1focs Part1

Fundamentals of Control Systems
A. Karamancoglu
Eskisehir Osmangazi University
Spring 2012
A. Karamanco glu Electrical Engineering Department
Textbook
These slides are based mainly on the textbooks:
K.Ogata, Modern Control Engineering, Prentice Hall, 4th Ed.,
2002.
R.C. Dorf, R. H. Bishop, Modern Control Systems, 10th Ed.,
Prentice Hall, 2004.
These are intended for the classroom use of the lecturer only; not
for sale under any circumstances.
System
A group of interacting, interrelated, or interdependent elements
forming a complex whole.
A set of detailed methods, procedures, and routines established or
formulated to carry out a specic activity, perform a duty, or solve
a problem
.
.
.
Modeling
Motivations for modeling:
Obtain the output y corresponding to a given input x.
In order to obtain a specied output y determine the input x.
Reconguring the system so that the resulting system is more
ecient or more desired.
.
.
.
Separately excited dc motor
Denitions:
V
a
: Armature voltage; (t) : Output angle
J : Inertia of the shaft;
e
: Electrical torque
i
a
: Armature current; k
1
, k
2
: constants;
R : Armature resistance
These variables are related as
follows:
_
_
J
(t) =
e
(t) = k
1
i
a
(t)
V
w
(t) = k
2

(t)
i
a
(t) =
V
a
(t)k
2

(t)
R
_
_
Combining these equation we obtain J
(t) = k
1
_
V
a
(t)k
2

(t)
R
_
This can be converted to the normal form by dening
x
1
(t) = (t), x
2
(t) =

(t)
d
dt
_
x
1
(t)
x
2
(t)
_
=
_
0 1
0
k
1
k
2
JR
_ _
x
1
(t)
x
2
(t)
_
+
_
0
k
1
JR
_
V
a
(t)
Inverted Pendulum
The objective is to keep the pendulum vertically upright by
applying appropriate force to the cart.
Denitions
y(t): horizontal distance from the reference pt.
(t): angle of pendulum
M: mass of cart
m: mass of pendulum
l : length of pendulum
u: force applied to the cart
Equations of motion
Let x
1
(t)

= y(t), x
2
(t)

= y(t), x
3
(t)

= (t), x
4
(t)

=

(t)
x
1
= x
2
x
2
=
bx
2
+ml sin(x
3
)x
2
4
mg sin(x
3
) cos(x
3
)+u
M+mmcos
2
(x
3
)
x
3
= x
4
x
4
=
(bx
2
uml sin(x
3
)x
2
4
) cos(x
3
)+(M+m)g sin(x
3
)
l (M+mmcos
2
(x
3
))
Aircraft Modeling
Denitions
Symbol Description
angle of attack
E elevator deection angle
m mass of aircraft
L
W
Lift Force
L
E
Elevator Force
L
W
:= C
ZW
, L
E
:= C
ZE
(E )
Assume that aircraft is in steady state cruise at constant altitude
and velocity. Thus, thrust and drag cancel out, and the lift and
weight balance out each other. Under these assumptions, the
longitudinal equations of motion of an aircraft can be written as
[J.J. E. Slotine and W. Li, Applied Nonlinear Control, Prentice
Hall, 1991]
J + b + (C
ZE
l + C
ZW
d) = C
ZE
lE
m
h = (C
ZE
+ C
ZW
) C
ZE
E
Introductory denitions and classication
Denition A system is an entity which produces a set of certain
outputs (y) in response to a set of inputs (x).
A system is said to be deterministic if the outputs y(t) are
predicted with 100 percent certainty. Otherwise it is said to be
nondeterministic.
If the values of its outputs at any specic time t depend only on
the values of its inputs at the same specic time t, then this
system is said to be a static system. Otherwise, it is said to be a
dynamic system
If the values of the outputs y(t) of a system at any specic time
t = t
0
depend only on the values of its inputs x(t) at times t t
0
,
then this system is said to be a causal system. Otherwise, it is said
to be a noncausal system.
Example
y(t) =
_
0
x()d Noncausal
y(t) =
t
_
x()d Causal
If both inputs and outputs of a system are dened over a
continuous time scale, then this system is said to be a continuous
time system. If both the inputs and outputs of a system are
dened only at discrete time instants, then this system is said to
be a discrete time system.
Example
y(t) + 3y(t) = sin(5t), y(0) = 4, Continuous
y(nT) = 0.5y((n1)T), y(0) = 3, T = 2 sec ., n = 1, 2, ... Discrete
y(0) = 3, y(2) = 1.5, y(4) = 0.75, y(6) = 0.375, . . .
In the example, the discrete system model does not provide
information on the value of y at, for instance, t = 1.
If a system producing y(t) in response to x(t), produces y(t + )
in response to x(t + ) for any then this system is said to be a
time invariant system. Otherwise it is said to be a time varying
system.
Homework 1.a
dy
dt
+ 0.5y = u(t) (1)
u(t) =
_
1, for t 0
0, for t < 0
, y(0) = 3
Obtain the graphics of y(t) in the interval [0-20] secs. For the
dierential equation (1), now let the input be
u(t) =
_
1, for t 5
0, for t < 5
and initial condition be y(5)=3. Obtain
the output in the same interval. Based on these graphics, can you
conclude that the system of interest is time invariant.
In linear systems: If the input x
1
(t) produces the output y
1
(t),
and the input x
2
(t) produces the output y
2
(t), then the input
1
x
1
(t) +
2
x
2
(t) produces the output
1
y
1
(t) +
2
y
2
(t) where
1
and
2
are any constants. If a system is not linear then it is
called nonlinear.
Homework 1.b
A simplied model of an underwater vehicle is
v +|v| v = u
Compute its response to signals given by the gures below.
Obtain the graphics of v in the interval [0-20] secs. for each input.
Based on the graphics what can you conclude about linearity of the
system.
Continued from the previous page
A control system usually consist of the following parts (which are
systems in their own right)
Plant is a given system whose outputs are to be controlled.
Sensors are devices which measure the outputs of the plant.
Controller is a system which calculates the necessary values of the
plant inputs to achieve desired values of the plant outputs.
Actuators are devices which set the values of the plant inputs to
those dictated by the controller.
Actuators and sensors may sometimes be a part of the plant or the
controller.
If the outputs of the controller do not explicitly depend on the
actual values of the plant outputs, then the control system is said
to be an open-loop control system.
Otherwise, it is said to be a closed-loop or (equivalently) a
feedback control system.
Example: Subblocks for Temperature control of a room
Overall Control System
MODELING and REALIZATION
Model: mathematical representation of a system
Example
The RC circuit given above has input v
i
and output v
0
.
v
i
= iR + v
0
, i = C
dv
0
dt
= C v
0
RC v
0
+ v
0
= v
i
(2)
Expression (2) is a linear dierential equation describing the input
output relation of the system.
Most people prefer to deal with algebraic equations rather than the
dierential equations. Dierential equation (2) can be transformed
into the algebraic domain by Laplace transformation.
Laplace transform of (2) is
RC [sV
0
(s) v
0
(0)] + V
0
(s) = V
i
(s)
Given v
0
(0) = 0,
V
0
(s) =
1
1 + RCs
V
i
(s)
or
V
0
(s)
V
i
(s)
=
1
1 + RCs
= G(s)
G(s) is called the transfer function and function and describes the
input-output relation of the system. Note that G(s) is the Laplace
transform of the impulse response of the system. Since
v
i
(t) = (t) V
i
(s) = 1;
V
0
(s) = G(s) v
0
(t) = L
1
[G(s)] .
For linear time invariant systems, the output is obtained by
convolving the input and the impulse response of the system,
y(t) =
_
t
0
x()g(t ) d
In the Laplace domain
Y(s) = G(s)X(s)
where X(s) and Y(s)are the Laplace transforms of x(t) and y(t).
Mechanical Systems
Example
Newtons law M y = f ky B y
Newtons law M y = f ky B y
Given y(0) = 0, y(0) = 0
Ms
2
Y(s) = F(s) kY(s) BsY(s)
Y(s)
F(s)
=
1
Ms
2
+ Bs + k
= G
1
(s) (3)
Rotational Mechanical Systems
Example
Newtons law J
= k B


Newtons law J
= k B

Given (0) = 0,

(0) = 0
(s)
T(s)
=
1
Js
2
+ Bs + k
= G
2
(s) (4)
Notice the analogy between (3) and (4). The same analogy
existing between the above mechanical systems and the following
electrical system.
V
0
(s)
V
i
(s)
=
1
LCs
2
+ CRs + 1
=
1/C
Ls
2
+ Rs + 1/C
= G
3
(s)
Electrical Mechanical Rotational
Input v
i
f
Output Cv
0
y
Energy storing device L M J
Energy storing device
1
C
k K
Energy dissipating de-
vice
R B B
Example
m
1
x
1
= u k
1
x
1
k
2
(x
1
x
2
) b( x
1
x
2
)
m
2
x
2
= k
3
x
2
k
2
(x
2
x
1
) b( x
2
x
1
)
Example
m
1
x
1
= u k
1
x
1
k
2
(x
1
x
2
) b( x
1
x
2
)
m
2
x
2
= k
3
x
2
k
2
(x
2
x
1
) b( x
2
x
1
)
Take Laplace transforms:
_
m
1
s
2
+ bs + (k
1
+ k
2
)
X
1
(s) = (bs + k
2
)X
2
(s) + U(s) (5)
_
m
2
s
2
+ bs + (k
2
+ k
3
)
X
2
(s) = (bs + k
2
)X
1
(s) (6)
Solve (6)for X
2
(s) and substitute it into Equation (5):
Example
__
m
1
s
2
+ bs + k
1
+ k
2
_ _
m
2
s
2
+ bs + k
2
+ k
3
_
(bs + k
2
)
2
X
1
(s)
=
_
m
2
s
2
+ bs + k
2
+ k
3
_
U(s)
X
1
(s)
U(s)
=
m
2
s
2
+ bs + k
2
+ k
3
(m
1
s
2
+ bs + k
1
+ k
2
) (m
2
s
2
+ bs + k
2
+ k
3
) (bs + k
2
)
2
(7)
Using (6) and (7):
X
2
(s)
U(s)
=
bs + k
2
(m
1
s
2
+ bs + k
1
+ k
2
) (m
2
s
2
+ bs + k
2
+ k
3
) (bs + k
2
)
2
. . . . . .
(8)
Equations (7) and (8) are the transfer functions
X
1
(s)
U(s)
and
X
2
(s)
U(s)
respectively.
Suppose a controller is designed in the form of a transfer function.
In order to implement such a controller, we utilize integrators,
gains and summers.
Consider the transfer function
G(s) =
n(s)
d(s)
=
b
m
s
m
+ b
m1
s
m1
+ ....... + b
1
s + b
0
s
n
+ a
n1
s
n1
+ ...... + a
1
s + a
0
(9)
We assume that (9) is proper , i,e.,n m. The realization of a
transfer function is, in general, non-unique. Here we will discuss a
particular realization which is called the canonical realization.
For this, dene an auxiliary function z as a solution of
z
(n)
+ a
n1
z
(n1)
+ ...... + a
1
z + a
0
z = x
where (.)
(n)
denotes n
th
time derivative. The transfer function
Z(s)
X(s)
is given in Block 1:
Also consider another transfer function arising from the dierential
equation:
y = b
m
z
(m)
+ b
m1
z
(m1)
+ ....... + b
1
z + b
0
z
Its transfer function
Y(s)
Z(s)
is given in Block 2:
Homework 2.a
Obtain the canonical realization of
G(s) =
3s
3
+ 2s
2
+ s
s
7
+ 3s
5
+ 6s
4
8s
3
4
Review of the Laplace Transform
Let f (t) be function of time specied for t > 0. Laplace transform
of f denoted by L(f ) is dened by
F(s) =
_
0
e
st
f (t)dt
1
1
s
t
1
s
2
t
n
, n = 0, 1 . . .
n!
s
n+1
e
at 1
sa
sin(at)
a
s
2
+a
2
cos(at)
s
s
2
+a
2
Table: Laplace Transforms of some elementary functions
Some Important Properties of Laplace Transforms
f (t) F(s)
L{c
1
f
1
(t) + c
2
f
2
(t)} = c
1
L{f
1
(t)} + c
2
L{f
2
(t)} (10)
L
_
e
at
f (t)
_
= F(s a) (11)
g(t) =
_
f (t a) for t > a
0 for t < a
_
L{g(t)} = e
as
F(s) (12)
f (at)
1
a
F(
s
a
) (13)
f
(t) sF(s) f (0) (14)

f
(t) s
2
F(s) sf (0) f
(0) (15)
f
(n)
(t) s
n
F(s)s
n1
f (0)s
n2
f
(0). . .sf
(n2)
(0)f
(n1)
(0)
(16)
t
_
0
f ()d
F(s)
s
(17)
t
n
f (t) (1)
n
d
n
ds
n
F(s) (18)
f (t)
t

_
s
F()d (19)
Initial Value Theorem. If the indicated limits exist then
lim
t0
f (t) = lim
s
sF(s)
Final Value Theorem. If the indicated limits exist then
lim
t
f (t) = lim
s0
sF(s)
Example
te
2t
d
ds
(
1
s 2
) = (
1
s 2
)
2
by (18)
t
_
0
sin(2u)du (
1
s
).(
2
s
2
+ 4
) by (17)
sin(3t) (
1
3
).(
1
(s/3)
2
+ 1
) =
3
s
2
+ 9
by (13)
Inverse Laplace Transform
If the Laplace transform of a function f (t) is F(s), then f (t) is
called an inverse Laplace transform of F(s). Symbolically
L
1
F(s) = f (t)
1
s
1
1
s
2
t
1
s
n+1
, n = 0, 1, . . .
t
n
n!
1
sa
e
at
1
s
2
+a
2
sin(at)
a
s
s
2
+a
2
cos(at)
Table: Some Inverse Laplace Transforms
Linearity
L
1
{c
1
F
1
(s) + c
2
F
2
(s)} = c
1
L
1
F
1
(s) + c
2
L
1
F
2
(s)
4
s 2

3s
s
2
+ 16
+
5
s
2
+ 4
4e
2t
3 cos 4t +
5
2
sin 2t
Shifting Property
L
1
F(s a) = e
at
f (t)
L
1
e
as
F(s) =
_
f (t a), t > a
0, t < a
1
s
2
2s + 5
=
1
(s 1)
2
+ 4

1
2
e
t
sin 2t
Change of Scale
L
1
F(ks) =
1
k
f (
t
k
)
2s
4s
2
+ 16
=
2s
(2s)
2
+ 16

1
2
cos(
4t
2
) =
1
2
cos(2t)
Derivatives
F
(n)
(s) (1)
n
t
n
f (t)
2s
(s
2
+ 1)
2
=
d
ds
(
1
s
2
+ 1
) t sin(t)
Integrals
_
s
F(u)du
f (t)
t
_
s
(
1
u

1
u + 1
)du
1 e
t
t
Multiplication by s
If f (0) = 0 then sF(s) f
(t)
Division by s
F(s)
s

t
_
0
f (u)du
1
s(s
2
+ 4)

t
_
0
1
2
sin 2udu =
1
4
(1 cos 2t)
Convolution
F(s)G(s) f (t) g(t) =
t
_
0
f (u)g(t u)du
1
(s 1)(s
2)

t
_
0
e
u
e
2(tu)
du = e
2t
e
t
Finding Inverse Laplace Transforms by Partial Fractions
Example
2s 5
(3s 4)(2s + 1)
3
=
A
3s 4
+
B
(2s + 1)
3
+
C
(2s + 1)
2
+
D
(2s + 1)
3s
2
4s + 2
(s
2
+ 2s + 4)
2
(s 5)
=
As + B
(s
2
+ 2s + 4)
2
+
Cs + D
s
2
+ 2s + 4
+
E
s 5
3s + 16
s
2
s 6
5e
3t
2e
2t
27 12s
(s + 4)(s
2
+ 9)
3e
4t
3 cos 3t
s
2
2s + 3
(s 1)
2
(s + 1)

1
2
(2t 1)e
t
+
3
2
e
t
In the MATLAB environment
Dening polynomials
>> n=[2];
>> d=[ 1 3 2 0];
>> poly2str(n,s)
ans =
2
>> poly2str(d,s)
ans =
s^3 + 3 s^2 + 2 s
Partial fraction expansion representation
2
s
3
+ 3s
2
+ 2s
=
1
s + 2
+
2
s + 1
+
1
s
>> [r,p,k]=residue(n,d)
r =
1
-2
1
p =
-2
-1
0
k =
[]
s
2
+ 1
s
3
+ 2s
2
=
1.25
s + 2
+
0.25
s
+
0.5
s
2
>> n=[1 0 1];
>> d=[1 2 0 0 ];
>> [r,p,k]=residue(n,d)
r =
1.2500
-0.2500
0.5000
p =
-2
0
0
k =
[]
STATE-SPACE REPRESENTATION OF LTI SYSTEMS
Representation of system dynamics with n rst order dierential
equations in n unknowns :
_
_
x
1
= a
11
x
1
+ a
12
x
2
+ ........ + a
1n
x
n
+ b
11
u
1
+ b
12
u
2
+ .... + b
1m
u
m
x
2
= a
21
x
1
+ a
22
x
2
+ ........ + a
2n
x
n
+ b
21
u
1
+ b
22
u
2
+ .... + b
2m
u
m
.
.
.
x
n
= a
n1
x
1
+ a
n2
x
2
+ ........ + a
nn
x
n
+ b
n1
u
1
+ b
n2
u
2
+ .... + b
nm
u
m
Output equations:
_
_
y
1
= c
11
x
1
+ c
12
x
2
+ ........ + c
1n
x
n
+ d
11
u
1
+ d
12
u
2
+ .... + d
1m
u
m
.
.
.
y
p
= c
p1
x
1
+ c
p2
x
2
+ ........ + c
pn
x
n
+ d
p1
u
1
+ d
p2
u
2
+ .... + d
pm
u
m
Matrix Representation
_
_
_
x
1
.
.
.
x
n
_
_
_
=
_
_
_
a
11
. . . a
1n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n1
a
nn
_
_
_
_
_
_
x
1
.
.
.
x
n
_
_
_
+
_
_
_
b
11
. . . b
1m
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
b
n1
b
mn
_
_
_
_
_
_
u
1
.
.
.
u
m
_
_
_
_
_
_
y
1
.
.
.
y
p
_
_
_
=
_
_
_
c
11
. . . c
1n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
c
p1
c
pn
_
_
_
_
_
_
x
1
.
.
.
x
n
_
_
_
+
_
_
_
d
11
. . . d
1m
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
d
p1
d
pm
_
_
_
_
_
_
u
1
.
.
.
u
m
_
_
_
Compact Representation
x = Ax + Bu
y = Cx + Du
_
(20)
Transfer function matrix
Take Laplace transform of (20) assuming all initial conditions are
zero:
sX(s) = AX(s) + BU(s)
(sI A)X(s) = BU(s), X(s) = (sI A)
1
BU(s)
Y(s) = CX(s) + DU(s) Y(s) = (C(sI A)
1
B + D)
. .
Transfer Function Matrix
U(s)
Laplace Transform Approach to the Solution of State
Space Equations
Consider
x = Ax + Bu
Transform the equation in the Laplace domain:
sX(s) x(0) = AX(s) + BU(s)
Solve it for X(s):
(sI A)X(s) = x(0) + BU(s)
X(s) = (sI A)
1
x(0) + (sI A)
1
BU(s)
Let us denote the inverse Laplace transform of (sI A)
1
by e
At
,
and take inverse transform throughout:
x(t) = e
At
x(0) +
_
t
0
e
A(t)
Bu()d
If the initial condition is given at arbitrary t
0
, the formula becomes:
x(t) = e
A(tt
0
)
x(t
0
) +
_
t
t
0
e
A(t)
Bu()d
Example
Obtain the time response of the following:
_
x
1
x
2
_
=
_
0 1
2 3
_ _
x
1
x
2
_
+
_
0
1
_
u
where u is the unit step function.
(sI A) =
_
s 1
2 s + 3
_
(sI A)
1
=
1
(s + 1)(s + 2)
_
s + 3 1
2 s
_
=
_
s+3
(s+1)(s+2)
1
(s+1)(s+2)
2
(s+1)(s+2)
s
(s+1)(s+2)
_
e
At
=
_
2e
t
e
2t
e
t
e
2t
2e
t
+ 2e
2t
e
t
+ 2e
2t
_
x(t) = e
At
x(0)
+
_
t
0
_
2e
(t)
e
2(t)
e
(t)
e
2(t)
2e
(t)
+ 2e
2(t)
e
(t)
+ 2e
2(t)
_ _
0
1
_
ud
or
_
x
1
(t)
x
2
(t)
_
=
_
2e
t
e
2t
e
t
e
2t
2e
t
+ 2e
2t
e
t
+ 2e
2t
_ _
x
1
(0)
x
2
(0)
_
+
_
1
2
e
t
+
1
2
e
2t
e
t
e
2t
_
Example
The outputs of the above system are dened as capacitor voltage
and the current through the resistor R
2
. They are denoted by y
1
and y
2
respectively. Select system states as inductor current x
1
and
capacitor voltage x
2
.
i
1
= y
2
+ x
1
u
2
= c x
2
+ x
1
u
2
u
1
= R
1
i
1
+ R
2
y
2
+ x
2
= R
1
(c x
2
+ x
1
u
2
) + R
2
c x
2
+ x
2
= c(R
1
+ R
2
) x
2
+ x
2
+ R
1
x
1
R
1
u
2
x
2
=
1
c(R
1
+ R
2
)
(R
1
x
1
x
2
+ u
1
+ R
1
u
2
)
L x
1
= R
2
y
2
+ x
2
L x
1
= R
2
c x
2
+ x
2
x
1
=
R
2
c
L
_
1
c(R
1
+ R
2
)
(R
1
x
1
x
2
+ u
1
+ R
1
u
2
)
_
+
1
L
x
2
x
1
=
R
1
R
2
L(R
1
+ R
2
)
x
1
+
R
1
L(R
1
+ R
2
)
x
2
+
R
2
L(R
1
+ R
2
)
u
1
+
R
1
R
2
L(R
1
+ R
2
)
u
2
y
1
= x
2
y
2
= c x
2
=
1
(R
1
+ R
2
)
(R
1
x
1
x
2
+ u
1
+ R
1
u
2
)
In matrix notation
x =
_
R
1
R
2
L(R
1
+R
2
)
R
1
L(R
1
+R
2
)
R
1
c(R
1
+R
2
)
1
c(R
1
+R
2
)
_
x +
_
R
2
L(R
1
+R
2
)
R
1
R
2
L(R
1
+R
2
)
1
c(R
1
+R
2
)
R
1
c(R
1
+R
2
)
_
u
y =
_
0 1
R
1
(R
1
+R
2
)
1
(R
1
+R
2
)
_
x +
_
0 0
1
(R
1
+R
2
)
R
1
(R
1
+R
2
)
_
u
When R
1
= R
2
= 2, C =
1
2
F, L = 1H, the state equations
become
x =
_
1 1/2
1 1/2
_
x +
_
1/2 1
1/2 1
_
u
y =
_
0 1
1/2 1/4
_
x +
_
0 0
1/4 1/2
_
u
The transfer function matrix is G(s) = C(sI A)
1
B + D
(sI A)
1
=
_
s + 1 1/2
1 s + 1/2
_
1
=
1
s
2
+
3
2
s + 1
_
s +
1
2
1
2
1 s + 1
_
G(s) =
_
s
2s
2
+3s+2
s
s
2
+
3
2
s+1
s
2
4s
2
+6s+4
s
2
2s
2
+3s+2
_
_
Y
1
(s)
Y
2
(s)
_
=
_
s
2s
2
+3s+2
s
s
2
+
3
2
s+1
s
2
4s
2
+6s+4
s
2
2s
2
+3s+2
_
_
U
1
(s)
U
2
(s)
_
U
2
(s) = 0
Y
1
(s) =
s
2s
2
+ 3s + 2
U
1
(s), Y
2
(s) =
s
2
4s
2
+ 6s + 4
U
1
(s)
U
1
(s) = 0
Y
1
(s) =
s
s
2
+
3
2
s + 1
U
2
(s), Y
2
(s) =
s
2
2s
2
+ 3s + 2
U
2
(s)
Example
Solve x + 3 x + 2x = 0, x(0) = a, x(0) = b, where a, b are
constants.
L[x(t)] = X(s)
L[ x(t)] = sX(s) x(0)
L[ x(t)] = s
2
X(s) sx(0) x(0)
[s
2
X(s) sx(0) x(0)] + 3[sX(s) x(0)] + 2X(s) = 0
[s
2
X(s) as b] + 3[sX(s) a] + 2X(s) = 0
[s
2
+ 3s + 2]X(s) = as + b + 3a
X(s) =
as + b + 3a
s
2
+ 3s + 2
=
as + b + 3a
(s + 1)(s + 2)
=
2a + b
s + 1

a + b
s + 2
x(t) = (2a + b)e
t
(a + b)e
2t
, for t 0.
Example
x + 2 x + 5x = 3, x(0) = 0, x(0) = 0,
s
2
X(s) + 2sX(s) + 5X(s) =
3
s
X(s) =
3
s(s
2
+ 2s + 5)
=
3
5
1
s

3
5
s + 2
s
2
+ 2s + 5
=
3
5

1
s

3
10

2
(s + 1)
2
+ 2
2

3
5

s + 1
(s + 1)
2
+ 2
2
3
5

3
10
e
t
sin 2t
3
5
e
t
cos 2t for t 0
Transfer Functions
Consider a rational transfer function
G(s) =
n(s)
d(s)
where n(s) = b
m
s
m
+ b
m1
s
m1
+ .... + b
1
s + b
0
and
d(s) = s
n
+ a
n1
s
n1
+ ... + a
0
Roots of n are called zeros of G. Roots of d are called poles of G.
Note that if z is zero of G then G(z) = 0. If p is a pole of G, then
lim
sp
|G(s)| =
G is said to be strictly proper if n > m. Gis said to be proper if
n m. G is said to be non-proper if n < m. Note that if G is
proper then lim
s
|G(s)| is nite. If it is strictly proper then the
limit equals zero. If G is non-proper then the limit is innity.
Transfer function of a basic feedback system
E(s) = R(s) H(s)Y(s); Y(s) = G(s)E(s)
Y(s) = G(s)[R(s) H(s)Y(s)]
Y(s) =
G(s)
1 + G(s)H(s)
R(s)
Y(s)
R(s)
=
G(s)
1 + G(s)H(s)
Example
G(s) =
1
500s
2
; H(s) =
s + 1
s + 2
>>numg=[1];
>>deng=[500 0 0];
>>numh=[1 1];
>>denh=[1 2];
>>[num,den]=feedback(numg,deng,numh,denh,-1);
>>printsys(num,den)
num/den=
s+2
--------------------
500s^3+1000s^2+s+1
When H(s) = 1, i.e., feedback is unity:
>>[num,den]=cloop(numg,deng,-1);
>>printsys(num,den)
Signal Flow Graph Methods
Figure: [num,den]=parallel(num1,den1,num2,den2)
Figure: [num,den]=series(num1,den1,num2,den2)
Denitions
Forward path: Path from input to output in the directions of
arrows.
Forward path gain: Product of branch gains of a forward path.
Loop gain: Product of branch gains of a loop.
Determinant of a graph ()
= 1(sum of all dierent loop gains)+( sum of gain products of
all possible combinations of two nontouching loops )- ( sum of
gain products of all possible combinations of three nontouching
loops )+(. . . . . . )-. . . . . .
Example
Loops: L
1
: G
2
H
2
, L
2
: G
3
H
3
, L
3
: G
6
H
6
, L
4
: G
7
H
7
Two nontouching loops: L
1
L
3
, L
1
L
4
, L
2
L
3
, L
2
L
4
Three nontouching loops: None.
Forward paths P
1
: G
1
G
2
G
3
G
4
, P
2
: G
5
G
6
G
7
G
8
Denition
k
: Determinant of the graph when the loops touching to the
k-th forward path is removed.
Example
1
= 1 (G
6
H
6
+ G
7
H
7
);
2
= 1 (G
2
H
2
+ G
3
H
3
)
Y(s)
R(s)
=
P
1
1
+ P
2

Masons Gain Formula
Y(s)
R(s)
=
k
P
k
Y(s)
R(s)
=
G
1
G
2
G
3
G
4
(1 (G
6
H
6
+ G
7
H
7
)) + G
5
G
6
G
7
G
8
(1 (G
2
H
2
+ G
3
H
3
))
1 (G
2
H
2
+ G
3
H
3
+ G
6
H
6
+ G
7
H
7
) + (L
1
L
3
+ L
1
L
4
+ L
2
L
3
+ L
2
L
4
)
Example
C
1
(s)
R(s)
=
G
1
G
2
G
3
1 G
1
G
2
H
1
+ G
2
G
3
H
2
+ G
1
G
2
G
3
Example
C
2
(s)
R(s)
=
G
1
G
2
G
3
G
4
G
5
+G
1
G
4
G
5
G
6
+G
1
G
2
G
7
(1+G
4
H
1
)
1+G
4
H
1
G
2
G
7
H
2
G
4
G
5
G
6
H
2
G
4
H
1
G
2
G
7
H
2
G
2
G
3
G
4
G
5
H
2
Block Diagram Reduction Rules
Example
Example
C(s)
R(s)
=
G
1
G
2
G
3
1 + G
1
G
2
H
1
+ G
2
H
2
+ G
2
G
3
H
3

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Fundamentals of Control Systems

A. Karamanco glu Electrical Engineering Department

(t) sF(s) f (0) (14)

A. Karamanco glu Electrical Engineering Department

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