Weathering and Soils Weathering chemical and physical breakdown of rock exposed to air, moisture and organic matter.

. Mechanical rocks are physically broken down but there is no change in its mineral content or chemical composition. Chemical dissolution and decomposition of rocks and mineral as a result of chemical and biochemical reaction, producing new minerals. Mechanical Weathering a. Thermal Expansion stress caused by cyclic expansion and contraction of rock as temperature change through the day. b. Unloading large, curved slabs of rock break off from the surface of igneous rocks due to release of pressure. c. Haloclasty rock disintegration due to the expansion of salt crystals within rock fractures. d. Frost Wedging caused by expansion of water as it freezes within rock fractures. e. Root Wedging roots of plants that sprout in rock exerts pressure that widen the fractures. Chemical Weathering a. Dissolution minerals dissolve into soluble species (ions in solution). Carbonization dissolution of limy rocks by percolating rainwater contains CO2 from atmosphere or soil. b. Oxidation involves electron transfer from one element to another. c. Hydrolysis H+ substitutes for a cation in a silicate mineral; key process in silicate weathering. - Important reaction in controlling the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere and can affect climate. d. Organic Weathering CO2 from plat roots and soil microbes increase the concentration of H2CO3 in soil waters compared to waters with dissolved atmospheric CO2. Organic acids from living organisms - Plant Roots: acetic and citric acids - Soil Microbes: fulvic and humic acids from decomposition of plant litter - Fungi: Oxalic Acid

Weathering of Rock Cubes (Devils Marbles, Australia) A. Each time a cube is subdivided the aggregate of surface area doubles. B. Solutions moving along joints separating nearly cubic blocks of rocks attacks corners, edges and side. Corners become rounded, and eventually the blocks are reduced to sphere. ** Once a spherical form is achieved, the energy of attack becomes uniformly distributed over the whole surface, so that no further change in form occurs. Exfoliation Thin, curved spalls flake off rock as it weathers, gradually causing the boulders to Increase in sphericity. Spheroidal Weathering produces a rounded core of solid granite surrounded by a halo of disintegrated rock. Wave Rock in Western Australia is composed of Granite. The wave formation was formed 60,000,000 years ago formed by subsurface chemical weathering followed by removal of the soft weathered granite by fluvial erosion. The Goldich Stability Sequence (1938) Minerals that crystallized at lower temperatures were more resistant to weathering than those crystallized at high temperatures and pressures. Aqueous Environment - Calcite Stable at the surface, but reacts rapidly with carbonated water. Oxygen-rich Environment - Olivine not stable in an aqueous environment containing even small amounts of oxygen, but stable in the vacuum of outer space. Differential weathering bet. MAFIC and FELSIC intrusive reflects relative stability. - The felsic rock which stands out in high relief above the dark mafic rock is clearly more resistant Wampler discussed some problems of GSS Mg-rich olivine forms at a higher temperature than Fe-rich olivine, but both have same susceptibility to weathering.

- Formation temperatures do not necessarily reflect the stability field of a mineral. Temperature of formation may be less important than type of chemical bonding. - Differences in formation temperature do not cause the differences in susceptibility to weathering. Stability based on internal structure - Goldichs series is in part a reflection of the crystal structures of the silicates and the molar ratio of silica to oxygen. The higher the Si:O ratio, - The more covalent the structure - The more highly connected are the silica tetrahedra. - The fewer other metal cations required for charge balance. Products of Weathering 1. Detritus or clastic Sediments solid products predominantly resulting from mechanical weathering (Rock Fragments, Mineral Grains and Alteration products) 2. Dissolved Ions or Chemical Sediments form chiefly from chemical weathering process. (Charged ions in aqueous soln) Factors Influencing Weathering 1. Depth depends on exposure to H20 and O2 2. Rock Type mineral assemblage Chemical: granite weathers slower Physical: both weather slowly 3. Frequency of rock fractures - RF = W 4. Climate - Humidity T = Chemical W Humidity T = Mechanical W 5. Organic Activity produces organic acids 6. Time the longer the rock or sediment is exposed to other factors, the more it will be weathered. Mechanical Weathering increases the effect of Chemical Weathering. Mechanical weathering in temperate regions Chemical weathering in tropical regions

- Varies according to climate, topography and rock type. - Partly mineral, partly inorganic in composition - Bridge between lithosphere and biosphere - Supports interactions between climate, life and its residues. The mineral material of the original and added rock, and its position in the landscape. Regolith loose layer of broken rock and mineral fragments covering the earths surface Soil uppermost part of the regolith Humus partly decayed inorganic matter. Soil Horizons succession of zones, each of which has distinct physical, chemical and biological characteristics. Soil Profile sequence of soil horizons from the surface to the underlying bedrock COMPONENTS OF LIVING SOIL Minerals 45% Air 25% Water 25% Organic Matter/ Humus 5% Soil profile O Horizon loose and partially decayed organic matter A Horizon mineral matter with some humus E Horizon zone of eluviation and leaching B Horizon accumulation of cure transported from above C Horizon Partially altered parent material Pedalfer Fe oxides Al clays CaCO2 Fe and Al oxides Forest vegetation Grassland and bush vegetation Fe- red to orange color Temperate latitudes Arid, semi-arid regions Dry, wet, tropical climates

Pedocal

Laterites

SOIL - Loose rock particles that have been altered by biological processes to form a material that can support rooted plants.

Influences on Soil Formation 1. Parent Material bedrock or sediment which soil develops 2. Climate chemical weathering and rate of soil formation strongly influenced by

amount of precipitation, growth of vegetation. Chemical weathering is most rapid in warm, moist climate and slowest in cold, dry climate. 3. Topography physical features of surface. a) Availability of water b) rate of soil accumulation. 4. Vegetation contributes to organic matter to soils. 5. Time warm wet environments soils develop within a few hundred years. arid polar regions soils develop after a few thousand years. **A thicker soil is not necessarily an older one. Soil Stats 1. It takes 80-400 years to form 1cm of top soil 2. Current rate of soil loss is 7% per decade 3. Food production leads to a annual loss of 25B tons top soil or 4.2 tons per person. For every kilogram of food eaten, the land loses 5.6kG of soil. FORMATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS -sedimentary rocks account for about 5% by volume of earths outer 15km, but constitutes 75% of all rocks exposed at Earths land surfaces. Sediments regolith particles that have been transported by water, air or ice from a source and then deposited in a sink. -Clastic Sediments -Chemical Sediments -Biogenic Sediments CLASTIC SEDIMENTS (klastos: broken) - Formed from the loose rock and mineral debris produces by weathering and erosion. - Detritus (worn down) or detrital sediment - Individual particles are called clasts Volcanic Sediment special kind of clastic sediment Pyroclasts pyro: fire + klastos:broken Igneous in origin but transported by sedimentary processes: - Pyroclastic flow forming igneous rock - Lahar sedimentary process using igneous material but forming sedimentary rock.

SEDIMENT SIZE CLASSIFICATION >256 Basketball Boulder 64-256 Ponkan Cobble 4-64 Monggo Seed Pebble 2-4 Nail Head Granule 1/16 2 Rock Salt Sand 1/256 1/16 Iodized Salt Silt < 1/256 Baby Powder Clay

Interpreting clastic Sediments Grain Size - Coarse: High-energy environments - Fine: low-energy environments Sorting (Grain Size Distribution) - Well-sorted: far from source, consistent E - Poorly sorted: near source, fluctuating E Angularity (indicates degree of abrasion) - Angular: short transport; near source - Rounded: long transport; far from source CHEMICAL SEDIMENTS - Inorganic materials dissolved in natural water - Form sedimentary rock by - Evaporation - Precipitation aided by plant activity - Precipitation from groundwater in caves - Usually form monominerallic crystalline rocks - Crystal Size and Shape controlled by T&P conditions and time - Color not indicative of composition BIOGENIC SEDIMENTS -Material that was once part of living organisms - Mollusk Shells calcareous - Fish Bones Phosphorous -Coccolithophores and Foraminifera Calcareous - Diatoms and Radiolaria Siliceous LITHIFICATION the conversion of loose sediment into solid rock. DIAGENESIS all chemical, physical and Biological changes that sediment undergoes. Clastic and Bioclastic Sedimentary Rocks - Deposition - Burial

- Compaction pressure reduces volume of sediments as it forces out water and air, packing grains together. - Cementation compounds originally dissolved during chemical weathering precipitate and bind sediment grain together. - Recrystallization development of stable minerals from unstable ones. Chemical Sedimentary Rocks - Evaporation - Precipitation from saturated Solution EVAPORITES - Limestone: CaCO3 - Travertine - Rock Gypsum: CaSO4 x nH2O - Rock Salt: NaCl - Chert: SiO2 Biogenic Sedimentary Rocks Limestone Coquina coarse shell debris; some coral fragments Fossiliferous Limestone Chalk hard parts of Coccos and Foras Chert: SiO2, hard parts of diatoms and radiolaria Peat: made of C, decomposed plant matter, roots, bark, leaves may still be evident. Coal: made of C, decomposed plant matter, has more fixed carbon than peat. Bituminous Coal higher grade than coal. ** Chert may be biogenic or chemical in origin.

Stratum or Bed - Layer of Sediment or Sedimentary Rock > 1cm in thickness -1 cm = lamination - Stratification or Bedding: layered arrangement of strata in a body of sediment or sedimentary rock. - Separated from adjacent beds by a stratification plane or bedding surface - Horizontal beds occur where a) sediments settle from a standing body of water or air, b) currents travel parallel to the surface on which sediments are accumulating. GRADED BEDS contain sediments arranged from largest at the bottom of the bed to smallest on top. - Occur when a turbulent flow suddenly loses energy; large particles settle first. RHYTHMIC LAYERS alternating layers of coarse and fine clasts. - Suggest the influence of naturally occurring rhythm over the transport and deposition of sediments. - Varve a pair of rhythmic layers deposited in a single layer. OSCILLATION RIPPLE MARKS symmetrical ripple marks. Form where weak wind or water currents move back and forth (oscillate). CURRENT RIPPLE MARKS - asymmetrical ripple marks. Form where wind and water currents travel in one direction most of the time. CROSS BEDS - inclined beds or laminations. Forms wherever there are winds or water currents Bimodal Cross Beds sequence of oppositely inclined cross beds. MUDCRACKS polygonal patters of cracks that develop in mud as it dries. Form in muddy environment that are cyclically wet and dry. FOSSILS AND TRACE FOSSILS remains of organism that died and became preserved and incorporated into sediments. Must be at least 10,000 years in age Trace Fossils Fossilized evidence of life processes of an organism.

SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES AND ENVIRONMENTS Sedimentary Environments physical features that suggest how sediments are deposited and what the environment was like during deposition. - Beds - Graded Beds - Rhythmic Layers - Oscillation ripple marks - Current ripple marks - Cross beds - Mudcracks - Fossils

UNALTERED REMAINS - Preservation in amber - Preservation in Tar MOLDS AND CASTS 1. Burial of a shell 2. Dissolution leaving a cavity or mold 3. The mold is filled by sediment forming a cast. FOSSILS Trace Fossils - indicators of organic activity - Tracks - Trails - Burrows - Nests - Coprolites fossilized feces, provides information about the size and diet of the animal that produce it. DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS AND TYPICAL SEDIMENTARY FEATURES/ STRUCTURES - CONTINENTAL - Glaciers: Poorly Sorted, angular sediments, fossils rare. - Lakes: Well Sorted, Fine, Thin bedded - Streams: well sorted layers of coarse and fine fragments. - Well sorted sands and silts, evaporates - Caves: Limestones, Fossils of Bats, birds, etc. - Swamps: black, organic-rich muds, peat. - TRANSITIONAL AND COASTAL - Beaches: Well Sorted, rounded, sand-size sediments of durable minerals, coquina - Estuary: clays, fossils of freshwater and marine organisms. - Delta: fan shaped accumulation of well sorted sediments - Lagoon: fine sediments, peat, organic muds MARINE - Shallow marine: continental Shelf carbonate-rich sands & muda, fossils of diverse marine lifeforms - Deep marine: red brown clays, silica-rich muds, fossils of CaCo3- & SiO2- secreting organisms. SEDIMENTARY FACIES - Sedimentary units with characteristics that distinguish them from nearby units deposited at the same time.

METAMORPHISM (meta: change + morphos: form) - The process of changing the mineralogical chemical and structural characteristics of a rock in response to changes in: temperature, pressure or volatile content. - Adjustment of solid rock to squeezing, stretching, bending and heating. - Change takes place in the solid state. Agents of Metamorphism - Heat - recrystallization results in new, stable minerals. Sources of Heat: 1) an increase in T with Depth due to geothermal Gradient, 2) from magma = contact metamorphism. - Pressure (stress) requires >1 kilo bar P *Increases with depth *Confining Pressure applies forces equally in all directions. *Rocks may also be subjected to differential pressure or differential stress which is unequal in different directions. - Chemically active fluids mainly water with other volatile components. *Enhances migration of Ions *Aids in recrystallization of existing minerals *Sources of Fluids - Percolated from Earths surface - Trapped in pore spaces or cracks of rocks - Cooling melt - Decomposition of amphiboles, clays & micas. ** WATER most important fluid that circulated underground & drives metamorphism. METAMORPHISM IS AFFECTED BY COMPOSITION OF PARENT ROCK (PROTOLITH) - Mineral assemblage - Reactivity to metamorphic agents - Most metamorphic rocks have the same overall chemical composition as the parent rock. TYPES OF METAMORPHISM CONTACT (THERMAL) METAMORPHISM - Occurs due to a rise in temperature when magma invades a host rock

- A zone of alteration called and aureole forms in the rock surrounding the magma - Most easily recognized when it occurs at the surface, or in near-surface environment. - High Temperature, Low Pressure HYDROTHERMAL METAMORPHISM - Chemical alteration caused when hot, ion-rich fluids circulate through fissures and cracks that develop in rock. - Most widespread along the axis of the midocean ridge system. REGIONAL METAMORPHISM - Produces the greatest quantity of metamorphic rock. - Associated with mountain building - Rocks usually display zones of contact and/or hydrothermal metamorphism. - Can grade from low pressure to high pressure - Active agents: P & Heat BURIAL METAMORPHISM - Associated with very thick sedimentary strata - Required depth varies from one location to another depending on the prevailing geothermal gradient. - Low Pressure, Low Temperature conditions. IMPACT METAMORPHISM - Occurs when high speed projectiles called meteorites strike Earths surface. - Products are called impactites - Ultra-high pressure, relatively low Temperature. METAMORPHIC STRUCTURES Texture size, shape and arrangement of grains Foliation any planar arrangement of mineral grains or structural features. Forms in rotation of platy and elongated minerals - Recrystallization in the direction of preferred orientation - Changing the shape of equidimensional grains into elongated shape that are aligned FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS - SLATE very fine grained, showing excellent rock cleavage. Generated from low-grade metamorphism of shale, mudstone or siltstone.

- PHYLLITE - platy minerals not large enough to be identified with naked eye. Glossy sheen and wavy surface, composed mainly of fine crystals of muscovite and chlorite - SCHIST medium to coarse grained, platy minerals predominate, include micas - GNEISS Medium to coarse grained, Banded appearance. METAMORPHIC TEXTURES Non-foliated Rocks develop in environments where deformation is minimal; composed of minerals that exhibit equidimensional crystals. - MARBLE parent rock was limestone or dolostone, composed of calcite or dolomite. Coarse Crystalline, exhibits variety of colors - QUARTZITE parent rock of quartz-rich sandstone. Quartz grains are fused together Porphyroblastic large graid surrounded by fine grained matrix of other minerals, typically garnet, staurolite, and/or andalusite. METAMORPHISM AND PLATE TECTONICS - Most metamorphism occurs along convergent plate boundaries *compressional stresses deform the edge of the plate *formation of the mountain belts - Large-scale metamorphism also occurs along subduction zones at convergent boundaries. *several metamorphic environments exist *Important site of magma generation - Metamorphism at subduction zones Mountainous terrains along subduction zones exhibit distinct linear belts of metamorphic rocks *High P, Low T zones nearest the trench *High T, Low P zones further inland in the region of igneous activity.