3.2: Value of
max,c

max,tr


Page 128

* Test data based on 1/8-inch sheet, recessed by 1/16 inch and bonded.

Minimum Temp
for design
max,t

C
0

Unlubricated
PTFE
Lubricated
PTFE
21 1.0 1.0
0 1.1 1.3
-10 1.2 1.5
-30 1.5 3.0
To be established by
test

max,t


Page 129

Appendix (I) Post Earthquake Operations and
Inspections
I.0 - Post Earthquake Operations and Inspections
The response of railway tracks and bridges to an earthquake would depend on distance from
epicenter and nature of attenuation. The post earthquake train operations in the region shall be
cautiously started. The following guidelines have been based on AREMA Railway Engineering
Manual.
I.1 - Operations
After an earthquake is reported, the train dispatcher shall notify all the trains and engines within
150 km radius of the reporting area to run at restricted speed until magnitude and epicenter have
been determined by proper authority. After determination of the magnitude and epicenter,
response levels given in Table I-1 and I-2 will govern the operations.

Table I-1 Specified Radius of Different Earthquake
Earthquake
Magnitude
(Richter)
Response
Level
Specified
Radius
0- 4.9 I
5.0 5.9 II 80 km
6.0 6.9
III
II
160 km
240 km
7.0 or above
III
II
*
*

* As directed but not less than 6.0-6.9
Table I-2 Details of Response Level
Response
level
Details
I
Resume maximum operation speed. The need for the continuation of inspections
will be determined by proper authority responsible for maintenance of P.Way.
II
All trains and engines will run at restricted speed within a specified radius of the
epicenter until inspections have been made and appropriate speeds established by
proper authority.
III
All trains and engines within the specified radius of the epicenter must stop and
may not proceed until proper inspections have been performed and appropriate
speed restrictions established by proper authority. For earthquakes of Richter
magnitude 7.0 or above, operations shall be directed by proper authority, but the
radii shall not be less than that specified for earthquakes between 6.0 and 6.99.


Page 130

I.2 - Post Earthquake Inspection
The following list provides general guidelines for an inspection procedure:
I.2.1 - Track and Roadbed
During the post earthquake inspection, following items shall be observed:
o Line, surface and cross level irregularities caused by embankment slides or liquefaction
o Track buckling or pull apart due to soil movement
o Offset across fault rupture
o Disturbed ballast
o Cracks or slope failures in embankments
o Slides and/or potential slides in cuts, including loose rocks that could fall in an aftershock
o Scour due to tsunami in coastal area

Potential for scour or ponding against embankment due to changes in water course
I.2.2 - Bridges
Following an earthquake, inspectors may need to travel by rail between bridges. River bed may
get flooded, hence, to quickly reach the bearings; alternate access routes shall be made. In steel
bridges following shall be observed carefully:
o Displaced or damaged bearings
o Stretched or broken anchor bolts
o Distress in viaduct tower
o Buckled columns or bracings
o Tension distress in main members or bracings
o Displaced substructure elements

Concrete bridge inspection shall include the following :
o Displacement at bearings
o Displaced substructure elements
o Cracks in superstructure
o Cracks in substructure

Inspection team shall also look for items which may fall on track. At an overpass, attention shall
be given to reduced span at bearings, damages to column and restrainer system. If there are
adjacent buildings to railway track, then such buildings shall also be inspected to ensure if they
can withstand aftershocks. Inspection team shall also look for damages to the powerlines
passing over the track.


Page 131



Part 2 Explanatory Examples


Page 132

Example 1 Railway Bridge with Simply Supported Steel
Superstructure

1. Problem Statement:

A three span simply supported Railway Bridge with steel superstructure of open web girder and ballast
less track has equal spans of 76.2 m. Train load is Heavy Mineral type (HM loading). Bridge is located in
Zone V. The soil at the bridge site is of hard type (Type I). The circular RC pier has 12 m height and 2 m
diameter. Height of submerged pier is 4 m. Analyze the bridge for seismic loads at Ultimate Limit State.

Solution:
The lateral loads in transverse and longitudinal directions are calculated. Since the spans of the bridge are
simply supported, one pier can be considered as single degree of freedom system with half weight of
spans on either side. Hence, seismic coefficient method can be used for seismic load calculation. Seismic
loads will be obtained from IITK-RDSO Guidelines and also from provisions of existing Bridge Rules
and IRS Concrete Code. A comparison of loads obtained from IITK-RDSO Guidelines and existing
Bridge Rules will be presented.

1.1. Preliminary Data

The schematic diagram of the bridge is shown below in Figure 1.1. Grade of pier concrete and
reinforcement are M30 and Fe415 respectively. Density of concrete is 25 kN/m
3
. RC pier has ductile
detailing.

76.2 m
Pier Height = 12 m
G.L.
76.2 m 76.2 m
Figure 1.1 Geometric details of the bridge

Page 133

1.2. Weight Calculation

1.2.1. Dead Load Calculation

Dead Load (DL) per meter of 76.2 m girder
without track load = 43.7 kN/m
(As per data supplied by RDSO)

DL per meter of ballast less track = 0.4 kN/m

DL per meter of superstructure
= DL of girder + DL of track
= 43.7 + 0.4 = 44.1 kN/m

Total DL of superstructure
= 44.1 x 76.2 = 3360 kN

DL of one pier =

= x 2
2
/4

x 12 x 25 = 942 kN

Total DL of structure
= DL of superstructure + 80% DL of pier
(Section 9.1.1)
= 3360 + 0.8 x 942 = 4114 kN

1.2.2. Live Load

Live Load (LL) for HM loading on 76.2 m span
= 128.6 kN/m

Total live load = 128.6 x 76.2 = 9800 kN
Coefficient of Dynamic Augment (CDA) ,
8
0.15
(6 )
CDA
L
= +
+

8
0.15
(6 76.2)
CDA = +
+

= 0.25
Impact Load = CDA X L.L.
= 0.25 X 9800 = 2450 kN

1.3. Seismic Wight
Seismic weight in longitudinal direction
= Total DL of structure + No LL
(Section 8.4)
= 4114kN

Seismic weight in transverse direction
= Total DL of structure +50 % LL
(Section 8.4)
= 4114 + 0.50 x 9800 = 9014 kN

1.4. Fundamental Natural period

For simply supported bridges, the fundamental
natural period (T) in seconds is given by:
2 T =
(Section 9.1.1)
Where, = horizontal deflection in meters due to
lateral force, F equal to weight of superstructure
and 80 % of weight of substructure and
appropriate amount of live load
Since, the superstructure has roller / hinge
supports, it is reasonable to assume that pier will
behave like cantilever, fixed at the base and free
at the top. Hence
t
p
H / D 4
2

Page 134

EI
FH
p
3
3
= o

Where,
H
p
= Pier height from top of foundation
= 12 m
E = Modulus of elasticity of pier material
=5000f
c

(Section 6.2.3.1, IS456
:
2000)

= 500030 = 27386 N/mm
2
= 27386130 kN/m
2

I
g
= Gross moment of inertia of pier section
= /64 D
4
= x 2
4
/64
= 0.785 m
4

I
eff
= effective moment of inertia of pier section
I
eff
= 0.75 x I
g

(Section 9.1.1.1)

= 0.75 x 0.785

= 0.589 m
4

1.4.1. Longitudinal Direction
In longitudinal direction, no live load is
considered. (Section 8.4)
Lateral force to be applied, F = 4114 kN

Lateral deflection,

= 4114 12
3
/ (3 27386130 0.589)

= 0.15 m
Time period o 2 = T
= 2 15 . 0 = 0. 77 sec

1.4.2. Transverse Direction
In transverse direction, 50% live load is
Lateral force to be applied, F = 9014 kN

= 9014 12
3
/ (3 27386130 0.589) = 0.32 m
2 T = = 2 32 . 0 = 1.13 sec

1.5. Seismic Load as per IITK-RDSO
Guidelines

1.5.1 Horizontal Elastic Seismic Acceleration
Coefficient

Horizontal elastic seismic acceleration
coefficient, A
h

2
a
h
S Z
A I
g
= (Section 9.1)
Where,
Z = 0.36 (zone V; Table 3)
I = 1.5 (Table 4)
Damping = 5% (Section 8.6.1)
Site has hard soil (Type I)

Longitudinal direction :
S
a
/g = 1.0 / 0.77 = 1.31
A
h
= (0.36 / 2) x 1.5 x 1.31 = 0.35

Transverse direction:
S
a
/g = 1.0 / 1.13 = 0.88
A
h
= (0.36 / 2) x 1.5 x 0.88 = 0.24

1.5.2. Elastic and Design Horizontal Seismic
Load
1.5.2.1 Elastic Seismic load
e
h
F A W =
EI
FH
p
3
3
= o
EI
FH
p
3
3
= o

Page 135

(Section 9.2.1)
In longitudinal direction
F
e
= 0.35 x 4114 = 1440 KN
In transverse direction
F
e
= 0. 24 x 9014 = 2163 KN
1.5.2.2 Design Seismic load

Design seismic load is obtained by dividing the
elastic seismic by response reduction factor, R
(Section 9.3)
Since, RCC Pier with ductile detailing,
R = 2.5 (Table 6 of Section 9.3)
Design seismic load in longitudinal direction
= 1440 / 2.5 = 576 kN
Design seismic load in transverse direction
= 2163 / 2.5 = 865 kN

1.5.3. Hydrodynamic Force

1.5.3.1. Elastic Hydrodynamic Force
horizontal hydrodynamic force along the
direction of ground motion is given by

(Section 14.2)

H = Height of submerged portion of pier
= 1/3 of pier height = 4 m
r = Radius of enveloping cylinder
= 1 m
H/r = 4,
Hence ,
C
e
= 0.73
(Table 8 of Section 14.2)
A
h
in longitudinal direction = 0.35

A
h
in transverse direction = 0.24

W
e
= Weight of the submerged portion of
enveloping cylinder
=
w
x a
2
H
= 9800 x x 1
2
x 4 / 1000 = 123 kN

F = Total horizontal hydrodynamic force
in longitudinal direction
= 0.73 x 0.35 x 123 = 32 kN

in transverse direction
= 0.73 x 0.24 x 123 = 21 kN

1.5.3.2. Design Hydrodynamic Force

Design horizontal hydrodynamic force is ratio of
total hydrodynamic force and response reduction
factor.
R = 2.5
Design hydrodynamic force in longitudinal
direction
= 32 / 2.5 = 13 kN
e
W A
e
C F
h
=
12
4 m
F (Resultant Pressure)
2 m
Hydrodynamic Pressure Distribution
on the Pier due to stream flow

Page 136

Design hydrodynamic force in transverse
direction
= 21 / 2.5 = 9 KN

1.5.4. Vertical Seismic Acceleration
The elastic vertical Seismic Acceleration
Coefficient

g
I
Z
A
a S
v
|
.
|
\
|
=
2 3
2
(Section 8.8)

As the superstructure is very rigid, the time
period in vertical direction will be very less.

Hence, S
a
/g = 2.5.
Now,
Z = 0.36 (Table 3 of Section 8.1)
I = 1.5 (Table 4 of Section 8.2)

A
v
= (2/3) x 0.36/2 x 1.5 x 2.50
= 0.45

Since the vertical seismic acceleration
coefficient is less than 0.5, no vertical hold-
down devices will be required.
(Section 13.3.1)
The design vertical seismic acceleration
coefficient will be
A
v
/ R = 0.45 / 2.5 = 0.18
This implies that total axial force acting on pier
will increase or decrease by 18 %. In the present
example, this 18 % additional force has been
neglected.

1.5.5 Load Combinations
Following two load combinations are given:

(1) 1.25 DL + 1.5 EQ
(2) 1.25DL + 0.3 (LL+IL) + 1.2EQ + 1.4HY
(Section 8.8)
Where, DL = Dead Load, LL = Live Load,
EQ= Earthquake Load , IL = Impact Load
Note Other loads i.e. Superimposed dead Load
(DL(S)), Live load on footpath (LL(f)),
Hydrodynamic Pressure (HY), Prestressing force
(PS), Buoyancy load (BO), Earth Pressure (EP)
etc. are not considered.

Loads on pier as per two load combination are
shown below:

1.6. Seismic Loads as per existing Bridge
Rules and IRS Concrete Bridge
Code
Dead load, live load are same as given in section
1.2.1, 1.2.2

1.6.1. Seismic Weight
= Total DL of structure
= 4111 kN
= Total DL of structure + 50 % of LL
= (4111 + 0.5 x 9800) = 9011 kN

1.6.2. Design Seismic Coefficient
The design values of horizontal seismic
5143 kN
1287 kN
869 kN
Load Combination (1)
8818kN
1042 kN
713 kN

Page 137

coefficient
h
shall be computed by the
following expression:
o h
I o | o = (Section 2.12.4.2, Bridge Rule)
Where,
= coefficient for soil foundation system
= 1 (Section 2.12.4.3, Bridge Rule)
I = coefficient for importance of bridge
= 1.5 (Section 2.12.4.4, Bridge Rule)

0
= Basic horizontal seismic coefficient
h
= 1x 1.5 x 0.08 = 0.12

1.6.3. Seismic Load

Total seismic load in longitudinal direction
= 0.12 x 4111 = 493 kN

Total seismic load in transverse direction
= 0.12 x 9011 = 1081 kN

1.6.4. Load Combinations

(1) 1.4DL + 1.6EQ
(2) 1.4DL + 1.75 ( LL+ IL ) + 1.25 EQ

(Table 12, Section 11.3 of IRS Concrete Bridge
Code)
Prestressing force (PS), Buoyancy load (BO) etc
are not considered.
shown below:

1.7. Seat Width Calculation

Seat width W (mm) = 500 + 2.5L + 10 H
P

(Section 16.3)

L = Length (in meters) of the superstructure to
the adjacent expansion joint or to the end of
superstructure = 76.2 m
W = 500 + 2.5x76.2 + 10x12
= 810 mm
This is the minimum seat width to be provided
here. If the value of the seat width obtained from
load requirement comes less than this value, still
the minimum seat width will have to be
provided.

27198kN
1352 kN
617 kN
5760 kN
1731 kN
790 kN

Page 138

Table 1.1 Comparison of seismic forces from proposed IITK-RDSO guidelines and
existing Bridge Rules + IRS Concrete Code (Hard soil)
Span = 76.2m, Pier Height = 12 m, Pier diameter = 2m, Hard soil
Longitudinal Direction
Proposed IITK-RDSO Guidelines existing Bridge Rules + IRS concrete code
Time period = 0.77 sec;
A
h
/R = 0.35 / 2.5 = 0.14
o
h
= 0.12

Transverse Direction
A
h
/ R = 0.24/2.5 = 0.096
o
h
= 0.12

Notes
1) The circular pier will be designed for the worst load case. From the above cases it is seen that as
per the Bridge Rule and IRS Concrete code, the pier will be designed for Axial force of 5760 kN
and horizontal force of 1731 kN. As per the proposed guidelines, the pier will be designed for
Axial force of 5143 kN and lateral force of 1287 kN. Thus, the design forces from the proposed
guidelines are almost same as those from the existing Bridge Rules.
2) The bridge is also subjected to other lateral loads like Racking force and Braking/Tractive forces.
As per Clause 2.9.1 of Bridges Rules, the racking force which acts in the transverse direction will
be 448 kN and As per Appendix XIII of existing Bridge Rules the Tractive / Braking force, which
acts in longitudinal direction will be 1325 kN.

713 kN
5143 kN
869 kN
1.25 DL + 1.5 EQ
1.25DL +0.3(LL+IL)+1.2EQ
8818 kN
617 kN
1.4 DL + 1.6 EQ
1.4DL +1.75(LL+IL)+1.25EQ
5760 kN
790 kN
27198 kN
5143 kN
1287 kN
1.25 DL + 1.5 EQ
1.25DL +0.3(LL+IL)+1.2EQ
8818 kN
1042kN
1.4 DL + 1.6 EQ
1.4DL +1.75(LL+IL)+1.25EQ
27198 kN
1352 kN
5760 kN
1731 kN

Page 139

In the above comparison, hard soil condition is considered. The comparison of seismic forces
from IITK-RDSO Guidelines and existing Bridge Rules will get affected if soil type changes.
The above example is again worked out for the soft soil condition and the comparison of results is
given in Table 1.2. In the existing Bridge Rules, the soil factor for soft soil also depends on the
type of foundation. Here, well foundation is considered.

Table 1.2 Comparison of seismic forces from proposed IITK-RDSO guidelines and existing
Bridge Rules + IRS Concrete Code (Soft soil)

Span = 76.2 m, Pier Height = 12 m, Pier diameter = 2m, Soft soil & Well foundation
A
h
/R = 0.59 / 2.5 = 0.24
o
h
= 0.18

Proposed IIT-RDSO Guidelines existing Bridge Rules + IRS concrete code
A
h
/R = 0.40 / 2.5 = 0.16
o
h
= 0.18

925 kN
1.25DL +0.3(LL+IL)+1.2EQ 1.4DL +1.75(LL+IL)+1.25EQ
1191 kN
2028 kN
1.25DL +0.3(LL+IL)+1.2EQ
8818 kN
1.25 DL + 1.5 EQ
5143 kN
1452 kN
5143kN
2149 kN
1.25 DL + 1.5 EQ
8818 kN
1739 kN
1.4 DL + 1.6 EQ
22293 kN 5143 kN
2595 kN
1.4 DL + 1.6 EQ
1.4DL +1.75(LL+IL)+1.25EQ
5760 kN
1184 kN
27198 kN

Page 140

Example 2 Comparison of Design Seismic Forces for Short
and Long Span Railway Bridges


In Example 1, details on seismic load calculations are covered. Also, a comparison of seismic forces from
the proposed guidelines and the existing Bridge Rules is given. In order to assess the difference in design
seismic forces obtained from the IITK-RDSO for various types of railway bridges, two examples
considered. These two examples represent two extreme types of bridges. The first one (Bridge A) has
short span and low pier height and the second one (Bridge B) has long span and tall pier height. The
preliminary geometric details of the two bridges are:
Bridge A: Span = 12.2 m, Pier Height = 8m, Pier diameter = 2 m
Bridge B: Span = 76.2 m, Pier Height = 30 m, Pier diameter = 3 m
These are regular, multi-span, and simply supported bridges. Hence, only one unit comprising of one span
and pier need to be considered using seismic coefficient method. The bridges are considered in seismic
zone V, with hard soil type. Piers are of reinforced concrete and are provided with the ductile detailing.
Solution:
Here details of the seismic load calculations will not be given. Rather, values of all the major quantities
will be mentioned. Seismic loads are obtained using IITK-RDSO guidelines and existing Bridge Rules.
2.1 Weight Calculations
Table 2.1 Weight Calculations
Component Bridge A Bridge B
Span 12.2 m 76.2 m
Height 8 m 30 m
Diameter of pier 2 m 3 m
Soil type Hard, | = 1.0 Hard, | = 1.0
Importance Factor (I) 1.5 1.5
Seismic zone Z = 0.36, o
0
= 0.08 Z = 0.36, o
0
= 0.08
Response reduction factor, R 2.5 2.5
Dead Load (DL) per meter girder without track load 8.80 kN/m 43.7 kN/m
DL per meter of ballast less track 0.4 kN/m 0.4 kN/m
DL per meter of superstructure 9.2 kN/m 44.1 kN/m
Total DL of superstructure 112 kN 3360 kN
DL of one pier 628 kN 5301 kN
Total DL of structure 615 kN 7602 kN
Live Load (LL) for HM loading on span 166.2 kN/m 128.6 kN/m
Total live load 2028 kN 9800 kN
Impact Load 1197 kN 2450kN
Seismic Wight
Longitudinal direction
Transverse direction

615 kN
1629 kN

7602 kN
12502 kN
Gross moment of inertia of pier section 0.785 m
4
3.976 m
4

Effective moment of inertia of pier section 0.589 m
4
2.982 m
4


Page 141

2.2 Seismic Loads
Table 2.2 Seismic Loads for Bridge A

Quantity IITK-RDSO
Guidelines
existing Bridge
Rules
Fundamental period
Longitudinal
Transverse

0.16 sec
0.26 sec

-
-
Spectrum Acceleration Coefficient
Longitudinal
Transverse

2.5
2.5

-
-
Horizontal Elastic Seismic Acceleration Coefficient
Longitudinal
Transverse

0.68
0.68

-
-
Design Seismic Acceleration Coefficient
Longitudinal
Transverse

0.68/2.5 = 0.27
0.68/2.5 = 0.27

0.12
0.12
Elastic Seismic load
Longitudinal
Transverse

415 kN
1100 kN

-
-
Design Seismic load
Longitudinal
Transverse

166 kN
440 kN

74 kN
195 kN
Total horizontal hydrodynamic force
Longitudinal
Transverse

36 kN
36 kN

-
-
Design Hydrodynamic Force
Longitudinal
Transverse

14 kN
14 kN

-
-
Vertical Seismic Acceleration Av 0.45 -
Design vertical seismic acceleration coefficient
0.45/2.5 = 0.18
-

Page 142

Table 2.3 Seismic Loads for Bridge B

Quantity IITK-RDSO
Guidelines
existing Bridge
Rules
Fundamental period
Longitudinal
Transverse

1.83 sec
2.35 sec

-
-
Spectrum Acceleration Coefficient
Longitudinal
Transverse

0.55
0.43

-
-
Horizontal Elastic Seismic Acceleration Coefficient
Longitudinal
Transverse

0.15
0.12

-
-
Design Seismic Acceleration Coefficient
Longitudinal
Transverse

0.15/2.5 = 0.06
0.12/2.5 = 0.048

0.12
0.12
Elastic Seismic load
Longitudinal
Transverse

1121 kN
1438 kN

-
-
Design Seismic load
Longitudinal
Transverse

488 kN
575 kN

912kN
1500 kN
Total horizontal hydrodynamic force
Longitudinal
Transverse

75 kN
58 kN

-
-
Design Hydrodynamic Force
Longitudinal
Transverse

30 kN
23 kN

-
-
Vertical Seismic Acceleration Av 0.45 -
Design vertical seismic acceleration coefficient 0.18 -

Page 143

Table 2.4 Comparison of seismic forces for Bridge A from proposed IITK-RDSO guidelines and
existing Bridge Rules + IRS Concrete Code (Hard Soil)

Span = 12.2 m, Pier Height = 8 m, Pier diameter = 2m, Hard soil
A
h
/R = 0.68 / 2.5 = 0.27
o
h
= 0.12

A
h
/R = 0.68 / 2.5 = 0.27
o
h
= 0.12

Notes
1. The circular pier will be designed for the worst load case. From the above cases it is seen that as per
the Bridge Rule and IRS Concrete code, the pier will be designed for axial force of 861 kN and
horizontal force of 313 kN. As per the proposed guidelines, the pier will be designed for Axial force of
769 kN and lateral force of 665 kN. Thus, the design lateral forces from the proposed guidelines is
double than that from the existing Bridge Rules.
2. The bridge is also subjected to other lateral loads like Racking force and Braking /Tractive forces. As
per Clause 2.9.1 the racking force which acts in transverse direction will be 72 kN and As per
Appendix XIII of existing Bridge Rules the Tractive / Braking force, which acts in longitudinal
direction will be 510 kN.
769 kN
251 kN
1.25 DL + 1.5 EQ
1.25DL +0.3(LL+IL)+1.2EQ
1736 kN
221 kN
1.4 DL +1.75(LL+IL)+1.25EQ
6505 kN
92 kN
1.4 DL + 1.6 EQ
861 kN
118 kN
1.25 DL + 1.5 EQ
665 kN
769 kN
1.25DL +0.3(LL+IL)+1.2EQ
1736kN
552 kN
1.4DL +1.75(LL+IL)+1.25EQ
244 kN
1.4 DL + 1.6 EQ
769 kN
313 kN
5284 kN

Page 144

Table 2.5 Comparison of seismic forces for Bridge B from proposed IITK-RDSO guidelines and
existing Bridge Rules + IRS Concrete Code (Hard Soil)
Span = 76.2 m, Pier Height = 30 m, Pier diameter = 3 m, Hard soil
A
h
/ R = 0.15 / 2.5 = 0.06
o
h
= 0.12

A
h
/ R = 0.12/2.5 = 0.048
o
h
= 0.12

Notes
1. The circular pier will be designed for the worst load case. From the above cases it is seen that as per
the Bridge Rule and IRS Concrete code, the pier will be designed for axial force of 10642 kN and
horizontal force of 2400 kN. As per the proposed guidelines, the pier will be designed for Axial force of
9502 kN and lateral force of 863 kN. Thus, the design lateral forces from the proposed guidelines are
almost one-third than that from the existing Bridge Rules.
2. The bridge is also subjected to other lateral loads like Racking force and Braking /Tractive forces. As
per Clause 2.9.1 the racking force which acts in transverse direction will be 448 kN and As per
Appendix XIII of existing Bridge Rules the Tractive / Braking force, which acts in longitudinal direction
will be 1325 kN.
580 kN
1875 kN
1.25DL+0.3(LL+IL)+1.2EQ
9502 kN
673 kN
1.25 DL + 1.5 EQ
13177 kN
9502 kN
863 kN
1.25 DL + 1.5 EQ
1.25DL +0.3(LL+IL)+1.2EQ
13177 kN
723 kN
1.4DL +1.75(LL+IL)+1.25EQ
32080 kN
1140 kN
1.4 DL+ 1.6 EQ
10642 kN
1460 kN
1.4 DL + 1.6 EQ
10642kN
2400 kN
1.4DL +1.75(LL+IL)+1.25EQ
32080 kN

Page 145

Example 3 Calculation of Seismic Forces for
Superstructure


A simply supported railway bridge with steel superstructure of plate girder welded type has a span of
24.4 m. Train load is Heavy Mineral type (HM loading). Bridge is located in Zone V. The soil at the
bridge site is of hard type (Type I). The circular RC pier has 12 m height and 2 m diameter. Calculate
lateral seismic forces on bridge superstructure. Bridge pier has isolated spread footing type foundation.

Solution:

Section Property of Superstructure
Outside height (t
3
) = 2.05 m
Top flange width (t
2
) = 0.620 m
Top flange thickness (t
f
) = 0.045 m
Web thickness (t
w
) = 0.014 m
Bottom flange width (t
2b
) = 0.620 m
Bottom flange thickness (t
fb
) = 0.045 m

Fig 4.1:- Sketch of superstructure
2.05 m
1.98 m
0.62m
0.045m
0.014 m
0.045 m

Page 146



= 23.96 + 0.4 = 24.4 kN/m

= 24.4 x 24.4 = 594 kN

DL of one pier =

= x 2
2
/4

x 12 x 25 = 942 kN
3.2.2. Live Load

Live Load (LL) for HM loading on 24.4m span
= 146.52 kN/m


3.3. Seismic Wight
= Total DL of superstructure + No LL
(Section 8.4)
= 594 kN

= Total DL of superstructure +50 % LL
(Section 8.4)
= 594 + 0.50 x 3575 = 2382 kN
3.4. Fundamental Natural period

For simply supported bridges, the fundamental
natural period (T) in seconds is given by:
2 T =
(Section 9.1.1)
Where, = horizontal deflection in meters due to
lateral force, F equal to weight of superstructure
and 80 % of weight of substructure and
appropriate amount of live load
Since, the superstructure has roller / hinge
supports, it is reasonable to assume that pier will
behave like cantilever, fixed at the base and free
at the top. Hence
2
3
P
FH
EI
c =
where,

H
p
= 12 m

=5000f
c
= 27386130 kN/m
2

(Section 6.2.3.1, IS456
:
2000)
I
g
= /64 D
4
= 0.785 m
4

I
eff
= 0.75 x I
g
=0.589 m
4
(Section 9.1.1.1)

3.4.1. Longitudinal Direction
In longitudinal direction, no live load is
Lateral force to be applied, F =
= 594 + 0.8 x 942 = 1348 kN
Lateral deflection,
t
p
H / D 4
2

Page 147

2 3
1348 12
3 3 27386130 0.589
P
FH
EI

c = =

= 0.05 m
Time period o 2 = T = 0.44 sec

3.4.2. Transverse Direction
In transverse direction, 50% live load is
Lateral force to be applied, F =
= 594 + 0.8 x 942 + 0.5 x 3575 = 3136 kN
Lateral deflection,
2 3
3136 12
3 3 27386130 0.589
P
FH
EI

c = =

= 0.11 m
Time period o 2 = T = 0.67 sec

Guidelines

3.5.1 Horizontal Elastic Seismic Acceleration
Coefficient
Horizontal elastic seismic acceleration
coefficient, A
h

2
a
h
S Z
A I
g
= (Section 9.1)
Where,
I = 1.5 (Table 4)
Damping = 5% (Section 8.6.1)
Site has hard soil (Type I)

Longitudinal direction :
S
a
/g = 1.0 / 0.44 = 2.28
A
h
= 0.36 / 2 x 1.5 x 2.28= 0.62

Transverse direction:
S
a
/g = 1.0 / 0.67 = 1.49
A
h
= 0.36 / 2 x 1.5 x 1.49 = 0.40

3.5.2. Elastic and Design Horizontal Seismic
Load
3.5.2.1 Elastic Seismic load
e
h
F A W =
(Section 9.2.1)
In longitudinal direction
F
e
= 0.62 x 594 = 366 kN
In transverse direction
F
e
= 0.40 x 2382 = 961 kN

3.6. Seismic Loads as per Bridge Rules
and IRS Concrete Bridge Code

Dead load, live loads are same as given in
section 4.2.1, 4.2.2

3.6.1. Seismic Weight
= 594 kN
= 2382 kN

3.6.2. Design Seismic Coefficient
The design values of horizontal seismic
coefficient
h
shall be computed by the
following expression:

Page 148

o h
I o | o = (Section 2.12.4.2, Bridge Rule)
Where,
= coefficient for soil foundation system
= 1 (Section 2.12.4.3, Bridge Rule)
I = coefficient for importance of bridge
0
= Basic horizontal seismic coefficient

h
= 1x 1.5 x 0.08 = 0.12

3.6.3. Seismic Load
Total seismic load in longitudinal direction
= 0.12 x 594 = 71 kN
Total seismic load in transverse direction
= 0.12 x 2382 = 286 kN

3.7. Racking force and Braking force
3.7.1. Racking force
Lateral load in transverse direction due to
racking force of moving load = 5.88 kN / m
(Section 2.9.1, IRS Bridge Rules, 2004)
= 5.88 x 24.4 = 144 kN

3.7.2. Braking force
Lateral load in longitudinal direction due to
braking force of moving load
= 882 kN
(APPENDIX XIII, IRS Bridge Rules, 2004)

Lateral forces
IITK RDSO Guidelines Existing bridge rules Racking / Braking force
Longitudinal
Direction
366 kN 71 kN 882 kN
Transverse
Direction
961 kN 286 kN 144 kN

Table 3.1: Seismic Force for superstructure

Page 149

3.8. Calculations for Wind Forces

Wind load on windward girder
t 91 . 9
1000
6 . 25 581 . 2 150
=

=

Wind load on leeward girder = 25% of
Windward girder = 9.91 x 0.25 = 2.47t
(cl.2.11.3.1 of B.R)
W.L. on moving load
1980 mm
2
5
8
1

m
m
6
0
0

m
m
3
5
0
5

m
m
(
2
1
5
0

W
E
B

+

1
0
0

F
L
A
N
G
E

+
1
5
0

S
L
E
E
P
E
R
+

1
5
6

R
A
I
L

+

2
5

P
A
C
K
I
N
G

=

2
5
8
1
)

Page 150

1
9
8
0

m
m
7.6 t
A
15.2 t 15.2 t
B C
15.2 t
C
D
15.2 t 15.2 t
E
15.2 t
F G
11.4 t 3.8 t
H I
25600 mm
1706.5
R = 56.75 t R = 56.75 t
t 46 . 13
1000
6 . 25 505 . 3 150
=

=
W.L. due to above transverse load = 9.91 + 2.47
+ 13.46 = 25.84 t = 256 kN
3.9 Seismic Calculation
Transverse seismic load as per IIT-RDSO
guidelines (Table 3.1 above)
961KN>256KN
Hence, seismic forces are governing by Racking
force @ 600 kg/m (eff. Span > 20m) (cl.2.9.1 of
B.R)
=(600 x 25.6)/1000=15.36 t
Total lateral load = 98.1 + 15.36 = 113.5t
End Reaction t 75 . 56
2
5 . 113
=
Force at intermediate node =
5 . 7
5 . 113
(since
there are 7.5 panels) = 15.2t
Force at node A =
2
2 . 15
=7.6t
Force at node H = 2 . 15
4
3
= 11.4t
Force at node I = t 8 . 3 2 . 15
4
1
=
Shear in end way = 56.75 3.8 = 52.95t
Eff. Length of bracing =
( ) ( )
2 2
6 . 170 198 7 . 0 +
= 0.7 x 261.36 = 182.95 cm
Force in end lateral = t 70
198
36 . 261
95 . 52 =


Page 151

Design of top Lateral Bracing
Using two angles 130*130*10
Area = 50.12cm
2

r
min
=4.01mm
Slenderness ratio = 182.95/4.01 =46
P
ac
= 13.95-(13.95-12.59)*6/20 (From table
(iv) of SBC)
= 13.95-.408=13.54 kg/mm
2

P
ac
(with occasional load) = 13.54*7/6
=15.8kg/mm
2
= 1.58t/cm
2
(From table (i) of
SBC)
Area required = 70/1.58 = 44.3 cm
2

Area provided =50.12 cm
2
> 44.3 cm
2
safe
3.10 DESIGN OF CONNECTION
BETWEEN GUSSETS PLATE TO TOP
LATERAL BRACING
Rivet Value
Use 22| power driven field rivets
Strength of rivet in single shear
f

= ( ) t 08 . 4 94 . 0 35 . 2
4
2
=
t

Strength of one rivet in bearing against 10mm
thick gusset plate = 2.35 x 1 x 2.2
=5.17t
Rivet value R = 4.08t
R (with occ-load) = 4.08 x 1.167 = 4.76t
Calculation of No. of Rivets
No. of rivets required
n = 7 . 14
76 . 4
70
=
Say 16 Nos. 22| power driven field rivets
3.11 DESIGN OF GUSSET PLATE (SIZE
325 x 10 x 370)
Welded Design of End Gusset Plate
L = 2 (325 + 181) = 1012 mm
Permissible stress in weld =
(Cl.13.4.1 of Weld Bridge Code)
Strength of weld = 0.7 X 5 X 101.2 X 1.02
= 72.25 X 5t/cm
Force in gusset due to end lateral = 70t
Size of weld c m 96 . 0
25 . 72
70
s = >
Provide 10mm weld size
Welded Design of Intermediate Gusset Plate
Welded length of gusset plate (size 370 x 10 x
820)
L = 820 + 2 x 181 + 510 = 1692mm
Strength of weld = 0.7 x S x 189.2 x 1.02
= 120.80 x S t/cm
Force in gusset plate due to end lateral = 2 x
52.95 = 105.0t
2Ls. 130x130x10
1
8
1
10
325
10
325x10x370
GUSSET PL.
TOP ;AT. BRACINGS
820
510
1
8
1
GUSSET PL.
370x10x820
10
10

Page 152

Size of weld S =
8 . 120
9 . 105
= 0.877cm
Provide 10mm weld
3.11 DESIGN OF BOTTOM LATERAL
BRACING
A lateral bracing system between the bottom
flange of sufficient strength to transmit 1/4
th
of
total lateral load (Cl. 5.13.2 of SBC)
Force in end lateral =
4
70
= 17.5t
Eff. Length of bottom bracings L = 0.7 x 261.36
= 182.95 cm
Using Zs 110 x 110 x 10mm
a = 21.06 cm
2

r
vv
= 2.14 cm
86
14 . 2
95 . 182
min
= =
r
left

P
ac
with occasional loads
675 . 0 57 . 10 6
20
57 . 10 32 . 8
57 . 10 = |
.
|
\
| +

= 9.89 kg/mm
2

Area required of bottom lateral bracing
2 2
06 . 21 22 . 15
15 . 1
5 . 17
cm cm < = = O.K.
3.12 ANALYSIS OF DESIGN FORCE FOR
BEARING DESIGN
Analysis of Transverse forces for design
F
y
= maximum S.F./Bearing =
4
57 . 554
=
138.39 t (From DD/2000/2)
Transverse seismic force/bearing
F
z
= t 52 . 24
8 . 9 x 4
961
=

(as per table 3.1 of draft IITK)

F
x
= Longitudinal Force/Bearing =
2
366 882 +
(as per table 3.1 of draft IITK)

= 624 kN = t
8 . 9
624
= 63.7t
50% of L.L. = 0.5 x 3575 = 1788 kN
(appendix xii of B.R)
Seismic Load on moving load
= 1788 x A
h
= 1788 x 0.4 = 715.2 kN =
73t
(Ah=0.4 as per draft IITK)

Seismic force on fixed structure
= D.L. A
h
= 594 x 0.4 = 237.6 kN =
24.3t
Additional vertical effect of seismic on lee-ward
girder due to O.T. effect
980 . 1
) 75 . 1 6 . 0 581 . 2 ( 73 3 . 1 3 . 24 + + +
=
x x
= 198t
Load/bearing = 198/2 =99t
ANALYSIS OF VERTICAL FORCES
Due to D.L.
Seismic force = D.L. x Av = 594 x 0.45
(Ah=0.45 as per draft IITK)

= 267.3 kN = 27.3t
Due to L.L. (Shear)
Seismic force = L.L. (50%) x Av
= 1788 x 0.45 = 804.6 kN = 82.1t
(Appendix XII of B.R)
Force/bearing =
4
1 . 82 3 . 27 +
= 27.35t
Loads/Bearing
W/o
Seismic
With seismic
F
y
138.39t 138.39+99+27.3 = 265t
F
x
45.0t 63.7t

F
z
- 24.52t


Page 153

3.13 DESIGN OF ROCKER & ROLLER
BEARING
Design of Expansion End
Size of base plate = 1100 x 560 x 40 mm
With Seismic
Actual base pressure
=
2
t/ m 431
56 . 0 1 . 001
265
=

Permissible stress = 711 x 1.167
(M-25 grade concrete)
= 829.7 t/m
2
O.K.
Design of Roller
F
y
(with seismic) = 265 t
Provide 4 rollers of dia 150 mm
Load/roller =
4
265
= 66.25t
Allowable working load/mm length = 0.517
= 0.5 x 150 = 75 kg/mm
Net length of roller required
=
3
10
75
25 . 66
= 884 mm
Total length = 884 + 2 x 30 + 52 = 996 mm <
1010 mm provided
Design of Base slab thickness
Actual bearing pressure
=
2
3
c m / kg 43
56 110
10 265
=

B.M. at A =
2
7
110 43
2
=115885 kgcm
B.M. at B =
3
2
10 14 25 . 66
2
21
110 43
= 1042965 927500 = 115465 Kg cm
1.5.3 t =
24 / 23 6 / 7 1570 110
6 115885

=
1.9 cm
provided = 40 mm O.K.

3.14 IMPLICATIONS OF PROPOSED SEISMIC PROVISION ON EXISTING DESIGN OF
ROCKER ROLLER BEARING

BEARING
TYPE
COMPONENT EXISTING NEW REMARKS
Base plate 750mm*460mm*50mm 1100mm*560mm*40mm
Rollers Two rollers 150mm dia. Four rollers 150mm dia.
Knuckle slab
thickness
60mm 75mm
Knuckle
thickness
65mm 65mm
Saddle thickness 40mm 60mm
Saddle bolts
Four turned bolts 40mm
dia.
Four turned bolts 40mm dia.
property clause 6.6

A) Roller
bearing
Anchor bolts Four bolts 40mm dia. Eight bolts 40mm dia.

B) Rocker
bearing

Base plate

650mm*900mm*50mm

740mm*1100mm*40mm


Page 154

Example 4 Analysis of Superstructure for Vertical
Component of Earthquake


A simply supported railway bridge with steel superstructure of plate girder welded type has a span of
24..4 m. Train load is Heavy Mineral type (HM loading). Bridge is located in Zone V. The soil at the
bridge site is of hard type (Type I). The circular RC pier has 12 m height and 2 m diameter. Analyze
bridge superstructure for vertical component of seismic forces

Solution:

4.1 Preliminary Data
Section Property of Superstructure
Outside height (t
3
) = 2.05 m
Top flange width (t
2
) = 0.620 m
Top flange thickness (t
f
) = 0.045 m
Web thickness (t
w
) = 0.014 m
Bottom flange width (t
2b
) = 0.620 m
Bottom flange thickness (t
fb
) = 0.045 m

Fig 4.2:- Elevation of superstructure
Fig 4.1:- Cross Section of superstructure
2.05 m
1.98 m
0.62m
0.045m
0.014 m
0.045 m

Page 155

4.2 Weight Calculation

4.2.1 Dead Load Calculation



= 23.96 + 0.4 = 24.4 kN/m

4.2.2 Live Load

Live Load (LL) for HM loading on 24.4m span
= 146.5 kN/m

4.3 Seismic Wight for Horizontal motion

Seismic weight for horizontal motion
= Total DL of superstructure + 100 % LL
= 24.4 + 146.52 = 170.9 kN/m

4.4 Method of Analysis

4.4.1 Simplified Approach

As per Section 8.8.1 of IITK RDSO
Guidelines,
For superstructure with span less than 80 m, the
effect of vertical motion can be considered by
analyzing the superstructure for 25 % additional
dead weight in upward and downward direction.
Additional dead weight for vertical motion
= 25 % of seismic weight for horizontal motion
= 0.25 x 170.92 = 42.7 kN/m

Thus , in addition to vertical loads due to Dead
load and Live load , 25 % of additional dead
load in vertical direction.

Total forces in vertical direction
= DL of superstructure + LL + 25 % additional
DL
= 24.4 +146.5 + 42.7 = 213.6 kN / m

4.4.2 Static Analysis
In this analysis, vertical seismic forces are
obtained by calculating the time period in
vertical direction.
For a simply supported span, the fundamental
time period T
v
, for vertical motion is given as:-
2
2
V
m
T L
EI t
=
(Section 8.8.2)
where,
L = Span of superstructure = 24.4 m
= 5000f
c
= 27386130 kN/m
2

(Section 6.2.3.1, IS 456
:
2000)
m = mass per unit length
= (DL + 100 % LL) / g
= (24.4 + 146.52) / 9.81 = 17.42 ton / m
The superstructure comprises of two I-girders,
which are connected by horizontal members as
shown in figure 4.1. The moment of inertia
24.4 m
213 6 kN / m

Page 156

varies along length. Thus, one will have to use
equivalent moment of inertia for the span.
Here , without getting in to details of calculation
of moment of inertia , it is assumed that, the time
period of the span in vertical direction will be
less than 0.4 sec , so that the value of S
a
/ g = 2.5
Spectral Acceleration Coefficient for vertical
motion is taken as two thirds of horizontal
spectral acceleration.
(Section 8.8)
(S
a
/ g)
v
= 2 / 3 x 2.5 = 1.67

Elastic Seismic Acceleration Coefficient,
2
2 3
a
h
S Z
A I
g
=
= 0.36 / 2 x 1.5 x 2 / 3 x 2.5
= 0.45

4.5 Vertical Seismic Force
Vertical Seismic Force (EQ)
V
= A
v
x W
= 0.45 x 213.65 = 96.1 kN / m

Note: - 1) using the simplified approach, the
seismic forces in vertical direction is 42.7 kN/ m
where as by static analysis seismic forces in
vertical direction is 96.1 kN/m.
2) If time period in vertical direction, T
v
is
obtained preciously then, S
a
/ g will get further
reduced.


Page 157

Example 5 Base Isolated Railway Bridge with Simply
Supported Steel Superstructure


A three span simply supported Railway Bridge with steel superstructure of open web girder and ballast-
less track has equal spans of 76.2 m. It is proposed to provide Lead Rubber bearings (LRB) above pier to
support superstructure. Train load is Heavy Mineral type (HM loading). Bridge is located in Zone V. The
soil at the bridge site is of hard type (Type I). The circular RC pier has 12 m height and 2 m diameter.
Height of submerged pier is 4 m. Analyze the bridge for seismic loads at Ultimate Limit State.

Solution:

The lateral loads in transverse and longitudinal directions are calculated. Since the spans of the bridge are
simply supported, one pier can be considered as single degree of freedom system with half weight of
spans on either side. Two bearings will be provided below each super structure girders above a pier
sharing equal loads. Hence, seismic coefficient method can be used for seismic load calculation. Seismic
loads will be obtained from IITK-RDSO Guidelines. A comparison of loads obtained from Base Isolation
bearings and fixed bearings will be presented.


The schematic diagram of the bridge is shown below in Figure 1.1. Grade of pier concrete and
reinforcement are M30 and Fe415 respectively. Density of concrete is 25 kN/m
3
. RC pier has ductile
detailing.

76.2 m
Pier Height = 12 m
G.L.
76.2 m 76.2 m
Figure 5.1 Geometric details of the bridge

Page 158





= DL of girder + DL of track
= 43.7 + 0.4 = 44.1 kN/m

= 44.1 x 76.2 = 3360 kN

DL of one pier =
= x 2
2
/4

x 12 x 25 = 942 kN

DL of Pier to be lumped
= 80% DL of pier
= 0.8 x 942 = 754 kN

5.2.2. Live Load

Live Load (LL) for HM loading on 76.2 m span
= 128.6 kN/m

Coefficient of Dynamic Augment (CDA),
( )
8
0.15
6
CDA
L
= +
+

( )
8
0.15
6 76.2
CDA = +
+

= 0.25
Impact Load = CDA X L.L.
= 0.25 X 9800 = 2450 kN

5.3. Seismic Wight
= DL + No LL (Section 8.4)
= 3360 kN (W
2
) for superstructure
= 754 kN (W
1
) for pier

= DL + 50 % LL (Section 8.4)
= 3360 + 0.50 x 9800
= 8260 kN (W
2
) for superstructure
= 754 kN (W
1
) for pier

5.4. Lead Rubber Bearing

5.4.1. Properties

A circular bearing of 600mm overall diameter
with central lead core of 100mm diameter is
proposed. It has following properties.
Size of bearing, B = 600 mm
Effective size,
r
B = 590 mm
Modulus of rubber,
r
G = 0.45 MPa
Thickness of rubber layer,
r
t = 10 mm
No. of rubber layers,
r
n = 15
Thickness of steel shims,
s
t = 3 mm
Total rubber Thickness,
r
T = 150 mm
Total bearing height, h = 192 mm
2 / 4 p D H t

Page 159

Elastic modulus of rubber,
r
E= 4.0
r
G
Material constant, k = 0.82
Lead plug diameter,
pl
d = 100 mm
Area of lead plug,
pl
A = 7854 mm
2

Yield stress of lead,
pl
y = 8.7 MPa
Characteristic strength, Q = 68.33 kN
Area of bearing,
b
A= 2.734 x 10
5
mm
2
Post yield stiffness,
r
k = /
b r r
A G T
= 820 kN/m
Initial stiffness,
u
k = 6.5 (1 12 / )
r pl b
k A A +
= 7169 kN/m
Yield displacement,
y
u r
Q
k k
A =

= 10.76 mm

5.4.2. Design

Due to higher seismic weight in transverse
direction, the LRB will be designed for seismic
weight = 8260 kN (to be distributed to four
LRBs). Primarily, LRB will be designed by
assuming SDOF system. Later, it is will be
verified by modeling as 2-DOF system. The
response spectrum ordinates are amplified by a
factor of 1.5 to account for the 1
st
load case in
Ultimate Limit State (1.25 DL + 1.5 EQ).
Seismic weight per LRB,
W
= 8260 / 4
= 2065 kN
Assuming, target displacement, A = 150 mm
Force required,
m r
F Q k = + A = 191 kN
Effective Stiffness,
m
eff
F
k =
A

= 1275.5 kN/m
Effective time period of the system,
2
eff
eff
W
T
gk
t = = 2.55 sec
Total EDC Area = 4 ( )
y
Q A A
Equivalent viscous damping,
2
4 ( )
2
y
eff
Q
k
|
t
A A
=
A
= 21.10%
Damping coefficient, B
I
= 1.52 (Table 10)
Spectral acceleration coefficient,
/
a
S g = 0.39 (Fig. 3, Damping = 5%)
Horizontal seismic acceleration coefficient,
1.5
2
a
h
S Z
A I
g
=
where,
I = 1.5 (Table 4)
h
A= 0.16
Displacement,
2
250
h eff
m
A T
B
A =
= 169.82 mm
since
m
A = A , re-iterate by assuming target
displacement
m
A = A till the convergence is
achieved, i.e.
m
A ~ A .
In present case, convergence is achieved with
displacement A = 182.5 mm. The property of
LRB at above displacement is given below.
eff
k = 1194.3 kN/m (K
2
)
e
T = 2.64 sec
= 18.78% and B = 1.46
Similar calculations can be done for longitudinal
direction with seismic weight as 3360 kN. The
convergence is achieved at displacement = 90
mm. The property of LRB at above displacement
is given below.
eff
k = 1573.9 kN/m (K
2
)

Page 160

e
T = 1.47 sec
= 26.87% and B = 1.64

5.4.3. Check
Shape factor,
1
2
14.326
4
t
= =
= =
b pl
r r
r
A A
S
B t
B
S
T

Reduced area, ( )
2
sin
4
o o =
r
B
A
1
2cos 2.56
t
d
rad
B
o

| |
= =
|
\ .

taking d
t
as seismic displacement = 169.82 mm
A
r
=1.81 x 10
5
mm
2

Ratio /
r b
A A= 0.66 > 0.3, hence OK.
Shear strain from vertical loads,
( )
1
2
1
3
2 1 2
=
+
c
r
S P
A G kS
= 1.614 < 2.5, hence OK.
Shear strain form lateral load, where d
i
= 169.82

,
i
s eq
r
d
T
= = 1.013
Shear strain due to rotation, assuming to be a
minimum value of 0.005 rad
2
2
u
=
r
i r
B
t T
=0.6
Neglecting shear strain due to imposed non-
seismic lateral displacement
Therefore, total shear strain,
,
0.5 = + +
t c s eq r
= 2.93< 5.5, hence OK.
Buckling load capacity of rubber bearing at
seismic displacement is given by

, 1 2
2 2
cr eq r
P S S GA
t
= = 5184 kN > 2065 kN,
hence OK.
Buckling load capacity under vertical loads for
non-seismic displacement assuming
s
= 0 is
calculated as
, 1 2
2 2
cr c b
P S S GA
t
= = 7831kN
This capacity should be compared with the
maximum vertical load possible on the bearing
due to dead and live load combination to provide
a safety factor of at least 3.
5.5. Response Spectrum Analysis
5.5.1. Modeling
The bridge pier and base isolation bearing is
modeled as 2-DOF system as shown in figure
5.2 below. The weight W
1
is the 80% weight of
pier, as calculated earlier. For 1
st
mode, the
system damping is considered as 26.87% and
18.78% for longitudinal and transverse
direction, respectively, as calculated earlier.
However, 5% damping is considered for 2
nd

mode.

Figure 1.2 2-DOF Idealization
Here, pier stiffness,
1
3
3EI
K
L
=
where,
L

= Pier height from top of foundation = 12 m
= 5000f
c
(Clause 6.2.3.1, IS456
:
2000)

= 500030 = 27386 N/mm
2
= 27386130 kN/m
2
I

= moment of inertia of pier section
= /64 D
4
= x 2
4
/64
= 0.785 m
4

1
K

= 37342 kN/m
W
2
W
1
K
2
K
1

Page 161

Stiffness K
2
of LRB is taken as effective
stiffness (
eff
k ) with 4 LRBs in parallel. The
seismic weight of superstructure W
2
is taken as
3360 kN and 8260 kN along longitudinal and
transverse direction, respectively.

5.5.2. Result
The modal analysis was carried out to find
system dynamic properties and tabulated in
Table 5.1 below. The deformations and base
shear were calculated for two modes and were
combined using SRSS rule.

Table 5.1 Response spectrum analysis results
for 1.5EQ hazard level
Description Long.
Dir
Trans.
Dir
Seismic weight (W
2
, kN) 3360 8260
Total stiffness (K
2
, kN/m) 6296 4777
1
st
mode period (sec) 1.59 2.80
2
nd
LRB displacement (mm) 79.3 167.5
Seismic coefficient for 1
st

mode (A
h
)
0.1555g 0.0989g
nd

mode (A
h
)
1.0125g 1.0125g
Base shear (kN) 782 1026

Guidelines

5.6.1. Horizontal Elastic Seismic force

The lateral load on the pier due to seismic load
1.5EQ is calculated and tabulated in Table 5.1
above. Similar calculations can be done for
seismic load 1.2EQ. The results are tabulated in
Table 5.2 below.

Table 5.2 Response spectrum analysis results
for 1.2EQ hazard level
Description Long.
Dir
Trans.
Dir
Seismic weight (W
2
, kN) 3360 8260
Total stiffness (K
2
, kN/m) 7570 5398
1
st
2
nd
LRB displacement (mm) 55.2 116.9
st

mode (A
h
)
0.1296g 0.0781g
nd

mode (A
h
)
0.8100g 0.8100g
Base shear (kN) 624 807

5.6.2. Hydrodynamic Force

horizontal hydrodynamic force along the
direction of ground motion is given by

(Section 14.2)

e
W A
e
C F =

Page 162

H = Height of submerged portion of pier
= 1/3 of pier height = 4 m
r = Radius of enveloping cylinder
= 1 m
H/r = 4,
Hence ,
C
e
= 0.73
A

in longitudinal direction = 0.81
A

in transverse direction = 0.81
W
e
= Weight of the submerged portion of
enveloping cylinder
=
w
x a
2
H
= 9800 x x 1
2
x 4 / 1000 = 123 kN
F = Total horizontal hydrodynamic force in
longitudinal direction
= 0.73 x 0.81 x 123 = 72.7 kN
in transverse direction
= 0.73 x 0.81 x 123 = 72.7 kN

5.6.3 Load Combinations
(1) 1.25 DL + 1.5 EQ
(2) 1.25DL +0.3 (LL+IL) +1.2EQ + 1.4HY
(Section 8.8)
Where, DL = Dead Load, LL = Live Load,
EQ= Earthquake Load, IL = Impact Load
Hydrodynamic Pressure (HY), Prestressing force
(PS), Buoyancy load (BO), Earth Pressure (EP)
etc. are not considered.
shown below:

4m
12m
F (Resultant
pressure)
2m
Hydrodynamic Pressure Distribution on the
pier due to stream flow
5378 kN
1026 kN
782 kN
9053 kN
909 kN
726 kN

Page 163

Table 5.3 Comparison of seismic forces between fixed base system and proposed base isolated
system as per IITK-RDSO guidelines
Span = 76.2m, Pier Height = 12 m, Pier diameter = 2m, Hard soil
Fixed base system Proposed base isolated system
Period = 0.77 s; A
h
= 0.35/2.5 = 0.14 As shown in Table 5.1 and Table 5.2 above
Period =1.59 s; A
h
=0.16g Period =1.47s; A
h
=0.13g

Fixed base system Proposed base isolated system
Period = 1.15 s; A
h
= 0.24/2.5 = 0.096 As shown in Table 5.1 and Table 5.2 above
Period =2.8 s; A
h
=0.10g Period=2.66s; A
h
=0.07g

Notes:
1. Site specific study is required for hazard evaluation corresponding to DBE and MCE conditions.
2. LRB design shall be checked for MCE hazard level.
3. Effect of vertical acceleration shall be considered in case of near fault region.

726 kN
5378 kN
782 kN

9053 kN
713 kN
5143 kN
869 kN

8818 kN
LC 2 LC 1 LC 2 LC 1
1042kN
5143 kN
1287 kN
LC 1

8818 kN
LC 2
LC 1

9053 kN
909 kN
5378 kN
1026 kN
LC 2
Draft IITK-RDSO Guidelines for Seismic Design of Railway Bridges
164

Example 6 M-| curve for a Reinforced Concrete (RC)
Section
Determine the moment curvature curve (M- | curve) of a Reinforced Concrete (RC) section shown in Fig.
6.1. The M- | calculations shall be done manually and also using structural analysis software.
Solution:
6.1 Preliminary Data:
The cross section details are given below.

Fig. 6.1 RC section

M- | curve is the relationship between the
moment of resistance (M) and the curvature (|)
of the cross-section. When applied moment is
very small, concrete and steel are in elastic
range, and there is linear relationship between M
and | (point A in Fig. 6.2). However, as the
moment increases, the concrete in tensile region
cracks. Beyond this stage the tension is taken by
the tensile steel. As the moment is further
increased, the tensile steel reaches its first yield
(point B in Fig. 6.2). After this stage, the
yielding of tensile steel continues and the
compression steel and concrete in compression
also undergo plastic deformations. At the end,
the entire section reaches its maximum moment
carrying capacity, i.e., plastic moment, M
P
.
The calculation of moment of resistance (M) and
curvature (|) for these two points (A, B in Fig.
6.2) is demonstrated in this example.

6.2 Elastic range (Point A)
Concrete and steel are in elastic range and
the distribution of strains and stresses as
shown below:

A = Area of transformed section
= b.D + (1.5m-1) A
sc
+ (m-1) A
st

= 92100 mm
2
.
Centroid of transformed section is obtained as

= 187.917 mm.
Moment of Inertia of transformed section about
the centriodal axis is I = 1.165 x10
9
mm
4

Concrete looses its elasticity when it first cracks
in the tensile region. At this stage, stress in
2-12|
350 mm
375 mm
2-12|, 2-10|
230 mm
25 mm
b = 230 mm, D = 375 mm, d = 350 mm, d = 25 mm,
A
sc
= 226 mm
2
(0.26%), A
st
= 383 mm
2

(0.44%),
f
ck
= 20 N/mm
2
, f
y
= 415 N/mm
2
, f
cr
= 3.1305 N/mm
2
,
Modular ratio = m = 8.94, E
S
=200000 N/mm
2
,
Ec = 22360 N/mm
2
.
y
1
y
2
Effective
section
Transformed
section
stresses strains
fcr
|
c
c

y
c
s

fc
y
165

concrete in tensile region is f
cr
and the moment
of resistance is given by
M
cr
= = 19.497 x 10
6
Nmm
Curvature (|) is given by =
= 7.483 x 10
-7
rad/mm.
These values of M and | are shown in the M-|
curve shown in Fig. 6.5.
6.3 Tensile steel yields (Point B)
This is the stage at which concrete in tension is
already cracked and tensile steel has reached
yield stress, f
y
.
The distribution of strains stresses and
forces as shown below.

Neutral axis (N.A.) coefficient is obtained as
K =
( )
1/ 2
2
2
2( ' ) ( )
d
m m m
d

'
(
' ' + + + +
(
'

K=0.238
Here, = % steel in tension (.0044), = %
steel in compression (0.0026).
The depth of N. A., n = k d = 83.11 mm.

when the steel reaches its first yield, the strain
in tension steel is obtained as
c
s
= = 0.00275
From strain diagram we find,
c
c
= c
s
= 0.0006472
f
c
= c
c
E
c
= 14.471 N/mm
2
< f
ck

Therefore, the triangular stress block is an
assumption. Strain in concrete at the level of
compression steel is obtained as
c
s
= c
C
= 0.0004527
Stress in concrete at the level of
compression steel.
f
s
= 0.0004527 E
S
= 90.549 N/mm
2
Compressive force in concrete =
C
c
= 0.5 f
c
b n = 138.48 kN.
Compressive force in concrete at the level of
steel = C
S
=A
sc
f
S
= 20.464 kN.
Resultant Total compressive force = C = C
c
+ C
S
= 158.945 N.
Centroid of resultant compressive force from top
fiber = y = 27.385 mm.
lever arm = j
d
= d -y = 322.615 mm.
yield moment = My = As fy j
d
= 51.278 10
6
Nmm
Yield curvature =
c
n
c
= 7.778 x 10
-6
rad/mm.
This is shown in Fig. 6.5
6.4 Limit state
As the applied moment is increased further,
concrete in compression region also yield.
The tensile steel reaches maximum yield
strain. Stress strains of concrete and steel
enter into nonlinear stage. The stress
distribution in cracked section will take the
shape of idealized parabola. This occurs
because the fundamental assumption of a
linear strain distribution holds good at all
stages of loading. The manual calculation
for this phase is quite cumbersome due to
iteration process for the plastic moment and
curvature, so this part is explained briefly
here. However it can be easily done on the
structural analysis software like SAP. The
determination of M-| curve by using SAP
software is presented in section 6.5.
Stress-strain relationship for concrete is
c
c

c
sc

n
fc
fs
C
C
C
S
T
S
f
s
c
S

Strains

Stresses

Forces

Effective
section
166

considered as given in IS456:2000. However,
the same for steel is given below, as considered
for the present problem (Andriono and Park,
1987) with usual notations.

y
f = 415 MPa,
su
f = 477.3 MPa,
s
E = 200 GPa,
sh
c = 0.025,
su
c = 0.14,
sh
E = 3851 MPa
a) Elastic region ( 0 c c s s
s y
): c =
s s s
f E
b) Yield Plateau ( c c c s s
y s sh
): =
s y
f f
c) Strain Hardening region ( c c c s s
sh s su
):
( )
( )
( )
c c
c c
(
= +
(
(

P
su s
s su y su
su sh
f f f f
Where,
( )
( )
c c
(
( =
(

su sh
sh
su y
P E
f f

From equilibrium, C T = , we get
1 ck sc sc s st
k f bn f A f A + =
Here, k
1
is area factor corresponding to
maximum concrete strain in the section.

since /
st
A bd = , ' /
sc
A bd = ,
c
c s
kd d
c
c c
| |
=
|
+
\ .
,
sc sc s
f E c = and
1
sc c
n y
n
c c
| |
=
|
\ .
, we get
( )
1
1
'
c
ck s c c s
c s
s
y
k f E
d
f
c
c c c
c c
| |
(
+ +
|
(
+

\ .
=
The above equation is a function of strain in
concrete & reinforcement and stress in
reinforcement for a given section. Hence,
different plots can be obtained by selecting
strain in concrete c
c
. If we overlap these plots
above the actual stress-strain curve of
reinforcement assumed, from the intersecting
point one can get stress and strain in
reinforcement for a selected value of strain in
concrete as illustrated in Fig. 6.2.

Fig 6.2: Stress strain curves for reinforcement
After obtaining f
s
and c
s
, depth of neutral axis
can be calculated as
1
1
'
'
c s
c
ck c s s
c s
y E
n
k f E f
c
c
c
c c
=
| |
+
|
+
\ .

Further, strain (c
sc
) and hence stress (f
sc
) in
compression steel can be calculated, as shown
earlier. Moment capacity M and curvature | can
be calculated equations given from below.
1 2 1
( ) ( )
ck sc sc
M k f bn d k n f A d y = +
and
c
n
c
| = , here k
2
is depth of NA factor.
For c
c
= 0.001, we get k
1
= 0.471 & k
2
= 0.375.
From Fig 6.2, intersection of two plots can be
found as c
s
= 0.00474 and f
s
= 415 MPa. Depth
of neutral axis n can be calculated as 61 mm.
Further, strain and hence stress in compression
reinforcement bars is calculated as c
sc
= 0.00059
167

and f
sc
= 118.029 MPa. From above relation, M
= 51.398 kN-m and | = 1.639 x 10
-5
rad/mm.
Table 6-1: Stepwise results in Tabular Form:
Manual
Calculation
SAP Results
Stage
M
(kNm)
|
(rad/mm)
M
(kNm)
|
(rad/mm)
Cracking 19.497 7.483 x 10
-7
- -

Yielding 51.278 7.778 x 10
-6
50.850 7.916 x 10
-6

c
c
=0.0010
51.938 1.639 x 10
-5
52.075 1.570 x 10
-5

c
c
=0.0015
52.558 3.145 x 10
-5
52.736 3.180 x 10
-5

c
c
=0.0020
52.875 4.934 x 10
-5
52.967 5.000 x 10
-5

c
c
=0.0025
52.978 6.842 x 10
-5
53.044 6.870 x 10
-5

c
c
=0.0030
54.036 8.645 x 10
-5
53.414 8670 x 10
-5

c
c
=0.0035
56.013 1.031 x 10
-4
54.219 1.038 x 10
-4

Similar calculations can be done for different
value of strain in concrete. (See table 6.1)

6.5 M-| curve using software
Software for nonlinear analysis for reinforced
concrete provides facility to obtain moment
curvature relationship for a given RC section.
Section Builder module of SAP 2000 is one such
software. In the manual calculations shown in
the previous sections, M-| calculations are done
at three points only. In the software, the M-|
calculations are done at many points and a
smooth curve is obtained. The input to software
are geometrical details of cross section, quantity
of steel in tensile and compression region and all
the material properties, viz., Youngs Modulus,
Poissons Ratio, characteristic strength of
concrete and yield stress for steel.
The stress-strain of concrete and steel are also
required. In this context, it is to be noted that IS
456 (2000) provides stress-strain curve of
concrete and steel. For the present problem, the
stress-strain curve of steel and concrete shown in
Fig.6.3 and Fig.6.4 are used. For concrete,
stress-strain curve depends on level of confined
steel. The details of The M-| curve obtained
using this software is shown in Fig 6.5. A
comparison of moment and curvature values
obtained from manual calculations and software
is given in Table 6.1.

Fig. 6.5 M-| Curve obtained by manual calculations
and by section builder of SAP 2000 software
Fig. 6.4 Stress-strain curve used in section builder for
Fe415 reinforcement bars.
Fig. 6.3 Stress-strain curve used in section builder for
concrete (Mander, Priestley and Park 1988)
168

Example 7 Obtain plastic moment, M
P
for RC pier and the
maximum seismic coefficient required for plastic hinge
formation


For the pier of bridge considered in Example 1, Calculate the plastic moment (M
p
) of reinforced concrete
pier and the maximum seismic coefficient required to form the plastic hinge in the pier.

Solution:

7.1 Preliminary Data
From Example 1, following data is taken:
Height of pier =12 m, Diameter of pier = 2 m, Seismic weight in longitudinal direction = 4114 kN,
Seismic weight in transverse direction = 9014 kN, Time period in longitudinal direction = 0.77 sec,
Time period in transverse direction = 1.13 sec.
Seismic forces obtained in Example 1 for Load combination 1.4 DL + 1.75(LL+IL) + 1.25EQ are:
Vertical force = 22293 kN, Lateral forces in longitudinal direction = 925 kN
Lateral forces in transverse direction = 2028 kN.

7.2 Calculation of % of steel
P
u
= Axial load on pier = 22293 kN

M
u
= Transverse moment
= 2928 x 12 = 24336 kNm

0.186

0.101

From chart 55, (SP 16: 1980): p
t
/f
ck
= 0.1
p
t
= 3 %
Provide 60 numbers of bar of 45 mm diameter.
The clear spacing between two bars is 54 mm,
which gives the total steel of 3.1%.
7.3 Calculation of Plastic Moment (M
p
)
In a very simplistic fashion, the plastic moment
can be taken as 1.4 x M
u
= 34070 kNm.
However, the provided steel is slightly more
than the steel required, hence, the plastic
moment will be slightly on higher side.
For 3.1% steel: p
t
/f
ck
= 3.1 / 30 = 0.103
For this value of p
t
/f
ck
, and
one gets

M
u, lim
= 0.105 x 30 x 2000
3
/ 10
6

= 25200 kN-m

Plastic moment, M
p
= 1.4 x M
u, lim
= 1.4 x 25200
= 35280 kN-m
=
2
D f
P
ck
u
=
3
D f
M
ck
ux
105 0
3
.
D f
M
ck
ux
=
186 0
2
.
D f
P
ck
u
=
169

This value is slightly higher than 1.4x M
u

(i.e. 34070 kNm).
Using the Section Builder module of SAP 2000
software and following the procedure described
in Example 6, the value of plastic moment for
this RC section is obtained as 32530 kNm.

7.4 Maximum Seismic Coefficient

Here, the maximum seismic coefficient (A
h
)
max
,
required to produce the plastic hinge in the pier
section is obtained.
Lateral force required to develop plastic
moment is P
max
.
M
p
= P
max
x h
P
max
= M
p
/ h = 35280 / 12 = 2940 kN
For this pier, In the transverse direction the
seismic weight, W = 9014 kN (as per example
1)
P
max
= (A
h
)
max
x W
Where, (A
h
)
max
is lateral seismic coefficient
required to achieve lateral force of P
max
.
(A
h
)
max
= P
max
/ W = 2940 / 9014 = 0.33g
Thus, lateral seismic coefficient required to
achieve plastic moment is (A
h
)
max
= 0.33g
For superstructure design, if elastic forces
( i.e. forces with R = 1 ) are quite large , then,
superstructure shall be designed for (A
h
)
max
,

i.e.
maximum lateral seismic coefficient at which
plastic hinge gets developed in the ductile
member, i.e., pier.

170

Example 8 - Liquefaction Analysis using SPT data

The measured SPT resistance and results of sieve analysis for a site in Zone IV are given in Table
8.1. Determine the extent to which liquefaction is expected for a 7.5 magnitude earthquake. The site
is level, the total unit weight of the soil layers is 18.5 kN/m
3
, the embankment height is 10 m and
the water table is at the ground surface. Estimate the liquefaction potential immediately
downstream of the toe of the embankment.

Table 8.1: Result of the Standard penetration Test and Sieve Analysis
Depth
(m)
60
N Soil Classification Percentage fine
0.75 9 Poorly Graded Sand and Silty Sand (SP-SM) 11

Solution:
Site Characterization:
This site consists of loose to dense poorly
graded sand to silty sand (SP-SM). The SPT
values ranges from 9 to 26. The site is located
in zone IV. The peak horizontal ground
acceleration value for the site will be taken as
0.24g corresponding to zone factor Z = 0.24
Liquefaction Potential of Underlying Soil
Step by step calculation for the depth of
12.75m is given below. Detailed calculations
for all the depths are given in Table 8.2. This
table provides the factor of safety against
liquefaction (FS), maximum depth of
liquefaction below the ground surface.
max
max
0.24 1 1 0.24
a Z I S
a
=
= =

5 . 7 M
w
= ,
3
18.5 /
sat
kN m = ,
3
8 9 m / kN .
w
=
Considering water table at ground surface,
sample calculations for 12.75m depth are as
follows.
Initial stresses:
kPa 9 . 235 5 . 18 75 . 12
v
= = o
kPa 95 . 124 8 . 9 ) 00 . 0 75 . 12 ( u
0
= =
( )
'
0
235.9 124.95
v v
u o o = =
= kPa 95 . 110
Stress reduction factor:
83 . 0 75 . 12 0267 . 0 174 . 1 z 0267 . 0 174 . 1 r
d
= = =

Critical stress ratio induced by
earthquake:
g 24 . 0 a
max
= , 5 . 7 M
w
=
( ) ( )
'
v v d maz
/ r g / a 65 . 0 CSR o o =
( ) ( ) 0.65 0.24 0.83 235.9/110.95 CSR =
= 28 . 0
Correction for SPT (N) value for
overburden pressure:
( )
60 N 60 1
N C N =
( )
2 / 1
'
v N
/ 1 79 . 9 C o =
( ) 93 . 0 95 . 110 / 1 79 . 9 C
2 / 1
N
= =
( ) 16 17 93 . 0 N
60 1
= =
Cyclic stress ratio resisting liquefaction:

171

For ( ) 16 N
60 1
= , fines content of % 8
22 . 0 CRR
5 . 7
= (Figure G-5)
Corrected Cyclic Stress Ratio Resisting
Liquefaction:
o o
k k k CRR CRR
m 5 . 7
=
=
m
K Correction factor for earthquake
magnitude other than 7.5 (Figure G-1)
00 . 1 = for 5 . 7 M
w
=
=
o
K Correction factor for initial driving
static shear (Figure G-3)
00 . 1 = , since no initial static shear
=
o
K Correction factor for stress level
larger than 96 kPa (Figure G-2) 88 . 0 =

19 . 0 88 . 0 1 1 22 . 0 CRR = =

Factor of safety against liquefaction:
70 . 0 28 . 0 / 19 . 0 CSR / CRR FS = = =
It shows that the considered strata are liable
to liquefy.
Summary:

The extent of liquefaction for the strata of
considered site on be read from Table 8.2,
where F. S. < 1.0 indicates the possibility of
liquefaction.

Table 8.2: Liquefaction Analysis: Water Level at GL
Depth %Fine
v
o
(kPa)
'
v
o
(kPa) 60
N
N
C ( )
60
N
d
r

CSR 5 . 7
CRR
CRR FS
0.75 11.00 13.9 6.5 9.00 2.00 18 0.99 0.33 0.24 0.27 0.82
3.75 16.00 69.4 32.6 17.00 1.71 29 0.97 0.32 0.32 0.34 1.04
6.75 12.00 124.9 58.7 13.00 1.28 17 0.95 0.31 0.21 0.20 0.65
9.75 8.00 180.4 84.8 18.00 1.06 19 0.91 0.30 0.23 0.21 0.69
12.75 8.00 235.9 110.9 17.00 0.93 16 0.83 0.28 0.22 0.19 0.70
15.75 7.00 291.4 137.0 15.00 0.84 13 0.75 0.25 0.16 0.13 0.53
18.75 6.00 346.9 163.1 26.00 0.77 20 0.67 0.22 0.22 0.18 0.80

172

Example 9 - Liquefaction Analysis using CPT data

Prepare a plot of factors of safety against liquefaction versus depth. The results of the cone
penetration test (CPT) of 15m thick layer in Zone V are provided in Table 9.1. Assume the water
table to be at a depth of 2.35 m, the unit weight of the soil to be 18 kN/m
3
and the magnitude of 7.5
and the peak horizontal ground acceleration as 0.15g.

Table 9.1: Result of the Cone penetration Test
Depth (m)
c
q
s
f
Depth (m)
c
q
s
f
Depth (m)
c
q
s
f
0.50 64.56 0.652 5.50 49.70 0.235 10.50 116.1 0.248
1.00 95.49 0.602 6.00 51.43 0.233 11.00 97.88 0.159
1.50 39.28 0.281 6.50 64.94 0.291 11.50 127.5 0.218
2.00 20.62 0.219 7.00 57.24 0.181 12.00 107.86 0.193
2.50 150.93 1.027 7.50 45.46 0.132 12.50 107.2 0.231
3.00 55.50 0.595 8.00 39.39 0.135 13.00 124.78 0.275
3.50 10.74 0.359 8.50 36.68 0.099 13.50 145.18 0.208
4.00 9.11 0.144 9.00 45.30 0.129 14.00 138.53 0.173
4.50 33.69 0.297 9.50 102.41 0.185 14.50 123.95 0.161
5.00 70.69 0.357 10.00 92.78 0.193 15.00 124.41 0.155

Solution:
Liquefaction Potential of Underlying Soil:
The result of assessment of liquefaction
potential provided in the last column of Table
9.1, where FS denotes the factor of safety
against liquefaction (= CRR
7.5
/CSR). Step by
step calculation for the soil at depth of 4.5m
is given below for illustration. Detailed
calculations are given in Table 9.2, which
provides the factor of safety against
liquefaction (FS
liq
).

a
max
/g = 0.15, M
w
=7.5,

3
sat
m / kN 8 1 = ,
3
w
m / kN 8 . 9 =

Depth of water level below G.L. = 2.35m
Depth at which liquefaction potential is to be
evaluated = 4.5m
Initial stresses:
kPa 00 . 81 18 5 . 4
v
= = o
kPa 07 . 21 8 . 9 ) 35 . 2 5 . 4 ( u
0
= =
( ) kPa 93 . 59 07 . 21 81 u
0 v
'
v
= = = o o
Stress reduction factor:
965 . 0 5 . 4 00765 . 0 1
z 00765 . 0 1 r
d
= =
=

Critical stress ratio induced by
earthquake:
( ) ( )
'
max
/ / 65 . 0
v v d
r g a CSR o o =
( ) ( )
13 . 0
93 . 59 / 81 965 . 0 15 . 0 65 . 0 CSR
=
=

Correction factor for grain characteristics:
64 . 1 I for
88 . 17 I 75 . 33 I 63 . 21 I 581 . 5 I 403 . 0 K
and 64 . 1 I for 0 . 1 K
c
c
2
c
3
c
4
c c
c c
>
+ + =
s =
where the soil behavior type index,
c
I , is
given by
( ) ( )
2 2
c
F log 22 . 1 Q log 47 . 3 I + + =

173

( ) ( )
19 . 2
903 . 0 log 22 . 1 19 . 42 log 47 . 3 I
2 2
c
=
+ + =

Where,
( ) | | 100 q f F
v c
= o
( ) | | 903 . 0 100 81 3369 / 7 . 29 F = = and
( ) | |( )
n
v a a v c
P P q Q o o ' =
( ) | | ( )
19 . 42
93 . 59 35 . 101 35 . 101 81 3369 Q
5 . 0
=
=

( ) ( )
( ) ( ) 64 . 1 88 . 17 19 . 2 75 . 33 19 . 2 63 . 21
19 . 2 581 . 5 19 . 2 403 . 0 K
2
3 4
c
= +
+ =

Normalized Cone Tip Resistance:
( ) ( ) ( )
a c
n
v a c cs N 1 c
P q P K q o' =
( ) ( ) ( )
77 . 70
35 . 101 3369 93 . 59 35 . 101 64 . 1 q
5 . 0
cs N 1 c
=
=

Factor of safety against liquefaction:

For ( ) 77 . 70 q
cs N 1 c
= ,
11 . 0 CRR
5 . 7
= (Figure G-6)
Corrected Critical Stress Ratio Resisting
Liquefaction:
o o
k k k CRR CRR
m 5 . 7
=
=
m
K Correction factor for earthquake
magnitude other than 7.5 (Figure G-4)
00 . 1 = for 5 . 7 M
w
=
=
o
K Correction factor for initial driving
static shear (Figure G-6)
00 . 1 = , since no initial static shear
=
o
K Correction factor for stress level
larger than 100 kPa (Figure G-5)
00 . 1 =
11 . 0 1 1 1 11 . 0 CRR = =
CSR / CRR FS =
86 . 0 13 . 0 / 11 . 0 FS = =

Summary:
The analysis shows that the strata between
depths 4-9m are liable to liquefy under
earthquake shaking corresponding to peak
ground acceleration of 0.15g. The plot for
depth verses factor of safety is shown in
Figure 9.1.

174

Table9.2: Liquefaction Analysis: Water Level 2.35 m below GL (Units: kN and Meters)

Depth o
v
o
v
'
r
d

qc
(kPa)
fs
(kPa) CSR F Q Ic Kc (qc1N)cs CRR
7.5

CRR FS
0.50 9.00 9.00 1.00 6456 65.20 0.10
0.45 241.91 1.40 1.00 242.06 0.20 0.20
2.10
1.00 18.00 18.00 0.99 9549 60.20 0.10
0.63 159.87 1.63 1.00 160.17 100.00 100.00
1033.55
1.50 27.00 27.00 0.99 3928 28.10 0.10
0.72 65.43 1.97 1.27 83.53 0.13 0.13
1.39
2.00 36.00 36.00 0.98 2062 21.90 0.10
1.08 33.54 2.31 1.99 68.04 0.11 0.11
1.14
2.50 45.00 43.53 0.98 15093 102.70 0.10
0.68 226.55 1.53 1.00 227.23 100.00 100.00
1011.48
3.00 54.00 47.63 0.98 5550 59.50 0.11
1.08 79.10 2.01 1.31 105.02 0.19 0.19
1.74
3.50 63.00 51.73 0.97 1074 35.90 0.12
3.55 13.96 2.92 5.92 87.81 0.14 0.14
1.24
4.00 72.00 55.83 0.97 911 14.40 0.12
1.72 11.15 2.83 5.01 60.64 0.10 0.10
0.83
4.50 81.00 59.93 0.97 3369 29.70 0.13
0.90 42.19 2.19 1.64 70.77 0.11 0.11
0.89
5.00 90.00 64.03 0.96 7069 35.70 0.13
0.51 86.63 1.79 1.10 96.60 0.16 0.16
1.24
5.50 99.00 68.13 0.96 4970 23.50 0.14
0.48 58.62 1.93 1.22 72.68 0.12 0.12
0.85
6.00 108.00 72.23 0.95 5143 23.30 0.14
0.46 58.85 1.92 1.21 72.45 0.12 0.12
0.83
6.50 117.00 76.33 0.95 6494 29.10 0.14
0.46 72.50 1.83 1.13 83.61 0.13 0.13
0.95
7.00 126.00 80.43 0.95 5724 18.10 0.14
0.32 62.00 1.83 1.13 71.56 0.11 0.11
0.79
7.50 135.00 84.53 0.94 4546 13.20 0.15
0.30 47.66 1.92 1.21 59.46 0.10 0.10
0.68
8.00 144.00 88.63 0.94 3939 13.50 0.15
0.36 40.04 2.02 1.33 55.18 0.10 0.10
0.64
8.50 153.00 92.73 0.93 3668 9.90 0.15
0.28 36.26 2.02 1.33 50.45 0.09 0.09
0.61
9.00 162.00 96.83 0.93 4530 12.90 0.15
0.30 44.09 1.95 1.24 56.79 0.10 0.10
0.64
9.50 171.00 100.93 0.92 10210 18.50 0.15
0.37 48.78 1.95 1.24 62.62 0.18 0.18
1.16
10.00 180.00 105.03 0.91 9278 19.30 0.15
0.43 43.22 2.02 1.33 59.94 0.15 0.15
0.97
10.50 189.00 109.13 0.89 11610 24.80 0.15
0.44 53.40 1.95 1.23 68.16 0.21 0.21
1.36
11.00 198.00 113.23 0.88 9788 15.90 0.15
0.34 43.84 1.98 1.27 58.01 0.15 0.15
1.01
11.50 207.00 117.33 0.87 12750 21.80 0.15
0.35 56.56 1.88 1.17 68.51 0.23 0.23
1.53
12.00 216.00 121.43 0.85 10786 19.30 0.15
0.37 46.67 1.97 1.26 61.23 0.17 0.17
1.12
12.50 225.00 125.53 0.84 10720 23.10 0.15
0.45 45.53 2.01 1.31 62.48 0.16 0.16
1.09
13.00 234.00 129.63 0.83 12478 27.50 0.15
0.46 52.39 1.96 1.25 68.09 0.20 0.20
1.37
13.50 243.00 133.73 0.81 14518 20.80 0.14
0.40 44.79 2.00 1.29 60.67 0.26 0.26
1.81
14.00 252.00 137.83 0.80 13853 17.30 0.14
0.35 41.93 2.00 1.30 57.21 0.23 0.23
1.61
14.50 261.00 141.93 0.79 12396 16.10 0.14
0.37 36.68 2.06 1.39 53.90 0.18 0.18
1.29
15.00 270.00 146.03 0.77 12441 15.50 0.14
0.35 36.23 2.06 1.38 53.24 0.18 0.18
1.29

175

0
3
5
8
10
13
15
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
FS
liq
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)

Figure 9.1: Factor of Safety against Liquefaction

Non-Liquefiable Liquefiable

Seismic Guidelines January 2010

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IITK-RDSO GUIDELINES ON SEISMIC

DESIGN OF RAILWAY BRIDGES

IITK-RDSO Guidelines for Seismic Design of Railway Bridges

IITK-RDSO Guidelines for Seismic Design of Railway Bridges

respectively. Here correction factors for

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