Chapter 18: Absolutism and Limited Power in the Age of Capitalism: 1648 1774 (Page 480)

Increase in burghers/bourgeoisie + Capitalism Rise in monarchys military spending Absolutism (centralized power) by Louis XIV, limited central power in Britain + Netherlands, decentralized king weakens Poland Science + desire for stability spreading

I. Capitalism and the Forces of Change (Page 432) A. Economy + society continued to challenge government B. Expanding Capitalism (Page 482) 1. East had raw materials, west had manufactured goods 2. Dutch, English, French merchant-bankers, controlled ships/credit 3. Plantations (especially sugar) in Caribbean were prosperous, slavery 4. Diet changed yams, potatoes, etc. introduced 5. Government ruled public banks replace early family banks (Bank of Amsterdam 1609, Bank of England 1694), made capital available 6. Four conditions caused commercial boom: a) Government demand for goods because of huge armies/navies b) Increase in European population, expanding market c) Plantations in tropical colonies d) Gold + diamonds raised prices 7. Increase in joint stock companies/partnerships + specialization in wholesale/retail 8. Inflation + expansion of economy, boom/bust 9. International trade East India Companies in Austria + Prussia 10. Britain + France doing well, while Dutch decline C. The Growth of Free Enterprise (Page 483) 1. Increase in enterprise Capitalism, people wanted money + evade law 2. Increase in Capitalistic agriculture, focused on profits, not tradition 3. Jethro Tull (1674 1741) plowed land with drill 4. Viscount Charles Townshend (1674 1738) Turnip Townshend, soil fertility + crop rotation 5. Robert Bakewell (1725 1795) selective breeding, increased size of meat + milk yield 6. Arthur Young (1741 1820) spread new economic agricultural techniques + advantages of well equipped farms 7. Large capital investments + complete control of land necessary for new agricultural techniques 8. Manorial land plots breaking down by buyers + foreclosures, suits, legislation 9. Gentry used political power to break down traditional rights through enclosures 10. The Enclosure Acts 40,000-50,000 small farms were converted to large estates causing rural to urban migration/parish poorhouses

a) Especially in England and Frances buyouts 11. Domestic system created from industry + free enterprise a) Contracts between capitalist brokers + handworkers, brokers provided materials + later collected product b) Especially common after 1500s, climax in 1700 c) Mostly implemented with wool industries (spinning, weaving, etc.) silk lace, leather, paper d) Ambrose Crowley prosperous in domestic system, started early English iron industry e) Wages could often not keep up with inflation Ex. wages increased by 35%, food prices increased by 60% in 1756 1786 f) Sporadic unemployment led to riots in 1765 + 1780 12. Joint stock companies in late 1600s a) Dutch + English East India Companies 13. Stock companies once had monopolies, stockholders limited, trading rights violated + criticized leading to liberalized companies later, most stocks for open market 14. Most ordinary people could not understand complex economic infrastructure, realize Capitalism is dangerous II. Louis VIX, the Sun King: The Model for European Absolutism (Page 486) A. Louis XIV (1638 1715) ruled from 1643 1715, absolutism often associated with him B. Foundations of Absolutism (Page 487) 1. Bishop Jacques Bossuet divine right absolutism 2. Thomas Hobbes (1588 1679) English philosopher, the Leviathan (1651), secular absolutism where obedience is law 3. Louis XIV still relied on previous systems, not complete absolutism a) However, wanted to dominate/control nobles because nobles saw kings as equals primus inter pares (first among equals) 4. Rulers before Louis trying to centralize power a) Frances I early 1500s, subordinated nobles b) Henry IV (1560 1641) + Duke of Sully ended control of hereditary offices for nobles c) Marie de Medici pro-Catholic/pro-Spain policy vs. Louis XIII - Richelieus advice (Hapsburgs + papacy threaten Frances power) (1) Louis XIII + Richelieu won, Marie exiled in 1631 (2) Richelieu tried consolidating power by restricting previous traditions, local governments controlled by central power, military/naval forces loyal to king only (3) Cardinal Mazarin (1602 1661) took over after Richelieu until Louis XIV old enough (Fronde civil war during Mazarins rule in 1649 1653, several nobles tried to capture Louis but failed, nobles vs. king) 5. Often struggle with pope over revenues, Edict of Nantes (1598) revoked by Louis XIV in 1685 causing 300,000 to flee persecution 6. Did not share power with wife or women he slept with

C. The Functioning of French Absolutism (Page 488) 1. Lavish palace in Versailles (near Paris), sun painted on chair 2. Local power ruled throughout country but Absolute power in Versailles 3. Aristocracy + unprivileged tax paying commoners 4. Louis allied with rich merchant-bankers to gain most money Mercantilism a) Spread because of trade, expenses of war, depression 5. Jean Baptiste Colbert (1619 1683) Louis economic advisor, installed Mercantilism at expense of Dutch commerce created system of tariffs, trade, prohibitions, levied against foreign imports a) Bullionism tired to increase metals by achieving favorable balance of trade b) Exports > imports, lead to profits; monopolies, taxes, tariffs, etc. used to do this c) Colonial expansion important 6. Marquis de Louvois (1641 1691) revolutionized military, added special units, new weapons, army went from 72,000 to 400,000 men (larger than any number during Thirty Years War) improve + expanded navy, navy served as Colberts strategy to gain colonies III. The Gravitational Pull of French Absolutism (Page 491) A. The German Satellites (Page 491) 1. German principalities of Holy Roman Empire 2. Treaty of Westphalia (1648) recognized over 300 independent states 3. Rulers struggled in diplomacy + power over others 4. Against Hapsburg emperor, attended Louis court + often had own army, court, ruler, palace, etc. (Brandenburg) B. Scandinavia (Page 491) 1. Frederick III (1648 1670) of Denmark + Charles XI (1660 1697) of Sweden limited power of nobles + followed French model 2. Frederick (1661) forced nobles to believe that he was self hereditary king, edicts passed allowing him to make laws/taxes 3. Charles (1680) financial independence through taking land, more like France especially in Mercantilist economy but Denmark lasted longer C. Spain and Portugal: Irregular Orbits (Page 491) 1. Most (except Scandinavia + Germany) resembled Louis development, not institutions 2. Commercialized agriculture causing desire for independence/authority 3. Europe felt pull of France but responses different according to traditions/conditions 4. Weak rulers + problems from economic decline, loss at Westphalia, other conflicts 5. Nobles exploiting weakness Pedro II (1683 1706) took Portugal, royal authority restored 6. John V 7. Philip V (1700 1746) Louis XIV grandson took throne, had French advisors, centralized power, local intendants, economic regulations

D. The Hapsburgs (Page 491) 1. Focus on land directly controlled Austria, Bohemia, Hungary, few German states 2. Leopold I (1651 1705) strengthened Austrian monarchy, modernized + increased army, central administration, suppressed Protestantism 3. 1687 Hungary recognized Hapsburgs as hereditary monarchs 4. Maria Theresa (1740 1780) no wealth/power, allowing nobles to dominate, Her motherly majesty, Count Haugwitz helped re-suppress power of nobility 5. Bad example of Absolutism, still agricultural economy therefore serfdom, no ethnic unity E. Poland: The Medieval State (Page 492) 1. No trade/industry, depressed peasants + lesser nobles (10%) wealthy through agriculture 2. Avoided military service 3. Poland was 50 small, independent, feudal states F. Absolutism in Prussia (Page 492) 1. Frederick William (1640 1688) The Great Elector gained lad during war, raised strong army, reformed Prussias administration in Brandenburg, central power 2. Frederick I (1688 1713) son of Frederick William, gained land, entitled King because of Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 3. Frederick William I (1713 1740) hard work + obedience, government reorganized under General Directory, royal supreme court, one of best militaries (80,000 men), taxed + made nobles train for military 4. Frederick II (1740 1786) against fathers policies, loved ats but forced to lose interest + personal feelings to become one of best soldiers in his day 5. 1780 Prussia under Frederick II the Great, best absolutism because a) Increasing population b) Frederick had ultimate authority c) Discipline to superiors d) Mercantilism stressed tariff protection + encouraged industry, economic self-sufficiency G. Russian Autocracy (Page 494) 1. Ivan III (tsar) married last ruler of Byzantine Empire 2. Ivan IV, the Terrible (1533 1584) a) Tried to reform Russia, trade with West b) 1560 oprichimna, war against boyars, Moscow under martial law, oprichniki desire to replace boyars, 12,000 flee, killed son 3. Fedor died without heir (1598) 4. Borris ruled, policies failed, died without heir (1605) 5. Poles invaded, zemski sabor called (113) drove Poles out + decide Romanovs will rule 6. 1636 1676, Michael to Alex, nobles ad power, Code of 1649 serfdom, economy stagnant 7. Peter I, the Great (1682 1725) new Russian Era, big + smart, hated

Moscow + traditional 8. 1689 Peter had (almost) full control, difficulty with Turks caused him to develop strong military/navy, also epicurean, had many women a) Traveled several places in West to learn b) Wars against Turks + Swedes to gain window to the sea, 1703 St. Petersburg on Baltic established c) Russian absolutism, councils and ministries appointed by tsar d) Chancery of Police + spies, nobles serve government, army, industry e) Secular official for religion, procurator (representative of tsar) f) Mimicked Mercantilism, heavy taxes improve army 9. 1580-1651 Cossacks expand through fur trade into Siberia 10. Colonists + prisoners sent to Siberia 11. After Peters death (1725) nobles tried to regain power, Orthodox from underground existence. 12. Rise in female rulers a) Catherine I (1725 1740) b) Anne Ivanovna (1730 1740) c) Elizabeth (1741 1762) d) Catherine (1762 1796) The Great IV. Holland and England: Limited Central Power (Page 497) A. Constitutional governments B. Dutch prosper from declining Iberian dominance, England from isolation C. The Dutch Experiment (Page 497) 1. Embarrassment of Riches trail to modernity in Europe during first half of 1600s 2. Global trading network, increased standard of living but little military power 3. Republicans represent rich merchants + support religious toleration 4. Monarchs represent lower class + nobles, House of Orange wanted: a) Calvinist state church b) Governors for provinces c) Army + policy against Hapsburgs 5. 1619 Republicans have power until John Oldenburnveldt executed 6. 1619-1648 ruled by governors who went to war against Spain 7. Enjoyed power from 1650 onwards, naval, commercial, colonial supremacy but not large population or boundaries 8. Still progressed in economy, constitutional government even when France + England gained power D. The English Debate (Page 498) 1. Control of property, role of law, nature of state, notion of sovereignty controversy: centralized government (Stuarts) vs. Parliament E. Crown vs. Parliament (Page 498) 1. James VI of Scotland (James I of England) Elizabeths cousin + Mary Stuarts son, believed in divine right, didnt get along with Parliament 2. Charles I accepted Petition of Right (1628) letting Parliament have a

say, 1629-1640 Charles ruled without Parliament 3. Many becoming suspicious of them being pro-Catholic, eventually leading to Scot invasion (1640) 4. Short Parliament disbanded after 3 weeks of debating resulting in the Long Parliament called after money needed, survived 20 years of debate + civil strife a) 1642 Charles leaves capital, Parliament declares complete authority over military b) 7 years of civil war, England switches between republic and monarchy c) 4 years after start, seemed to be over but conflict Parliament vs. military, conservative Presbyterians vs. radical Protestants (1) Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658) and Lord Fairfax (1612 1671) Protestant general 5. Levellers a) Reforms to help commoners b) Honest John Lilburne (1614 1657) led movement, a former army official c) eventually outlawed by radicals 6. 143 Presbyterian members of Parliament purged forming Rump Parliament dominated by Cromwell, House of Lords disbanded, Charles executed, England becomes a republic 7. Cromwell dominated but had dictator ship, Instrument of Government extended his powers but disbanded two years later + military governors utilized a) Economy + respect for England increased but unpopular government, civil war ends two years after Cromwells death in 1658 F. Restoration and Glorious Revolution (Page 499) 1. Charles II (1660 1685) came back from exile, manipulated weak English politics during Restoration resulting in opposition + crisis in 1681 a) Dismissed 4 parliaments, ruled without legislature, took advantage of people to avoid civil war b) Whig opposition represented lesser landowners, legal security 2. James II (1685 1688) more determined absolutist than brother (Charles II), aristocrats didnt want Catholic rule (son was potential Catholic king) so nobles asked Mary Stuart + William Orange to be rulers 3. William defeated James with Dutch army called The Glorious Revolution limiting the monarchy 4. English Bill of Rights created: a) King could not suspend laws b) King could not tax or raise army during peacetime without Parliaments consent c) Sessions of Parliament would be frequent d) Freedom of speech in Parliament e) Citizens have right to petition + free of cruel or excessive

punishments f) King must be Protestant 5. 1689 Mutiny Act Parliament must approve of martial law if over a year 6. 1693 Licensing Act not renewed allowing freedom of press 7. 1701 Act of Settlement Parliament must have consent if king a) Declares war b) Removes a judge c) Leaves country 8. The Glorious Revolution limited power of monarchy G. Whigs and Tories (Page 500) 1. Landed gentry (lower aristocracy of landed capitalists) got control of House of Commons a) Whig alliance helped them shape policy prime minister + cabinet, responsible to Parliament, not king b) Own class put into positions, privileges shared with few nobles left in House of Lords 2. Hanovers took over George I (1714-1727) + George II (1727-1760) relied on prime ministers to work with Parliament a) Sir Robert Walpole (1676-1745) first prime minister, majority rules in cabinet governments 3. George III (1760-1820) overpowered Whigs and controlled Parliament, 1770 House of Commons filled with Tories (Kings friends) 4. George Grenville (1712-1770) chief minister after 1763, tried to settle problems in new world as result of Seven Years War leading to the American Revolution V. Breaking the Bank: Diplomacy and War in the Age of Absolutism: 1650 1774 (Page 501) A. Shifts in balance of power caused by wars B. From Westphalia to Utrecht: The Dominance of France (Page 501) 1. France strongest from Peace of Westphalia 1648) to Treaty of Utrecht (1713) 2. Diplomatic efforts to unite against France 3. Russia was exception Peter conquered Azov + Great Northern War (1709 1721) against Sweden (Swedes defeated at Poltava in 1709, Russia establishes St. Petersburg, their new capital) 4. Anglo-Dutch naval wars (1652 1674) England jealous of Netherlands but both aware of Frances power, become allies 5. Grand Design wars of Louis XIV after 1670: a) Tried to conquer Spanish Netherlands against Dutch + allies (War of Devolution) b) Louis attacks Netherlands directly (Second Dutch War) c) Tried to annex certain Rhineland districts against Austrian League (almost all European counties) in 1690s d) Louis tried to get Spanish throne for grandson (Philip V) in 1701 + 1713 (War of Spanish Succession)

6. Women had major role behind scenes a) Sarah Churchill, Mary of Modena, Madame of Maintenon, Princess de Ursins b) 1709 Anne guided officials to Peace of Utrecht 7. Growing opposition to French power a) First: Spain, Netherlands, Sweden, some German states b) Second: England + almost all of Europe 8. Treaty of Utrecht (1713) a) 30 years of general peace b) Philip V became king of Spain but Spain could not unite with France c) Hapsburgs gain Spanish Netherlands, Naples, Milan d) Frederick I of Prussia + Duke of Savoy (along with gaining the two Sicilies) gained title of king e) Most (except Britain) lost more than gained f) Britain got Hudson Bay, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland (all previously French), Gibraltar (kept from Westphalia) and Minorca from Spain + permitted to sell slaves in Spanish America making Britain the leading colonial power C. From Utrecht to Paris: An Unstable Balance (Page 502) 1. More shifts Prussia, France, (and to some extent Austria) gaining military power + France vs. England in colonies 2. 1730 apparent conflict with France + England a) France surpassing Britain in sugar production b) France challenging Britains rights in trading with Spanish America c) Controversy over southern India d) Fights in New World France and England balanced 3. 1739 conflict over British trade in Spanish America, War of Jenkins Ear France supported Spain against England 4. Frederick the Great took Silesia from Maria Theresa f Austria 5. France, Spain, Prussia, Saxony, Bavaria vs. England, Netherlands, Austria a) Result: Prussia pretty much knocked Austria out but war continued overseas into India until 1748 b) Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle Prussia kept Silesia, no change to France + England, 8 years of truce 6. Maria Theresa, Tsarina Elizabeth of Russia, Sweden, German states (but needed France) ally against Prussia 7. Prussia + Britain effectively isolated 8. Britain allies with Prussia against Austro-Russian League + France diplomatic revolution in 1750s 9. 1756 war breaks out in North America (French and Indian War), Europe (Seven Years War), and Asia a) 3 Major powers against Frederick, attempted to by peace from Madame de pompadour but failed

b) Frederick won, tsar Peter III of Russia (pro-Prussian) withdrew, Prussia keeps Silesia 10. Seven Years War confirms Prussia + Russia as powerful, Prussias prestige + Russias military reputation thanks to Peter the Great 11. Austria lost prestige but Poland + Ottomans real losers 12. 1772 Poland portioned to Russia, Prussia, and Austria 13. 1793 + 1795 Polands final two partitions 14. Russia (led by Catherine the Great) conquered Ottomans most of Ukraine, Crimea 15. Peace of Paris (1763) England gained but France lost a) St. Lawrence River Valley, TransAppalachian area east of Mississippi, some of East Indies, Louisiana b) Spain gave Florida to England 16. France allowed to keep India but could not fortify or have political ties 17. Britain largest, wealthiest, most powerful after 1763 Louis XV and the Decline of European Absolutism: 1715 1774 Louis great-grandson Louis XV, After me, the Flood (Aprs moi, le deluge) Absolute government crisis, show weakness + abuse of power Rise in desire for social recognition, position, personal happiness o Selling offices common to gain revenue Cardinal Fleury minister of France often ruled but Louis XVs several mistresses often gained power as nonnobles o Madame de Pompadour (Jeanne-Antoinette Poisson) + Madame du Barry, both women had lavish styles of living Others did what Louis did public debt Military expenses also lead to public debt, protected colonies France faced a hoard of economic/financial problems rising taxes, disaster in 1720s + 1730s, increasing debt, deficit, no foreign credit (unlike England)