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Engineering Flow Dynamics: Incompressible Fluids | Engineering Cases
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The following sections present topics in modeling incompressible fluid flow through piping, orifices, valves, and pumps. Relevant problems that involve both steady-state and transient flow conditions are discussed, with an emphasis on refinery plant applications. Crane Technical Paper No. 410 (see Bibliography) serves as a primary resource for relations, empirical pipe flow data, and engineering data. 2. The DARCY-WEISHBACH EQUATION, Bernoulli Theorem, and Flow Coefficient Cv. The Darcy-Weisbach equation (Henry Darcy, 18031858, and Julius Ludwig Weisbach, 18061871) is the general relation for pressure drop and is valid for laminar or turbulent flow barring cavitation. The Crane paper presents several variations of the relation in terms of relevant process variables, demonstrating its versatility as a flow modeling tool. The Darcy-Weisbach equation will be derived here with respect to pressure drop P and volumetric flow rate q, with the development of each expression facilitated through the use of a mechanical energy balance commonly known as the Bernoulli theorem (Daniel Bernoulli, 17001782). The resulting derivations will be applied to valve characterization, including the flow coefficient Cv. Fluid flow is assumed to be at steady state. The Bernoulli theorem accounts for two points in adiabatic flow when friction forces dominate energy transfer:
**where P is pressure (psi or lbf/in2), with the applicable conversion factor; gc is a conversion factor (32.174 lbm ft/lbf s2); g is the gravitational constant (32.174 ft/s2); Z is elevation (ft); hL represents frictional loss in the line and valves/fittings (ft) Each term in Equation 2-1 is referred to as a head, with units of ft. The sum of the pressure head, velocity head, and elevation head for either point (1) or point (2) defines the corresponding total head. Friction loss head hL designates the sum of all frictional contributions in the line between points (1) and (2) and typically is represented by individual source terms. The conversion factor gc provides unit detail relating lbf to lbm; note that some technical resources, including Crane, omit gc, resulting in minor dimensional inconsistencies for English units. For incompressible flow through a horizontal pipe, Equation 2-1 reduces to:
The Darcy-Weisbach equation in its simplest form presents friction loss head as the product of velocity head and a resistance coefficient:
**where f is the Darcy friction factor, and L is pipe length (ft). To determine f, the Reynolds number NRe from Equation 1-3 must be calculated to ascertain the nature of flow. For laminar flow, f is independent of piping or conduits and can be calculated from the quotient (64/NRe). For turbulent flow, f is a function of NRe and the relative roughness of the pipe walls as a ratio to inner diameter (/D) and becomes relatively constant with higher values of NRe. Moody plots (Lewis Ferry Moody, 18801953) provided in Crane, pp. A-23 and A-24, relate f to NRe and /D for any commercial pipe, and Crane p. A-25 relates f to NRe and D specifically for clean steel pipe. Pipe length L equals the sum of straight pipe length and equivalent length of bends, fittings, and valves, where the equivalent length of a bend, fitting, or valve is the length of straight pipe that produces the same frictional loss. Representative equivalent length data, specified as L/D, are provided in Crane, p. A-30. The Darcy-Weisbach equation can be written in terms of pressure drop using Equations 2-3 and 2-2:
where K represents
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Given sufficient turbulence, K is constant and pressure drop increases with the square of velocity. From the continuity relation in Equation 1-2, velocity relates to volumetric flow rate at a specific cross -sectional area:
where q is volumetric flow rate (ft3/s), and d is the pipe inner diameter (in) with the applicable conversion factor. Substituting Equation 2-5 into Equation 2-4 yields the Darcy-Weisbach equation in terms of flow rate:
Flow rate therefore varies with the square of the pipe inner diameter, along with the square root of the pressure drop, provided K is constant. A convenient means of expressing valve and pipe fitting capacity and flow characteristics, particularly with control valves, is through the use of a parameter called the flow coefficient Cv. By definition, Cv is the volumetric flow rate of water, in gal/min or gpm, at 60F that effects a pressure drop of 1 psid across the valve or fitting. Note that Cv has units of gpm/ psid and can be calculated with the following relation using any liquid with a viscosity close to that of water: where Q is volumetric flow rate (gpm), and s.g. is specific gravity Combining Equations 2-6 and 2-7 with appropriate unit conversions (shown) and applicable substitution of conditions relates Cv to the pipe inner diameter:
The resulting equation shows that the Cv of a pipe fitting or valve changes with the square of the pipe inner diameter, assuming constant K. Commercially, valves are provided with pressure drop and Cv test data for each available diameter. Model flow curves, including corresponding flow coefficients, are shown in Figure 2-1.
Figure 2-1
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Pressure drop and flow coefficient data, commercial valve The values for Cv indicate flow curve readings at a pressure drop of 1 psid. Each curve presents a parabolic relationship between flow rate and pressure drop, which follows from Equation 2-6. Flow rate and Cv likewise exhibit a nonlinear relationship with valve diameter given a fixed pressure drop; both were shown as second-order in Equations 2-6 and 2-8, respectively. 3. NOZZLES and ORIFICES Nozzles and orifices are piping ancillaries that are used primarily as metering devices in pipelines and perforated plates. The volumetric flow rate through a nozzle or orifice, neglecting velocity of approach, presents a comparative model to the Darcy-Weisbach equation in Equation 2-6:
where C is the flow coefficient (dimensionless; not to be confused with Cv for valves), and A is the cross-sectional area of the nozzle or orifice (ft2). Rewriting Equation 3-1 in a slightly condensed, more convenient form:
where d0 is the nozzle or orifice diameter (in) with the applicable conversion factor. Converting Equation 3-2 to units of gpm:
Calculation of the flow rate q or Q requires an iterative sequence as the flow coefficient C is found by trial and error. The differential pressure and fluid properties are known. Calculate , the diameter ratio of the orifice to the inner pipe d0/d. Estimate C based on and the perceived nature of flow by using the applicable plot in Crane, p. A-19. Determine q from Equation 3-2, velocity v based on d from Equation 2-5 or Crane, p. B-14 (if applicable), and the Reynolds number NRe from Equation 1-3. Find C based on NRe and by using the selected plot and compare with step 2. If C from step 4 is not within 5% of the initial guess, repeat the sequence with an appropriately considered new guess. A square-edged orifice can also be sized to place in a pipe. The differential head has to be specified; the flow rate and fluid properties are known. Determine v from Equation 2-5 or Crane, p. B-14 (if applicable), and NRe from Equation 1-3. Assume a ratio for (0.5 is suitable) and calculate d0. Find C based on and NRe by using the applicable plot in Crane, p. A-19. Calculate d0 from Equation 3-2 or 3-3 and compare with step 2. If d0 from step 4 is less than the initial guess by at least 5%, repeat the sequence with a smaller guess for . The following example illustrates the calculation of an orifice.
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Figure 3-1 Strategy: In both considerations, the new orifice diameter can be solved from Equation 3-3 as a ratio of new process variables to the original. A constant flow coefficient C thus is eliminated, simplifying the problem substantially. For an unknown C, the five-step approach to size a square-edged orifice will be useful. Original and new variables will be designated with the respective subscripts orig and new. Given: Piping: 6 Schedule 40 welded steel d = 6.065 in (Crane, p. B-16) d0, orig = 3 in Flow rates through pipe: Qorig = 250 gpm Qnew = 2Qorig = 500 gpm Applicable properties of water: 60F = 62.37 lbm/ft3, 60F = 1.129 cP Calculations: New orifice characteristics assuming constant flow coefficient C Express volumetric flow rate Q in terms of original and new flow rates by using Equation 3-3.
Combine the expressions and solve for d0, new: Quantify new orifice size:
New orifice characteristics with unknown flow coefficient C (five-step approach) 1) Determine velocity vnew and Reynolds number NRe, new. - Look up vnew in Crane, p. B-14 (500 gpm, 6 Schedule 40). - Calculate NRe, new by using Equation 1-3.
2) Provide initial guess for new. - Calculate ratio using d0, new obtained assuming constant C:
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3) Estimate flow coefficient Cnew: Read from provided chart based on results from steps 1 and 2. 4) Calculate d0, new and compare with step 2. Rearrange Equation 3-3 accordingly and combine both process representations.
Determine flow coefficient Corig: - Calculate Reynolds number NRe, orig: - Calculate diameter ratio orig: - Read from chart.
5) Calculate the percent error e between new orifice diameters. Use d0, new from step 2 as the base or actual value.
Since e 5%, repeat from step 2 with a lesser guess.
Comparison of d0, new between the two approaches Perform similar error calculation. -Depending on process sensitivity, assuming constant C may be acceptable. 4. DRAINING CYLINDRICAL TANK The rate of depth change as liquid drains from a small circular aperture in an open cylinder-shaped tank is derived in the following illustration. The effects of friction will be ignored here and subsequently explored by using separate transient models.
Figure 4.1 Frictionless Model: The Torricelli Equation From the continuity equation with respect to mass m, Equation 1-2 reduces to:
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Assuming incompressible flow, Equation 4-1 becomes:
The volume of liquid in the tank at any time t can be expressed as:
Differentiating both sides of Equation 4-3 with respect to t:
Equating Equations 4-2 and 4-4:
where represents the diameter ratio D0/D. To solve Equation 4-5, the exit velocity must be expressed in terms of an arbitrary, fixed height of liquid in the tank, which can be considered separately as a steady-state condition and modeled by using the Bernoulli theorem. Considering point (1) located at the surface of the liquid in the tank and point (0) at the exit, Equation 2-1 reduces to
The velocities at points (1) and (0) are related by continuity:
Substituting Equation 4-7 into Equation 4-6 and rearranging yields the Torricelli equation (Evangelista Torricelli, 16081647):
The term (1 4) typically makes a minimal contribution and can be ignored but will be included in the remainder of the derivation for completeness. Substituting Equation 4-8 into Equation 4-5 yields the following simple differential equation:
The solution presents the time theoretical minimum required for the tank to drain:
Friction Model: Square-Edged Orifice The tank now is modeled as a vertical pipe containing a square-edged orifice. Volumetric flow rate as presented in Equation 3-1 represents draining liquid. Combining Equation 3-1 with Equation 4-2 yields
Equating Equation 4-11 with Equation 4-4 and performing applicable substitutions:
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Unlike the frictionless model, the pressure drop must be considered at the orifice, which reduces to a function of liquid height under static conditions. Considering points (1) and (0) as before:
This relation can be used to calculate the pressure exerted by any vertical column of liquid or the pressure drop corresponding to a friction loss head. Substituting Equation 4-13 into Equation 4-12 and separating variables yields the following differential equation:
Since the flow coefficient C is found by trial and error, a property-dependent representation is beyond the scope of the model. The solution therefore assumes that C remains constant over the drainage period, which is reasonable for varying levels of turbulence ( NRe 10000 ) on the diameter ratio. For instance, if is assumed to have a maximum value of 0.3, C is constant for Reynolds numbers greater than about 20000. As a technical reminder, velocity is based on tank diameter D in determining NRe. Integrating Equation 4-14 presents the time-depth relation for the friction model:
The solution for the frictionless model in Equation 4-10 is therefore proportional to Equation 4-15 by a factor of C, neglecting the term (1 4) and considering sufficiently turbulent flow. For example, if C is determined as 0.6, then the time theoretical minimum for drainage will be approximately 60% of the actual. 5. PUMPS A pump is a physical contrivance that is used to impel fluids from one location to another through piping and conduits. The two primary categories of pumps are as follows: Positive displacement. Operates by filling a cavity and then displacing a specific volume of liquid. A positive displacement pump is used to deliver a constant volume of liquid for each cycle against varying discharge pressure or head and typically is used in process applications in which a constant flow rate is required under varying pressures. Examples include reciprocating, rotary, and peristaltic. Kinetic or Dynamic. Produces flow by increasing the velocity of the liquid with a rotating vane impeller. The velocity energy imparted to the liquid subsequently is converted to pressure energy by the volute casing. Unlike positive displacement pumps, flow rate decreases with increasing downstream resistance. Kinetic pumps are used widely in the chemical industry for numerous applications, both process and utility. The most common example is centrifugal. The operational performance of a pump depends on system load characteristics such as pipe friction and fitting losses. Writing the Darcy-Weisbach equation relating volumetric flow rate to pressure in Equation 2-6 with substitution of friction loss head in Equation 2-2 yields the following parabolic correlation between flow rate and friction loss for the system, given a constant pipe inner diameter and sufficient turbulence:
where ref typically refers to design conditions. Characteristic information about a pump is contained in a pump curve, in which pump head is plotted versus flow rate for a set of impeller sizes or rotational speeds. Efficiency contours, net positive suction head required (NPSHR), and horsepower curves normally are included. Pump performance typically is evaluated by using water at 60F; the motor horsepower must be corrected for density if the pump operates with other fluids and/or at other temperatures. NPSHR refers to the cavitation characteristics of the pump, which are not discussed for the purposes of this section.
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The performance curves for positive displacement and kinetic pumps differ significantly. The curves for positive displacement pumps resemble a vertical line with a slightly negative tilt, indicating that capacity is nearly independent of downstream resistance for a particular pump speed, blocked-in conditions notwithstanding. Kinetic pump curves exhibit an exponential decay of pump head with increasing flow and will serve as the focus of the following discussion. Figure 5-1 presents a set of pump head capacity curves for a commercial centrifugal pump, along with a simple exemplary system curve representing Equation 5-1.
Figure 5.1 Commercial centrifugal pump and superimposed system friction curves The ordinate axis represents static pump head in a zero-flow condition. The system curve begins at the origin, since in this example the pump has only frictional resistance to overcome. Given a system flow requirement of 50 to 60 gpm, the four provided impeller sizes are options. Consider the pump curve pertaining to an impeller diameter of 5.906 inches and a 1-horsepower (HP) motor. The point of intersection with the system curve, the condition of operation, indicates that the pump will flow approximately 54 gpm against 30 ft of frictional head generated within the system. A centrifugal pump is specified such that the condition of operation lies within the range of its optimal efficiency, approximately 75 to 110% of the best efficiency point (BEP). Efficiency contours are not provided in Figure 5-1, but maximum efficiency for a pump is generally in excess of 50%; some pumps may operate at efficiencies in the range of 80 to 90%. In sizing a pump, the pump head between two relevant system points is needed at the specified flow rate. The Bernoulli theorem applies to the pump system in an extended form: The term hpump accounts for pump head taking point (1) in the suction line and point (2) in the discharge line. The applicable system curve plots hpump versus flow rate, the zero-flow intercept equaling the difference in total head between points (1) and (2). A suitable condition of operation is sought between the required hpump and a pump curve of the selected model, provided that the fluid is water or of an approximate density considering available power. If hpump falls between curves due to the flow rate specification, then either the system or the pump must be modified. The discharge can be throttled to shift the system curve upward until it intersects the next larger impeller curve, although a more efficient solution is to adjust the pump speed by using a variable-frequency drive. 6. THROTTLING PUMP FLOW The following example is reprinted with permission from Professional Publications, Inc., Chemical Engineering Practice Exam Set, 2nd ed., by Randall N. Robinson, P.E., copyright 1988 by Professional Publications, Inc. The problem highlights several aspects of flow dynamics covered in the previous sections.
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Figure 6.1 Problem: Calculate flow coefficient Cvfor a control valve under given throttled flow rates of water. For the purposes of this example, Cv will be evaluated only at 50 gpm throttling. Strategy: The flow coefficient Cv can be calculated from Equation 2-7:
The pressure drop across the control valve PCV can be calculated from Equation 4-13:
The friction loss head across the control valve hCV can be determined from Equation 5-2, the extended Bernoulli theorem, with friction loss head hL expressed as the sum of hCV and pipe friction loss head hpipe. The system will be modeled considering point (1) at the tank level and point (2) at the scrubber inlet:
Pipe friction loss head hpipe can be found from Equation 2-3 using point (2):
Given: Source tank: P1 = Patm, v1 = 0 (negligible), Z1 = 0 ft Scrubber: P2 = Patm (operates at atmospheric pressure), Z2 = 60 ft Piping: 2 Schedule 40 welded steel d = 2.067 in (Crane, page B-16) L = 220 ft Pump head hpump = 135 ft @ 50 gpm (from provided pump curve) Volumetric flow rate Q = 50 gpm (throttle target) Applicable properties of water:
Calculations: Pipe friction loss head hpipe Determine velocity v2: Look up v2 in Crane, p. B-14 (50 gpm, 2 Schedule 40).
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Engineering Flow Dynamics: Incompressible Fluids | Engineering Cases

Engineering Flow Dynamics: Incompressible Fluids | Engineering Cases

Engineering Flow Dynamics: Incompressible Fluids | Engineering Cases

Engineering Flow Dynamics: Incompressible Fluids | Engineering Cases

Engineering Flow Dynamics: Incompressible Fluids | Engineering Cases

Engineering Flow Dynamics: Incompressible Fluids | Engineering Cases

Since e 5%, repeat from step 2 with a lesser guess.

Engineering Flow Dynamics: Incompressible Fluids | Engineering Cases

Assuming incompressible flow, Equation 4-1 becomes:

Differentiating both sides of Equation 4-3 with respect to t:

Equating Equations 4-2 and 4-4:

The velocities at points (1) and (0) are related by continuity:

Engineering Flow Dynamics: Incompressible Fluids | Engineering Cases

Engineering Flow Dynamics: Incompressible Fluids | Engineering Cases

Engineering Flow Dynamics: Incompressible Fluids | Engineering Cases

Engineering Flow Dynamics: Incompressible Fluids | Engineering Cases

Engineering Flow Dynamics: Incompressible Fluids | Engineering Cases

Engineering Flow Dynamics: Incompressible Fluids | Engineering Cases

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