Physics

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Newton's Rings observed through a microscope. The smallest increments on the superimposed
scale are 100m.

The experimental setup: a convex lens is placed on top of a flat surface.
The phenomenon of Newton's rings, named after Isaac Newton who first studied them in 1717,
is an interference pattern caused by the reflection of light between two surfaces - a spherical
surface and an adjacent flat surface. When viewed with monochromatic light it appears as a
series of concentric, alternating bright and dark rings centered at the point of contact between the
two surfaces. When viewed with white light, it forms a concentric ring pattern of rainbow colors
because the different wavelengths of light interfere at different thicknesses of the air layer
between the surfaces. The light rings are caused by constructive interference between the light
rays reflected from both surfaces, while the dark rings are caused by destructive interference.
Also, the outer rings are spaced more closely than the inner ones. Moving outwards from one
dark ring to the next, for example, increases the path difference by the same amount ,
corresponding to the same increase of thickness of the air layer /2. Since the slope of the convex
lens surface increases outwards, separation of the rings gets smaller for the outer rings. For
surfaces which are not convex, the fringes will not be rings but will have other shapes.
The radius of the N
th
Newton's bright ring is given by

where N is the bright ring number, R is the radius of curvature of the lens the light is passing
through, and is the wavelength of the light passing through the glass.
The phenomenon was first described by Robert Hooke in his 1664 book Micrographia although
its name derives from the physicist Isaac Newton, who was the first to analyze it.
- NOTE: The above formula is applicable only for Newton's rings obtained by reflected
light.

Newton's rings seen in two plano-convex lenses with their flat surfaces in contact. One surface is
slightly convex, creating the rings. In white light the rings are rainbow-colored because the
different wavelengths of each color interfere at different locations.
[edit] Theory
There is light incident on the flat plane of the convex lens which is situated on the optically flat
glass surface below, the light passes through the glass lens until it comes to the glass-air
boundary, here the light goes from a higher refractive index (n) value to a lower n value. The
light passes through this boundary and suffers no phase change. Also at this boundary, some
light is transmitted into the air and some light is reflected. The light that is transmitted to the air
travels a distance t before it is reflected at the flat surface below, the air-glass boundary causes a
half-cycle phase shift because the air has a lower refractive index than the glass. The two
reflected rays now travel in the same direction to be detected. The convex lens touches the flat
surface below and from this point, as you get further away, the distance t increases because the
lens is curving away from the surface R
2
= R
2
2Rt + t
2
+ x
2

2Rt = t
2
+ x
2

t < < x so t
2
< < < x
2
therefore:

and finally, we have:

[edit] External links
vMichelson interferometer

A Michelson interferometer for use on an optical table.
The Michelson interferometer is the most common configuration for optical interferometry and
was invented by Albert Abraham Michelson. An interference pattern is produced by splitting a
beam of light into two paths, bouncing the beams back and recombining them. The different
paths may be of different lengths or be composed of different materials to create alternating
interference fringes on a back detector. Michelson, along with Edward Morley, used this
interferometer in the famous Michelson-Morley experiment (1887)
[1]
to show the constancy of
the speed of light across multiple inertial frames, which removed the conceptual need for a
luminiferous aether to provide a rest frame for light.
Contents
[hide]
- 1 Configuration
- 2 Applications
- 3 Nonlinear Michelson interferometer
- 4 See also
- 5 References
- 6 External links
[edit] Configuration
A Michelson interferometer consists of two highly polished mirrors M
1
& M
2
. A source S emits
monochromatic light that hits a half-silvered mirror, surface M, at point C. M is partially
reflective, so one beam is transmitted through to point B while one is reflected in the direction of
A. Both beams recombine at point C' to produce an interference pattern (assuming proper
alignment) visible to the observer at point E. To the observer at point E, the effects observed
would be the same as those produced by placing surfaces A and B' (the image of B on the surface
M) on top of each other. Let's look at this interaction in more detail. Imagine that we have two
surfaces M1 and M2 as diagrammed.

Path of light in Michelson interferometer.
There are two paths from the (light) source to the detector. One reflects off the semi-transparent
mirror, goes to the top mirror and then reflects back, goes through the semi-transparent mirror, to
the detector. The other first goes through the semi-transparent mirror, to the mirror on the right,
reflects back to the semi-transparent mirror, then reflects from the semi-transparent mirror into
the detector. The principle is when a parallel beam of light coming from a monochromatic
extended light source is incident on a half silvered glass plate, it is divided into two beams of
equal intensities by partial reflection and transmission. Both beams are coherent. In this
experiment coherent waves are thus produced by the method of division of amplitude.
If these two paths differ by a whole number (including 0) of wavelengths, there is constructive
interference and a strong signal at the detector. If they differ by a whole number and a half
wavelengths (e.g., 0.5, 1.5, 2.5 ...) there is destructive interference and a weak signal. This might
appear at first sight to violate the principle of conservation of energy. However energy is
conserved, because there is a redistribution of energy at the central beam-splitter in which the
energy at the destructive sites is re-distributed to the constructive sites. The effect of the
interference is to alter the share of the reflected light which heads for the detector and the
remainder which heads back in the direction of the source.
In the late 1800s, the interference pattern was obtained by using a gas discharge lamp, a filter,
and a thin slot or pinhole. In one version of the Michelson-Morley experiment, the interferometer
used starlight as the source of light. Starlight is temporally incoherent light, but since it is a point
source of light it has spatial coherence and will produce an interference pattern.
[edit] Applications
The best known application of the Michelson Interferometer is the Michelson-Morley
experiment that provided evidence for special relativity. However, this configuration can be used
for an assortment of different applications.
The Michelson Interferometer has been used for the detection of gravitational waves, as a
tunable narrow band filter, and as the core of Fourier transform spectroscopy. There are also
some interesting applications as a "nulling" instrument that is used for detecting planets around
nearby stars. For most purposes, however, the geometry of the MachZehnder interferometer is
more useful. For the same path lengths, it will obtain a minimum due to zero phase shift on the
internal reflection.
A further application is to produce a delay line interferometer that converts phase modulation
into amplitude modulation in DWDM networks.
Astronomical interferometry is principally conducted using Michelson (and sometimes other
type) interferometers. Principle operational interferometric observatories which use this type of
instrumentation include VLTI, NPOI, and CHARA.
[edit] Nonlinear Michelson interferometer
Nonlinear Michelson interferometer, also known as Step-phase Michelson interferometer is
a generalized Michelson interferometer in which one mirror in one arm is replaced with a Gires
Tournois interferometer
[2]
(Interferometer useful for the compression of frequency-modulated
light pulse) or GiresTournois etalon. The field coming from GiresTournois etalon interferes
with the plane field reflected from the ordinary reflector. Because the phase change from the
GiresTournois etalon depends on wavelength and shows step-like behavior, nonlinear
Michelson interferometer has particular applications. One notable application in fiber-optic
communications is an optical interleaver.
The two mirrors in a Michelson interferometer can be replaced with two GiresTournois etalons.
Such a nonlinear Michelson interferometer exhibits stronger nonlinearity, which can be used to
construct an asymmetric optical interleaver.
LUPI
A variation of the Michelson that uses a small spherical reference mirror in one arm is often
called a LUPI laser unequal path interferometer. This setup needs a laser source, be it a tube
laser or laser diodes green or red.
This configuration is used to test large/small telescope mirrors.
A detailed write up on the first LUPI can be seen in the August 1972 issue of Applied Optics Vol
11 #8 pp 187274.There specifications are given for allowable cube beamsplitter (not single
plate) thickness to be used with specific mirror focal length combinations with total allowable
aberration limits for that setup detailed.
[edit] See also
vvvMichelson interferometer

[1]
Contents
[hide]
- 1 Configuration
- 2 Applications
- 4 See also
- 5 References
- 6 External links
1
& M
2
. A source S emits

[edit] Applications
[2]
LUPI
[edit] See also
Michelson interferometer

[1]
Contents
[hide]
- 1 Configuration
- 2 Applications
- 4 See also
- 5 References
- 6 External links
1
& M
2
. A source S emits

[edit] Applications
[2]
LUPI
[edit] See also

[1]
Contents
[hide]
- 1 Configuration
- 2 Applications
- 4 See also
- 5 References
- 6 External links
1
& M
2
. A source S emits

[edit] Applications
[2]
LUPI
[edit] See also

[1]
Contents
[hide]
- 1 Configuration
- 2 Applications
- 4 See also
- 5 References
- 6 External links
1
& M
2
. A source S emits

[edit] Applications
[2]
LUPI
[edit] See also
NEWTON'S RINGS
When a plano-convex lens with its convex surface is placed on a plane glass sheet, an air
film of gradually increasing thickness outward is formed between the lens and the sheet.
The thickness of film at the point of contact is zero. If monochromatic light is allowed to fall
normally on the lens, and the film is viewed in reflected light, alternate bright and dark
concentric rings are seen around the point of contact. These rings were first discovered by
Newton, that's why they are called NEWTON'S RINGS .

WHY NEWTON'S RINGS ARE FORMED

Newton's rings are formed due to interference between the light waves reflected from the
top and bottom surfaces of the air film formed between the lens and glass sheet.
EXPLANATION
The phenomenon of the formation of the Newton's rings can be explained on the basis of
wave theory of light.
An air film of varying thickness is formed between the lens and the glass sheet.
When a light ray is incident on the upper surface of the lens, it is reflected as well as
refracted.
When the refracted ray strikes the glass sheet, it undergo a phase change of 180
O
on
reflection.
Interference occurs between the two waves which interfere constructively if path
difference between them is (m+1/2) and destructively if path difference between them
is m producing alternate bright and dark rings.
RADIUS OF RINGS
Let the radius of curvature of the convex lens is R and the radius of ring is 'r'. Consider
light of wave length '' falls on the lens. After refraction and reflection two rays 1 and 2 are
obtained. These rays interfere each other producing alternate bright and dark rings. At the
point of contact the thickness of air film
is zero and the path difference is also
zero and as a 180
O
path difference occurs, so they cancel each other and
a dark ring is obtained at the centre. As we
move away from the central point , path difference is also changed and alternate dark and
bright rings are obtained. Let us suppose that the thickness of air film is 't'.
By using the theorem of geometry,

r
2
= 2Rt.............. (1)
In thin films, path difference for constructive interference is:
2nt = (m+1/2)
Where n= refractive index
For air n = 1
Therefore,
2t = (m+1/2) .............. (2)
For first bright ring m = 0
For second bright ring m = 1
For third bright ring m = 2
Similarly
For N
th
bright ring m = N-1 Putting the value of m in equation (2)
2t = (N-1+1/2)
2t = (N-1/2)
t =1/2 (N-1/2) .............. (3)
Putting the value of 't' in equation (1)
r
2
= 2Rt
r
2
= 2R . 1/2 (N-1/2)
r
2
= R (N-1/2)

This is the expression for the radius of N
th
bright ring where
r
n
= radius of N
th
bright ring
N = Ring number
R = radius of curvature of lens
= Wave length of light
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vvThe light rings are caused by constructive interference between the light rays reflected from
both surfaces, while dark rings are caused by destructive interference. The radius of the n
th

Newtons bright ring is given by r
n
= ((n1/2) ? R)
, where n is the bright ring number, R is the

radius of curvature of the lens light is passing through, and ? is the wavelength of the light
passing through the glass. This phenomenon was first described by Robert Hooke in his book
Micrographia. The above formula is applicable only for Newtons rings obtained by reflected
light.

How the Newton's Rings works?
The experimental procedure to find the radius of Newtons bright ring is as follows.
- The convex surface of a long focal length lens (large radius of curvature) is placed in contact with
a plane glass disk and clamped together
- Adjustment screws are tightened to secure intimate contact at the center
- A thin film of air is formed between the 2 surfaces of glass
- The ensemble is viewed under reflected light from an extended light source
- Ignore reflections from the top of the Plano-convex lens and the bottom of the plane glass disk,
since these reflections just contribute to the overall glare
- The reflections of interest are those involving the surfaces in contact
- There is no phase change at the glass-air surface of the convex lens (since the wave is going
from higher to a lower refractive index medium) whereas the reflection at the air-glass surface
of the plane disk suffers a half-cycle phase shift
- With R as the radius of curvature of the convex lens, the relation between the radius of the
ring r and the air-film thickness t is given by r
2
= 2Rt
- The radius of the n
th
bright ring is given by r
n
= ((n-1/2) ? R)

Why do Newton's rings form?
The occurrence of the Newtons rings can be explained on the basis of Wave theory of light
- An air film of varying thickness is formed between the lens and the glass of sheet
- When a light ray is incident on the upper surface of the lens, it is reflected as well as refracted
- When the refracted ray strikes the glass sheet, it undergoes a phase change of 180 degree on
reflection
- Interference occurs between the 2 waves, which interfere constructively if path difference
between them is (m+1/2) ? (where m is the ring number) and interferes destructively, if path
difference between them is m? producing alternate bright and dark rings

The light rings are caused by constructive interference between the light rays reflected from both
surfaces, while dark rings are caused by destructive interference. The radius of the n
th
Newtons
n
= ((n1/2) ? R)
, where n is the bright ring number, R is the radius of

curvature of the lens light is passing through, and ? is the wavelength of the light passing through
the glass. This phenomenon was first described by Robert Hooke in his book Micrographia.
The above formula is applicable only for Newtons rings obtained by reflected light.

2
= 2Rt
th
n
= ((n-1/2) ? R)

reflection

th
Newtons
n
= ((n1/2) ? R)


2
= 2Rt
th
n
= ((n-1/2) ? R)

reflection

th
Newtons
n
= ((n1/2) ? R)


2
= 2Rt
th
n
= ((n-1/2) ? R)

reflection

Thin film interference:

A film is said to be thin when its thickness is
about the order of one wavelength of visible light
which is taken to be 550 nm. When light is
incident on such a film, a small portion gets
reflected from the upper surface and a major
portion is transmitted into the film. Again a small
part of the transmitted component is reflected
back into the film by the lower surface and the
rest of it emerges out of the film. These reflected
beams reunite to produce interference. Also the
transmitted beams too interfere. This type of interference that takes place in thin films is called
interference by division of amplitude.

1
angle of incedence at medium 1
to medium 2 boundary.
2
angle of refraction at medium 1
3
angle of refraction at medium 2
r
12
reflected light from medium 1
r
23
reflected light from medium 2
r
21
reflected light from medium 2 to medium 3 boundary.
t
21
transmitted light from medium 2 to medium 1 boundary.
t
23
transmitted light from medium 2 to medium 3 boundary.
d thickness of the film.

In the above figure the rays r
12
and t
21
interfere and results in a constructive or destructive
interference depending on their path differences, given as,

constructive interference
destructive interference

Where, refractive index of the medium 2 and the order of
interference.
The transmitted light from t
23
can also interfere and result in constructive or destructive
interference.

Thin film interference with films of varying thickness
(Newtons rings):

Rings are fringes of equal
thickness. They are
observed when light is
reflected from a plano-
convex lens of a long focal
length placed in contact
with a plane glass plate. A
thin air film is formed
between the plate and the
lens. The thickness of the
air film varies from zero at
the point of contact to some
value t. If the lens plate
system is illuminated with
monochromatic light falling
on it normally, concentric
bright and dark interference rings are observed in reflected light. These circular fringes were
discovered by Newton and are called Newtons rings.

A ray AB incident normally on the system gets partially reflected at the bottom curved surface of
the lens (Ray 1) and part of the transmitted ray is partially reflected (Ray 2) from the top surface
of the plane glass plate. The rays 1 and 2 are derived from the same incident ray by division of
amplitude and therefore are coherent. Ray 2 undergoes a phase change of p upon reflection since
it is reflected from air-to-glass boundary.

The condition for constructive and destructive interferences are given as;
for normal incidence cos r = 1 and for air film = 1.

constructive interference
destructive interference

1. Central dark spot: At the point of contact of the lens with the glass plate the thickness
of the air film is very small compared to the wavelength of light therefore the path
difference introduced between the interfering waves is zero. Consequently, the interfering
waves at the centre are opposite in phase and interfere destructively. Thus a dark spot is
produced.

2. Circular fringes with equal thickness: Each maximum or minimum is a locus of
constant film thickness. Since the locus of points having the same thickness fall on a
circle having its centre at the point of contact, the fringes are circular.

3. Fringes are localized: Though the system is illuminated with a parallel beam of light,
the reflected rays are not parallel. They interfere nearer to the top surface of the air film
and appear to diverge from there when viewed from the top. The fringes are seen near the
upper surface of the film and hence are said to be localized in the film.

4. Radii of the m
th
dark rings: .
5. Radii of the m
th
bright ring: .
6. The radius of a dark ring is proportional to the radius of curvature of the lens by the
relation, .

7. Rings get closer as the order increases (m increases) since the diameter does not increase
in the same proportion.

8. In transmitted light the ring system is exactly complementary to the reflected ring system
so that the centre spot is bright.

9. Under white light we get coloured fringes.

10. The wavelength of monochromatic light can be determined as, .
Where, D
m+p
is the diameter of the (m+p)
th
dark ring and

D
m
is the diameter of the m
th
dark ring.

11. If the air film is substituted by the liquid film, then the refractive index of the liquid is
given by,

v Refractive index

Refraction of light at the interface between two media.
In optics the refractive index or index of refraction of a substance or medium is a measure of
the speed of light in that medium. It is expressed as a ratio of the speed of light in vacuum
relative to that in the considered medium.
[1]

[2]

[3]
This can be written mathematically as:
n = speed of light in a vacuum / speed of light in medium.
For example, the refractive index of water is 1.33, meaning that light travels 1.33 times as fast in
vacuum as it does in water. (See typical values for different materials here.)
As light moves from a medium, such as air, water, or glass, into another it may change its
propagation direction in proportion to the change in refractive index. This refraction is governed
by Snell's law, and is illustrated in the figure to the right. Refractive index of materials varies
with the wavelength of light. This is called dispersion and results in a slightly different refractive
index for each color.
[4]

The wavelength of light in a material is determined by the refractive index according to =
0
/
n, where
0
is the wavelength of the light in vacuum. Brewster's angle, the critical angle for total
internal reflection, and the reflectivity of a surface is also affected by the refractive index. These
material parameters can be calculated using the Fresnel equations.
[4]

The concept of refractive index is widely used within the full electromagnetic spectrum, from x-
rays to radio waves. It can also be used with wave phenomena other than light, e.g. sound. In this
case the speed of sound is used instead of that of light and a reference medium other than
vacuum must be chosen.
[5]

Contents
[hide]
- 1 Definitions
- 2 Typical values
o 2.1 Refractive index below 1
o 2.2 Negative refractive index
- 3 Microscopic explanation
- 4 Dispersion
- 5 Complex index of refraction and absorption
- 6 Relations to other quantities
o 6.1 Refraction
o 6.2 Reflectivity
o 6.3 Lenses
o 6.4 Dielectric constant
o 6.5 Density
o 6.6 Group index
o 6.7 Other relations
- 7 Birefringence
- 8 Nonlinearity
- 9 Inhomogeneity
- 10 Refractive index measurement
o 10.1 Homogeneous media
o 10.2 Refractive index variations
- 11 AbrahamMinkowski controversy
- 12 Applications
- 13 See also
- 14 References
- 15 External links
[edit] Definitions
The refractive index, n, of a medium is defined as the ratio of the speed, c, of a wave
phenomenon such as light or sound in a reference medium to the phase speed, v
p
, of the wave in
the medium in question:

It is most commonly used in the context of light with vacuum as a reference medium, although
historically other reference media (e.g. air at a standardized pressure and temperature) have been
common. It is usually given the symbol n. In the case of light, it equals

where is the material's relative permittivity, and
r
is its relative permeability. For most
naturally occurring materials,
r
is very close to 1 at optical frequencies,
[6]
therefore n is
approximately . Contrary to a widespread misconception, the real part of a complex n may
be less than one, depending upon the material and wavelength (see dispersion (optics)). This has
practical technical applications, such as effective mirrors for X-rays based on total external
reflection.
The phase speed is defined as the rate at which the crests of the waveform propagate; that is, the
rate at which the phase of the waveform is moving. The group speed is the rate at which the
envelope of the waveform is propagating; that is, the rate of variation of the amplitude of the
waveform. Provided the waveform is not distorted significantly during propagation, it is the
group speed that represents the rate at which information (and energy) may be transmitted by the
wave (for example, the speed at which a pulse of light travels down an optical fiber). For the
analytic properties constraining the unequal phase and group speeds in dispersive media, refer to
dispersion (optics).
Another common definition of the refractive index comes from the refraction of a light ray
entering a medium. The refractive index is the ratio of the sines of the angles of incidence
1
and
refraction
2
as light passes into the medium
[7]
or mathematically

The angles are measured to the normal of the surface. This definition is based on Snell's law and
is equivalent to the definition above if the light enters from the reference medium (normally
vacuum).
A complex refractive index is often used to take absorption into account. This is further
discussed in the Dispersion and absorption section below.
A closely related quantity is refractivity, which in atmospheric applications is denoted N and
defined as N = 10
6
(n - 1). The 10
6
factor is used because for air, n deviates from unity at most a
few parts per thousand.
[edit] Typical values
Selected refractive indices at = 589 nm (more extensive list here).
Material n
Gases at 0 C and 1 atm
Air 1.000293
[4]

Helium 1.000036
[4]

Hydrogen 1.000132
[4]

Carbon dioxide 1.00045
[4]

Liquids at 20 C
Water 1.333
[4]

Ethanol 1.36
[4]

Methanol 1.329
[1]

Benzene 1.501
[1]

Glycerine 1.473
[1]

Solids
Ice 1.309
[1]

Fused silica 1.46
[1]

See also: List of refractive indices
For visible light most transparent
media have refractive indices
between 1 and 2. A few examples
are given in the table to the right.
These values are measured at the
yellow doublet sodium D-line,
with a wavelength of 589
nanometres, as is conventionally done. Gases at atmospheric pressure have refractive indices
close to 1 because of their low density. Most plastics have refractive indices in the range from
1.3 to 1.7, but some high-refractive-index polymers can have a value as high as 1.76.
[9]

For infrared light refractive indices can be considerably higher. Germanium is transparent in this
region and has a refractive index of about 4, making it an important material for infrared optics.
[edit] Refractive index below 1
A widespread misconception is that since, according to the theory of relativity, nothing can travel
faster than the speed of light in vacuum, the refractive index cannot be lower than 1. This is
erroneous since the refractive index measures the phase velocity of light, which does not carry
energy or information, the two things limited in propagation speed. The phase velocity is the
speed at which the crests of the wave move and can be faster than the speed of light in vacuum,
and thereby give a refractive index below 1. This can occur close to resonance frequencies, in
plasmas, and for x-rays. In the x-ray regime the refractive indices are lower than but very close
to 1 (exceptions close to some resonance frequencies).
[10]
As an example, water has a refractive
index of 12.610
7
at a photon energy of 30 keV (0.04 nm wavelength).
[10]

[edit] Negative refractive index
Main article: Negative index metamaterials
Recent research has also demonstrated the existence of the negative refractive index, which can
occur if permittivity and permeability have simultaneous negative values. This can be achieved
with periodically constructed metamaterials. The resulting negative refraction (i.e., a reversal of
Snell's law) offers the possibility of the superlens and other exotic phenomena.
[11][12][13][14]

[edit] Microscopic explanation
At the microscale, an electromagnetic wave's phase speed is slowed in a material because the
electric field creates a disturbance in the charges of each atom (primarily the electrons)
proportional to the electric susceptibility of the medium. (Similarly, the magnetic field creates a
disturbance proportional to the magnetic susceptibility.) As the electromagnetic fields oscillate in
the wave, the charges in the material will be "shaken" back and forth at the same frequency. The
charges thus radiate their own electromagnetic wave that is at the same frequency, but usually
with a phase delay, as the charges may move out of phase with the force driving them (see
PMMA 1.49
[8]

Crown glass (typical) 1.52
[1]

Flint glass (typical) 1.62
[1]

Diamond 2.42
[1]

sinusoidally-driven harmonic oscillator). The light wave traveling in the medium is the
macroscopic superposition (sum) of all such contributions in the material: The original wave plus
the waves radiated by all the moving charges. This wave is typically a wave with the same
frequency but shorter wavelength than the original, leading to a slowing of the wave's phase
speed. Most of the radiation from oscillating material charges will modify the incoming wave,
changing its velocity. However, some net energy will be radiated in other directions or even at
other frequencies (see scattering).
Depending on the relative phase of the original driving wave and the waves radiated by the
charge motion, there are several possibilities:
- If the electrons emit a light wave which is 90 out of phase with the light wave shaking them, it
will cause the total light wave to travel more slowly. This is the normal refraction of transparent
materials like glass or water, and corresponds to a refractive index which is real and greater than
1.
will cause the total light wave to travel more quickly. This is called "anomalous refraction", and
is observed close to absorption lines, with X-rays, and in some microwave systems. It
corresponds to a refractive index less than 1. (Even though the phase velocity of light is greater
than the speed of light in vacuum c, the signal velocity is not, as discussed above). If the
response is sufficiently strong and out-of-phase, the result is negative refractive index discussed
below.
will destructively interfere with the original light to reduce the total light intensity. This is light
absorption in opaque materials and corresponds to an imaginary refractive index.
- If the electrons emit a light wave which is in phase with the light wave shaking them, it will
amplify the light wave. This is rare, but occurs in lasers due to stimulated emission. It
corresponds to an imaginary index of refraction, with the opposite sign as absorption.
For most materials at visible-light frequencies, the phase is somewhere between 90 and 180,
corresponding to a combination of both refraction and absorption.
[edit] Dispersion

In a prism dispersion causes different colors to refract at different angles, splitting white light into a
rainbow of colors.

The variation of refractive index with wavelength for various glasses.
Main article: Dispersion (optics)
The refractive index of materials varies with the wavelength (and frequency) of light. This is
called dispersion and causes prisms to divide white light into its constituent spectral colors, and
explains how rainbows are formed. As the refractive index varies with wavelength, according to
Snell's law, so will the refraction angle as light goes from one material to another. This makes
different colors go in different directions. Dispersion also causes the focal length of lenses to be
wavelength dependent. This is a type of chromatic aberration, which often needs to be corrected
for in imaging systems.
In regions of the spectrum where the material does not absorb, the refractive index tends to
decrease with increasing wavelength, and thus increase with frequency. This is called normal
dispersion, in contrast to anomalous dispersion, where the refractive index increases with
wavelength. For visible light normal dispersion means that the refractive index is higher for blue
light than for red.
For optics in the visual range the amount of dispersion of a lens material is often quantified by
the Abbe number . For a more accurate description of the wavelength
dependence of the refractive index the Sellmeier equation can be used. It is an empirical formula
that works well in describing dispersion. Sellmeier coefficients are often quoted instead of the
refractive index in tables.
Because of dispersion, it is usually important to specify the vacuum wavelength at which a
refractive index is measured. Typically, this is done at various well-defined spectral emission
lines; for example, n
D
is the refractive index at the Fraunhofer "D" line, the centre of the yellow
sodium double emission at 589.29 nm wavelength.
[edit] Complex index of refraction and absorption
See also: Mathematical descriptions of opacity
When light passes through a medium, some part of it will always be absorbed. This can be
conveniently taken into account by defining a complex index of refraction,

Here, the real part of the refractive index n indicates the phase speed, while the imaginary part
indicates the amount of absorption loss when the electromagnetic wave propagates through the
material.
That corresponds to absorption can be seen by inserting this refractive index into the
expression for electric field of a plane electromagnetic wave traveling in the z-direction. We can
do this by relating the wave number to the refractive index through , with
0
being the
vacuum wavelength. With complex wave number and refractive index n + i this can be
inserted into the plane wave expression as

Here we see that gives an exponential decay, as expected from the BeerLambert law.
is often called the extinction coefficient in physics although this has a different definition
within chemistry. Both n and are dependent on the frequency. In most circumstances > 0
(light is absorbed) or = 0 (light travels forever without loss). In special situations, especially in
the gain medium of lasers, it is also possible that < 0, corresponding to an amplification of the
light.
An alternative convention uses instead of , but where > 0 still
corresponds to loss. Therefore these two conventions are inconsistent and should not be
confused. The difference is related to defining sinusoidal time dependence as Re(e
it
) versus
Re(e
+ it
). See Mathematical descriptions of opacity.
Dielectric loss and non-zero DC conductivity in materials cause absorption. Good dielectric
materials such as glass have extremely low DC conductivity, and at low frequencies the
dielectric loss is also negligible, resulting in almost no absorption ( 0). However, at higher
frequencies (such as visible light), dielectric loss may increase absorption significantly, reducing
the material's transparency to these frequencies.
The real and imaginary parts of the complex refractive index are related through the Kramers
Kronig relations. For example, one can determine a material's full complex refractive index as a
function of wavelength from an absorption spectrum of the material.
For X-ray and extreme ultraviolet radiation the complex refractive index deviates only slightly
from unity and usually has a real part smaller than 1. It is therefore normally written as
(or ).
[15]

[edit] Relations to other quantities
[edit] Refraction

Refraction of light at the interface between two media of different refractive indices, with n
2
> n
1
. Since
the phase velocity is lower in the second medium (v
2
< v
1
), the angle of refraction
2
is less than the
angle of incidence
1
; that is, the ray in the higher-index medium is closer to the normal.
When light moves from one medium to another as in the figure to the right, it changes direction,
i.e. it is refracted. If it goes from a medium with refractive index n
1
to one with refractive index
n
2
, with an incidence angle to the surface normal of
1
, the transmission angle
2
can be
calculated from Snell's law:
n
1
sin
1
= n
2
sin
2
.
If there is no angle
2
fulfilling Snell's law, i.e.
,
the light cannot be transmitted and will instead undergo total internal reflection.
[edit] Reflectivity
Apart from the transmitted light there is also a reflected part. The reflection angle is equal to the
incidence angle, and the amount of light that is reflected is determined by the reflectivity of the
surface. The reflectivity can be calculated from the refractive index and the incidence angle with
the Fresnel equations, which for normal incidence reduces to
.
For common glass in air, n
1
= 1 and n
2
= 1.5, and thus about 4% of the incident power is
reflected.
[16]
At other incidence angles the reflectivity will also depend on the polarization of the
incoming light. At a certain angle called Brewster's angle, p-polarized light (light with the
electric field in the plane of incidence) will be totally transmitted. Brewster's angle can be
calculated from the two refractive indices of the interface as
[4]

[edit] Lenses
The focal length of a lens is determined by its refractive index n and the radii of curvature R
1
and
R
2
of its surfaces. The power of a thin lens in air is given by the Lensmaker's formula:
[4]

[edit] Dielectric constant
The frequency dependent dielectric constant is simply the square of the (complex) refractive
index in a non-magnetic medium (one with a relative permeability of unity). The refractive index
is used for optics in Fresnel equations and Snell's law; while the dielectric constant is used in
Maxwell's equations and electronics.
Where is the complex dielectric constant with real and imaginary parts and , and n and
are the real and imaginary parts of the refractive index, all functions of frequency:

Conversion between refractive index and dielectric constant is done by:

[17]

[edit] Density

Relation between the refractive index and the density of silicate and borosilicate glasses.
[18]

In general, the refractive index of a glass increases with its density. However, there does not
exist an overall linear relation between the refractive index and the density for all silicate and
borosilicate glasses. A relatively high refractive index and low density can be obtained with
glasses containing light metal oxides such as Li
2
O and MgO, while the opposite trend is
observed with glasses containing PbO and BaO as seen in the diagram at the right.
[edit] Group index
Sometimes, a "group speed refractive index", usually called the group index is defined:

where v
g
is the group velocity. This value should not be confused with n, which is always
defined with respect to the phase velocity. When the dispersion is small, the group velocity can
be linked to the phase velocity by the relation
[19]

In this case the group index can thus be written in terms of the wavelength dependence of the
refractive index as

where is the wavelength in the medium.
When the refractive index of a medium is known as a function of the vacuum wavelength
(instead of the wavelength in the medium), the corresponding expressions for the group velocity
and index are (for all values of dispersion)
[20]

where
0
is the wavelength in vacuum.
[edit] Other relations
As shown in the Fizeau experiment, when light is transmitted through a moving medium, its
speed relative to a stationary observer is:

The refractive index of a substance can be related to its polarizability with the LorentzLorenz
equation or to the molar refractivities of its constituents by the GladstoneDale relation.
[edit] Birefringence

A calcite crystal laid upon a paper with some letters showing double refraction.

Birefringent materials can gives rise to colors when placed between crossed polarizers. This is the basis
for photoelasticity.
In some materials the refractive index depends on the polarization and propagation direction of
the light. This is called birefringence or optical anisotropy.
In the simplest form, uniaxial birefringence, there is only one special direction in the material.
This axis is known as the optical axis of the material. Light with linear polarization perpendicular
to this axis will experience an ordinary refractive index n
o
while light polarized in parallel will
experience an extraordinary refractive index n
e
. The birefringence of the material is the
difference between these indices of refraction, . Light propagating in the
direction of the optical axis will not be affected by the birefringence since the refractive index
will be n
o
independent of polarization. For other propagation directions the light will split into
two linearly polarized beams. For light traveling perpendicularly to the optical axis the beams
will have the same direction. This can be used to change the polarization direction of linearly
polarized light or to convert between linear, circular and elliptical polarizations with waveplates.
Many crystals are naturally birefringent, but isotropic materials such as plastics and glass can
also often be made birefringent by introducing a preferred direction through e.g. an external
force or electric field. This can be utilized in the determination of stresses in structures using
photoelasticity. The birefringent material is then placed between crossed polarizers. A change in
birefringence will alter the polarization and thereby the fraction of light that is transmitted
through the second polarizer.
In the more general case of trirefringent materials described by the field of crystal optics, the
dielectric constant is a rank-2 tensor (a 3 by 3 matrix). In this case the propagation of light
cannot simply be described by refractive indices except for polarizations along principal axes.
[edit] Nonlinearity
The strong electric field of high intensity light (such as output of a laser) may cause a medium's
refractive index to vary as the light passes through it, giving rise to nonlinear optics. If the index
varies quadratically with the field (linearly with the intensity), it is called the optical Kerr effect
and causes phenomena such as self-focusing and self-phase modulation. If the index varies
linearly with the field (which is only possible in materials that do not possess inversion
symmetry), it is known as the Pockels effect.
[edit] Inhomogeneity

A gradient-index lens with a parabolic variation of refractive index (n) with radial distance (x). The lens
focuses light in the same way as a conventional lens.
If the refractive index of a medium is not constant, but varies gradually with position, the
material is known as a gradient-index medium and is described by gradient index optics. Light
traveling through such a medium can be bent or focused, and this effect can be exploited to
produce lenses, some optical fibers and other devices. Some common mirages are caused by a
spatially-varying refractive index of air.
[edit] Refractive index measurement
[edit] Homogeneous media

The principle of many refractometers.
See also: refractometry
The refractive index of liquids or solids can be measured with refractometers. They typically
measure some angle of refraction or the critical angle for total internal reflection. The first
laboratory refractometers sold commercially were developed by Ernst Abbe in the late 19th
century.
[21]
The same principles are still used today. In this instrument a thin layer of the liquid to
be measured is placed between two prisms. Light is shone through the liquid at incidence angles
all the way up to 90, i.e. light rays parallel to the surface. The second prism should have an
index of refraction higher than that of the liquid, so that light only enters the prism at angles
smaller than the critical angle for total reflection. This angle can then be measured either by
looking through a telescope, or with a digital photodetector placed in the focal plane of a lens.
The refractive index n of the liquid can then be calculated from the maximum transmission angle
as n = n
G
sin , where n
G
is the refractive index of the prism.
[22]

Photo of a handheld refractometer used to measure sugar content of fruits.
This type of devices are commonly used in chemical laboratories for identification of substances
and for quality control. Handheld variants are used in agriculture by e.g. wine makers to
determine sugar content in grape juice, and inline process refractometers are used in e.g.
chemical and pharmaceutical industry for process control.
In gemology a different type of refractometer is used to measure index of refraction and
birefringence of gemstones. The gem is placed on a high refractive index prism and illuminated
from below. A high refractive index contact liquid is used to achieve optical contact between the
gem and the prism. At small incidence angles most of the light will be transmitted into the gem,
but at high angles total internal reflection will occur in the prism. The critical angle is normally
measured by looking through a telescope.
[23]

[edit] Refractive index variations

A differential interference contrast microscopy image of yeast cells.
To measure the spatial variation of refractive index in a sample phase-contrast imaging methods
are used. These methods measure the variations in phase of the light wave exiting the sample.
The phase is proportional to the optical path length the light ray has traversed, and thus gives a
measure of the integral of the refractive index along the ray path. The phase cannot be measured
directly at optical or higher frequencies, and therefore needs to be converted into intensity by
interference with a reference beam. In the visual spectrum this is done using Zernike phase-
contrast microscopy, differential interference contrast microscopy (DIC) or interferometry.
Zernike phase-contrast microscopy introduces a phase shift to the low spatial frequency
components of the image with a phase-shifting annulus in the Fourier plane of the sample, so that
higher frequency parts of the image can interfere with the low frequency reference beam. In DIC
the illumination is split up into two beams that are given different polarizations, are phase shifted
differently, and are shifted transversely with slightly different amounts. After the specimen the
two parts are made to interfere giving an image of the derivative of the optical path length in the
direction of the difference in transverse shift.
[24]
In interferometry the illumination is split up into
two beams by a partially reflective mirror. One of the beams is let through the sample before
they are combined to interfere and give a direct image of the phase shifts. If the optical path
length variations are more than a wavelength the image will contain fringes.
There exist several x-ray phase-contrast imaging techniques to determine 2D or 3D spatial
distribution of refractive index of samples in the x-ray regime.
[25]

[edit] AbrahamMinkowski controversy
Main article: AbrahamMinkowski controversy
In 1908, Hermann Minkowski calculated the momentum of a refracted ray, p, where E is energy
of the photon, c is the speed of light in vacuum and n is the refractive index of the medium as
follows:
[26]

In 1909, Max Abraham proposed the following formula for this calculation:
[27]

A 2010 study suggested that both equations are correct, with the Abraham version being the
kinetic momentum and the Minkowski version being the canonical momentum, and claims to
explain the contradicting experimental results using this interpretation.
[28]

[edit] Applications

Wavefronts from a point source in the context of Snell's law. The region below the gray line has a higher
index of refraction, and so light traveling through it has a proportionally lower phase speed than in the
region above it.
The refractive index of a material is the most important property of any optical system that uses
refraction. It is used to calculate the focusing power of lenses, and the dispersive power of
prisms. It can also be used as a useful tool to differentiate between different types of gemstone,
due to the unique chatoyance each individual stone displays.
Since refractive index is a fundamental physical property of a substance, it is often used to
identify a particular substance, confirm its purity, or measure its concentration. Refractive index
is used to measure solids (glasses and gemstones), liquids, and gases. Most commonly it is used
to measure the concentration of a solute in an aqueous solution. A refractometer is the instrument
used to measure refractive index. For a solution of sugar, the refractive index can be used to
determine the sugar content (see Brix).
In GPS, the index of refraction is utilized in ray-tracing to account for the radio propagation
delay due to the Earth's electrically neutral atmosphere. It is also used in Satellite link design for
the Computation of radiowave attenuation in the atmosphere
[edit] See also
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

, where n is the bright ring number, R is the

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