Chapters

DESIGN, ANALYSIS AND MANUFACTURING OF LASER WELDING FIXTURE FOR TURBINE BLADES ASSEMBLY
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Over the past century, manufacturing has considerable progress new machine tools, high performance cutting tools and modern manufacturing processes enables todays industries to make parts faster and better than before. Tool Engineering is a very vast field, in changing the scenario of the present world. Tool engineering can be classified further in to following main categories. Jigs and Fixtures for guiding the tool and holding the work piece. Gauges and Measuring instruments. Moulds and Dies for Plastic molding and Die-casting. Sheet metal press working tools. Forging Dies for Hot and Cold forging. Cutting tools such as drills, reamers, milling cutters, broaches and taps etc. The design, analysis and manufacturing of welding fixture for the components (turbine blade assembly) are to weld and get the required dimension by holding it on the fixture, by providing proper orientation and sufficient clamping. To increase the production and save the time, to maintain the critical dimension of the component and providing less effort to the operator. The welding operation is carried out by the Nd -YAG (Neodymium Doped Yttrium Aluminum Garnet) pulsed laser machine and welding is to be carried out on either side.
1.2
STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
Assembly processes are commonly used in the production of various consumer goods.
Product manufacturing can be decomposed into two steps. First, components are fabricated using different methods such as machining, casting, injection molding, or metal forming. Second, these components are assembled or joined together using welding, riveting, fastening, or other joining methods. Fabrication processes are not perfect. Because there will be variation in the component and fixture. As a result, the dimensional quality of the final product is influenced. This dissertation work focuses on variation analysis in turbine blade assemblies. The sources of
variations are: component variation, fixture variation, and joining tool variation (laser head).
DEPARTMENT OF P.G.STUDIES, G T & T C, MYSORE 570 016.
In turbine blades assembly, locators and clamps frequently coincide in the same position. In the remainder of this study, the word fixture will be used to refer, both locators and clamps interchangeably. To design a laser welding fixture for turbine blades assembly to check whether the welded blades are in required orientation or position. This assembled turbine blades are used in steam turbine. In general, fixture elements can be classified into locators and clamps. Locators establish the datum reference and provide deterministic locating. Clamps provide total restraint by holding the part in position under the application of external forces during the welding process.
1.3
OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT WORK

The objective of fixture design is to determine the optimal layout of fixture elements such
that fixture-work piece warps during clamping and during processing are minimized provided that kinematic and total restraints are satisfied. The main objective of the project is to design a fixture, which is economical to manufacture and to minimize the loading, set-up and unloading time while doing laser welding of the assembly. It cannot be manufactured without fixture. Because, there is an inclination of 10 between each blades (10 blades) of one segment of the assembly. And another criticality of component is that, there should be minimum gap between the each blade, i.e. less than 50 microns. So that, to manufacture the turbine rotor assembly, fixture is needed. It can be used to weld the component as per dimension and the quality requirements. To achieve the customers requirement, the following areas of work are involved. 3-D model was developed according to specification and functional requirements. Make Conceptual design To economize the operation Faster rate of production the component
To achieve the dimensions and geometrical tolerance.
1.4
SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

The project work involves the design and manufacturing of welding fixture. The scope of
the project can be summarized as follows. Study of the component Conceptual design considering criticality of component and machine specifications. Solid modeling of the component
Time Analysis (minimum set-up time of operation) Fixture design for the component
Selection of fixture material Solid modeling of the fixture
Stress and thermal analysis Manufacturing process of fixture

Fixture assembly & tryout and Cost estimation.
1.5
METHODOLOGY
The basic concept involved in this method is to attain the objective of the project. A well
planned approach has been employed. The methodology consists of the following as mentioned here and in the subsequent chapters. Sample work piece Design brainstorming Design formation and selection Final design and Manufacturing Each of these phases includes several steps which are vital to a successful project completion. A brief description of the methodologies used is described in the following subheadings.
1.5.1 SAMPLE WORK PIECE

First decided to create an outline (conceptual design) of fixture to be used as a basis for the design
1.5.2 DESIGN BRAINSTORMING

Using the information gathered during literature review began to formulate a list of requirements for the fixture. At the first level of brainstorming, design parameters allowed to compile a large list of design ideas to solve the problem. The finalized list of functional requirements and design parameters are used for designing.
1.5.3 DESIGN FORMATION AND SELECTION

Once the datas are compiled, complete list of fixture specifications are listed. Begin formulating the ideas. Each designed ideas has their own solution to the problem and came together to discuss the benefits of each design. Once all of these designs were completed, and then analyzed each design for the best design concepts. After each design has finished their preliminary design formation, came to compare each designs results. This process involved lengthy discussions and further brainstorming about how could use these ideas from different designs in final design. Once the useful components of each design were extracted, and then began to create final design. As of the original design ideas were very different, many features wanted to use in the final design had to be adapted and customized to work within the best way.
1.5.4 FINAL DESIGN

The finalized design is a product of the several different ideas and components originally created in the design phase. The fixture plate is the main the foundation of the entire fixture. This feature keeps the entire structure as stable. In relation to the fixture plate the pin locator will arrest the component along x-axis. The clamping plate also locates the component in spherical way of y-axis and finally clamping is made along the z-axis. The final subassembly is the worktable. The worktable is the main interface between the fixture and the component being welded and must ensure that the work piece is securely fastened and will not allow the machine to interfere with the welding operation. In order to accomplish this task, customized clamping system has to accurately hold the work piece in the correct orientation.
1.5.5 PROTOTYPE CONSTRUCTION

After designing the ideal final design, the next step was to make a practical prototype. This model will help to analyze the design and justify the design feature correctly. To build the prototype utilized the GT&TCs manufacturing facilities. And work closely with the working shop, machine shop, and the local market places to acquire all of the materials and parts needed. It took a significant amount of effort to carry out the prototype successfully in economical way.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION
A fixture is a device for locating, holding and supporting a work piece during a manufacturing operation. Fixtures are essential elements of production processes as they are required in most of the automated manufacturing, inspection, and assembly operations. Fixtures must correctly locate a work piece in a given orientation with respect to another component, as for instance in assembly or welding. Such location must be invariant in the sense that the devices must clamp and secure the work piece in that location for the particular processing operation. Fixtures are normally designed for a definite operation to process a specific work piece and are designed and manufactured individually. A locator is usually a fixed component of a fixture. It is used to establish and maintain the position of a part in the fixture by constraining the movement of the part. For work pieces of greater variability in shapes and surface conditions, a locator can also be adjustable. A clamp is a force-actuating mechanism of a fixture. The forces exerted by the clamps hold a part securely in the fixture against all other external forces. This covers the fundamental principles and physical phenomena governing laser-based fabrication/machining processes and potential applications. It provides a link between advanced materials and advanced processing/ manufacturing techniques. It connects physical science and engineering aspects together. Laser machining is an emerging area in various applications ranging from bulk machining in metal forming to micromachining and micro structuring in electronics and biomedical applications. The uniqueness of lasers lies in flexible manufacturing using lasers as assist in conventional machining techniques that has emerged into new fields like laser-assisted mechanical machining (LAM), laser-assisted chemical machining (LCM), laserassisted etching. Laser welding has evolved as an important industrial manufacturing process for joining a variety of metallic and nonmetallic materials. With the developments in the high-power laser technology over the past few decades, laser welding is now capable of joining thicker sections with higher processing speed and better weld quality. Due to the noncontact nature of laser processing, high degree of automation is possible providing economic advantages in the typical industrial environment.
2.2
FIXTURE
The Fixtures are the economical means to produce repetitive type of works by
incorporating special work holding and tool guiding devices.
2.2.1 HISTORICAL REVIEW

The history of fixturing technology is as long as the manufacturing technology. Since the first production line was produced, dedicated fixtures have been developed for performing many functions, such as locating, supporting, guiding, graduating, etc, so that the repeatable production quality and high production rate based on shaft work piece loading time can be achieved in mass production. Since long time we find most of, the fixture components have been highly standardized to reduce the cost of production of fixtures. At the same time, standard and general purpose fixtures were developed such as vices, chucks, clamping straps etc. However, the fixture structural design is far away from standardization because of nature of multiple solutions for the same fixturing requirement. However development of fixtures has been a rather neglected area in product development. New concepts in fixturing, like modular designed fixtures, help in reducing lead times drastically are amenable for minor modifications at low costs. This dissertation focuses on this important aspect in product development and also outlines an effective methodology for the design of fixtures, which will cut down design lead-time substantially. Dedicated fixtures are designed for the production of specific work pieces. The design, fabrication, and testing of fixture take a significant time in the product development cycle and cost. In order to reduce fixture development time and cost, modular fixtures were developed during World War II. A modular fixtures system is a set of standard fixtures component, which can be used to build fixtures of different configurations for different fixturing requirements. They are reusable. The use of modular fixtures enhances the fixture flexibility and reduced the time and cost of fixtures development, especially beneficial in small volume production and new product prototyping. However, modular fixtures are not very popular in daily production because of the requirement of specific fixturing performance in mass production, such as fixture stiffness, compact spacing, long life of fixture components, and the ease of operating fixtures. There is significant benefit from the reuse of fixtures, when group technology was introduced; adjustable fixtures were developed for part families, based on the concept of similarity. Adjustable fixtures are single fixture with certain functional components, which can be adjusted in position or
quickly changed into different shape and sizes. They are taking advantages of both dedicated and modular fixtures that are especially beneficial in batch production. The further development of adjustable fixtures into modularized and standard designs may even enlarge the advantages of the flexibility and reconfigurability, and also the specified fixturing performance, although it could be more complicated and require the computerized planning, design, and verification. As CNC technique and machines were developed and widely applied improvement of the performance (motion accuracy, stiffness & controllability) of machines took as well as cutting tools, it is very common now to combine rough & finish machining in a single setup. This requires being efficient at the same time. In the other side, the requirements of some other functions such as guiding and graduating are no longer necessary in fixture design because of the high performance of the machine tools. It should be mentioned that although there are special & highly innovated flexible fixtures developed for specific applications, the mechanical fixtures, particularly modular & modularized adjustable fixtures are still the main forms of flexible fixtures used in real production today & in the near future. It should be also noticed that the above discussion is not only valid for machining fixtures, but also for the fixtures of other manufacturing processes, such as assembly, welding, inspection, straightening, etc.
2.2.2 DEFINITION OF FIXTURE [1]

A fixture may be defined as a device which holds and locates a work piece during an inspection and assembly or for a manufacturing operation. The fixture does not guide the tool. In construction, the fixture comprises different standard or specially designed work-holding devices, which are clamped on the machine table to hold the work piece in position. The tools are set at the required positions on the work piece by using gauges or by manual adjustment.
2.2.3 ELEMENTS OF FIXTURES [1]

Generally, all, the fixtures consist of: 1. Locating elements: these position the work piece accurately with respect to the tool guiding or setting elements in the fixture. 2. Clamping elements: these hold the work piece securely in the located position during the operation. 3. Tool guiding and setting elements: these aids are used in guiding or setting of the tools in correct position with respect to the work pieces, e.g., drill bushes guide the drills
accurately onto to the work piece. Milling fixtures use setting pieces for correct positioning of milling cutters with respect to the work piece.
2.3
LOCATION [8]
The location refers to the establishment of a desired relationship between the work piece
and the Jig or Fixture. Correct location influences the accuracy of the finished products. The Jigs and the Fixtures are so designed that all possible movements of the component must be restricted. The determination of the locating points and clamping of the work piece serve to restrict the movements of the component in any direction, while setting it at the correct position relative to the jig. The locating points are determined by first finding out the possible degrees of freedom of the work piece, which are then restrained by suitable arrangements which serve as locators. The principles of determining locating points are described below.
2.3.1 THE MECHANICS OF LOCATING [1]

A Work piece free in space can move in an infinite number of directions. For analysis, This motion can be broken down into twelve directional movements, or "degrees of freedom". All twelve degrees of freedom must be restricted to ensure proper referencing of a work piece.
Figure 2.1: the twelve degrees of freedom
As shown in the figure-2.1 the twelve degrees of freedom are related to the central axes of the work piece. Notice the six axial degrees of freedom and six radial degrees of freedom. The axial degrees of freedom permit straight-line movement in both directions along the three principle axes, shown as X, Y and Z. The radial degrees of freedom permit rotational movement, in both clockwise and counterclockwise radial directions, around the same three axes. The devices that restrict a work-piece's movement are the locators. The locators, therefore, must
be strong enough to maintain the position of the work piece and to resist the cutting forces. This fact also points out a crucial element in work-holder design: clamps must hold the work piece against the cutting forces.
2.3.2 3-2-1 PRINCIPLE OF LOCATION

Locating from External Surfaces Flat surfaces are common work piece features used for location. Locating from a flat surface is a form of plane location. Supports are the principal devices used for this location. The three major forms of supports are solid, adjustable, and equalizing.
Figure 2.2 Solid, adjustable, and equalizing supports locate a work piece from a flat surface. Solid supports are fixed-height locators. They precisely locate a surface in one axis. Though solid supports may be machined directly into a tool body, a more-economical method is using installed supports, such as rest buttons. Adjustable supports are variable-height locators. Like solid supports, they will also precisely locate a surface in one axis. These supports are used where work piece variations require adjustable support to suit different heights. These supports are used mainly for cast or forged work pieces that have uneven or irregular mounting surfaces. Equalizing supports are a form of adjustable support used when a compensating support is required. Although these supports can be fixed in position, in most cases equalizing supports float to accommodate work piece variations. As one side of the equalizing support is depressed, the other side raises the same amount to maintain part contact. In most cases adjustable and equalizing supports are used along with solid supports.
Locating a work piece from its external edges is the most-common locating method. The bottom, or primary, locating surface is positioned on three supports, based on the geometry principle that three points are needed to fully define a plane. Two adjacent edges, usually perpendicular to each other, are then used to complete the location. The most-common way to locate a work piece from its external profile is the 3-2-1, or sixpoint, locational method. With this method, six individual locators reference and restrict the work piece. As shown in Figure 2.3, three locators, or supports, are placed under the work piece. The three locators are usually positioned on the primary locating surface. This restricts axial movement downward, along the -z axis (#6) and radially about the x (#7 and #8) and y (#9 and #10) axes. Together, the three locators restrict five degrees of freedom.
Figure 2.3 Three supports on the primary locating surface restrict five degrees of freedom. The next two locators are normally placed on the secondary locating surface, as shown in Figure 2.4 They restrict an additional three degrees of freedom by arresting the axial movement along the +y axis (#3) and the radial movement about the z (#11 and #12) axis.
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Figure 2.4 Adding two locators on a side restricts eight degrees of freedom. The final locator, shown in Figure 2.5, is positioned at the end of the part. It restricts the axial movement in one direction along the -x axis. Together, these six locators restrict a total of nine degrees of freedom. The remaining three degrees of freedom (#1, #4, and #5) will be restricted by the clamps.
Figure 2.5 Adding a final locator to another side restricts nine degrees of freedom, completing the 3-2-1 location. Although cylindrical rest buttons are the most-common way of locating a work piece from its external profile, there are also other devices used for this purpose. These devices include flatsided locators, vee locators, nest locators and adjustable locators.
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Locating from Internal Surfaces Locating a work piece from an internal diameter is the most-efficient form of location. The primary features used for this form of location are individual holes or hole patterns. Depending on the placement of the locators, either concentric, radial, or both-concentric-and-radial location are accomplished when locating an internal diameter. Plane location is also provided by the plate used to mount the locators. The two forms of locators used for internal location are locating pins and locating plugs. The only difference between these locators is their size: locating pins are used for smaller holes and locating plugs are used for larger holes. As shown in Figure 2.6, the plate under the work piece restricts one degree of freedom. It prevents any axial movement downward, along the -z (#6) axis. The center pin, acting in conjunction with the plate as a concentric locator, prevents any axial or radial movement along or about the x (#1, #2, #7, and #8) and y (#3, #4, #9, and #10) axes. Together, these two locators restrict nine degrees of freedom. The final locator, the pin in the outer hole, is the radial locator that restricts two degrees of freedom by arresting the radial movement around the z (#11 and #12) axis. Together, the locators restrict eleven degrees of freedom. The last degree of freedom, in the +z direction, will be restricted with a clamp.
Figure 2.6 Two locating pins mounted on a plate restrict eleven-out-of-twelve degrees of freedom.
2.3.3 LOCATING GUIDELINES

No single form of location or type of locator will work for every work holder. To properly perform the necessary location, each locator must be carefully planned into the design. The following are a few guidelines to observe in choosing and applying locators
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Positioning Locators: The primary function of any locator is to reference the work piece and to ensure repeatability. Unless the locators are properly positioned, however, these functions cannot be accomplished. When positioning locators, both relative to the work holder and to the work piece, there are a few basic points to keep in mind. Whenever practical, position the locators so they contact the work piece on machined surface. The machined surface not only provides repeatability but also usually offers a morestable form of location. The work piece itself determines the areas of the machined surface used for location. In some instances, the entire surface may be machined. In others, especially with castings, only selected areas are machined The best machined surfaces to use for location, when available, are machined holes. As previously noted, machined holes offer the most-complete location with a minimal number of locators. The next configuration that affords adequate repeatability is two machined surfaces forming a right angle. These characteristics are well suited for the six-point location method. Regardless of the type or condition of the surfaces used for location, however, the primary requirement in the selection of a locating surface is repeatability. To ensure repeatability, the next consideration in the positioning of locators is the spacing of the locators themselves. As a rule, space locators as far apart as practical. This is illustrated in Figure. Both work pieces shown here are located with the six-point locating method. The only difference lies in the spacing of the locators. In the part shown at (b), both locators on the backside are positioned close to each other. In the part at (2.7a), these same locators are spaced further apart. The part at (a) is properly located; the part at (2.7b) is not. Spacing the locators as far apart as practical compensates for irregularities in either the locators or the work piece. Its also affords maximum stability.
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Figure 2.7: For slight irregularities and maximum stability locators are placed as far apart as possible.
Figure 2.8: Positioning locators too close together will affect the location accuracy
The examples in Figure show the conditions that may occur when locators are placed too close together if the center positions of the locators are misaligned by .001". With the spacing shown at (2.8a), this condition has little effect on the location. But if the locating and spacing were changed to that shown at (2.8b), the .001" difference would have a substantial effect. Another problem with locators placed too close together is shown at (2.8c). Here, because the locators are too closely spaced, the part can wobble about the locators in the work holder.
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2.3.4 DIFFERENT TYPES OF LOCATION

If hole is finished use solid locator. If hole is cast or core hole use spring loaded taper locator. If accuracy control is very critical, use collets if it is bore, or use jelly filled chunks. In case of casting without core holes in component, two side butting can be used depending on component shape. In case of cylindrical component, V-block can be used to locate the component. Based on the surface from which the work piece is located, the locators are classified in to three groups. PLANE SURFACE Adjustable locator Spring loaded pad Equalizer rocker locator PROFILE SURFACE Six point locator Profile location by pins Eccentric locator Nest & cavity locator CYLINDRICAL SURFACE Conical locator Cylindrical locator Female locator Diamond locator Mandrel locator Collet locator. VEE LOCATORS Screw adjusted V-locator Cam operated V-locator Quick action V-locator
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2.3.5 REDUNDANT LOCATION

Another condition to avoid in fixture design is redundant, or duplicate, location. Redundant locators restrict the same degree of freedom more than once. The work pieces in figure-2.9, show several examples. The part at (a) shows how a flat surface can be redundantly located. The part should be located on only one, not both, side surfaces. Since the sizes of parts can vary, within their tolerances, the likelihood of all parts resting simultaneously on both surfaces is remote. The example at (b) points out the same problem with concentric diameters. Either diameter can locate the part, but not both.
Figure 2.9: Redundant - locator
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2.3.6 FOOL PROOFING

Fool proofing prevents improper loading of a work piece. The problem is most prevalent with parts that are symmetrical or located concentrically. The simplest way to foolproof a fixture is to position one or two pins in a location that ensures correct orientation.
Figure 2.10: Fool proofing With some work pieces, however, more-creative approaches to fool proofing must be taken as shown in the figure. Fool proofing the locating prevents improper work piece loading.
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2.4
CLAMPING [13]
2.4.1 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF CLAMPING

Once a work piece is located, it is necessary to press it against the locating surfaces and hold it there against the forces acting upon it. The tool designer refers to this action as Clamping and the mechanisms used for this action are known as Clamps. However, simple or complex, all clamps must fulfill four essential requirements: The work piece must be held rigidly while the cutting tools are in operation. The time required for loading and unloading the tool must be as short as possible, which means the clamping device must be quick-acting. When subjected to vibration, chatter, or heavy pressure, the clamping must be positive, and The clamp must not damage the work piece.
2.4.2 PRINCIPLES OF CLAMPING Position

Clamping should be positioned to direct the force on a strong, supported part of the work piece. Clamping on unsupported part bends slender work piece as shown in fig.
Fig-2.11: clamping on unsupported part
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Strength
The clamping system should be capable of holding the work piece securely against the forces developed during the operation. The clamping force should not dent or damaged the work piece with excessive pressure. For clamping weak or fragile work piece, the clamping force should be distributed over a wider area of the work piece. While clamping soft work pieces, clamps should be fitted with pads of softer materials, such as nylon or fiber to prevent damage and denting of the work piece.
Productivity
Clamping time should be minimized by using hands knobs, Tommy bars, knurled screws, hand wheels and handles, so that the clamp can be tightened or loosened manually without using spanners, as a spanner further adds motions of picking, aligning, and laying it down.
Operator fatigue
Operator fatigue should be taken into account. If a considerable number of clamps are to be tightened and loosened repeatedly, it is better to use pneumatic or hydraulic clamping which, in addition to reducing operator fatigue, also saves clamping time. Power clamping facilities tightening or loosening of many clamps simultaneously.
Work piece variation

The clamping points should be provided with ample radius to make the clamp operable even if there is variation in the work piece.
2.4.3 TYPES OF CLAMPS

The type of clamp will depend upon the kind of operation to which it is applied. For example, a Milling operation will require a strong clamp strategically located because cutting forces may change directions as the cutter enters and leaves the work piece. Also a Milling operation induces vibrations in the work piece, and the clamps must be of construction that will not loosen under vibration. Clamps can be broadly classified as follows; 1. Screw clamps 2. Strap clamps 3. Pivoted clamps 4. Hinged clamps 5. Swinging clamps
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6. Quick action clamps 7. Multiple clamps 8. Power clamps
TYPES OF FIXTURE DEPENDING ON CLAMPING METHOD

MANUAL CLAMPING FIXTURES Fixtures which are clamped by operator manually are called manual clamping fixtures. Depending on the production volume manual clamping fixture will be selected. Manual clamping fixtures are low cost. Manual clamping fixtures are used extensively in pallet changer machine to mask the loading and unloading of component.
Accuracy is operators dependent
HYDRAULIC CLAMPING FIXTURES Fixtures which are clamped by hydraulic cylinders are called hydraulic clamping fixtures.
If higher rate of production is required hydraulic clamping fixtures are selected. Hydraulic fixtures are costlier than manual clamping fixtures. Hydraulic clamping fixtures can be done for any component. Accuracy is not operator dependent. Component of particular operation requires higher cutting force with more depth of cut.
Essential features required for hydraulic fixtures:

Power pack. Hydraulic elements. Looping assembly.
PNEUMATIC CLAMPING FIXTURES Fixtures which are clamped by pneumatic cylinders are called pneumatic clamping fixtures. If higher rate of production is required with minimum cost, pneumatic clamping fixtures are selected. Pneumatic fixtures are more expensive than manual clamping fixtures but cheaper than hydraulic fixtures. Pneumatic clamping fixture can be done for any component which is having less cutting loads. The compressed air used for machine application can be used for cylinder actuation.
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Essential features required for hydraulic fixtures: Air compressor. Pneumatic elements looping Assembly
Setting Block
The setting block as shown in the figure, is located relative to the fixture location system and retained in position by screws; it has two hardened setting faces, so that the table can be positioned both horizontally and vertically (note that the table is located from one side of the cutter only). The table setting is done with a 0.25 mm feeler between the cutter and the setting face so that the block will not be damaged by the cutter during machining. The setting block is positioned so that the cutter is between the vertical face of the block and the operator during setting; this arrangement gives maximum convenience for the operator during setting.
Tenons:
The two tenons (as shown in the figure) are made from case hardened steel and are located on the underside of the fixture base; these two tenons sit in one of the tee slots that run along the length of the machine table so that the fixture is located relative to the table feed; the two tenons should be as far apart as possible, to produce maximum accuracy. The fixture is bolted to the table by two or four tee bolts that are placed in the tee slots (these bolts are not called up as part of the fixture).
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2.5
INTRODUCTION TO LASER [14]

Laser is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. The
2.5.1 INTRODUCTION
worlds first laser was demonstrated by Maiman using a ruby crystal. It is essentially a coherent, convergent, and monochromatic beam of electromagnetic radiation with wavelength ranging from ultraviolet to infrared. Lasers have now found applications in almost every field of engineering, medicine, electronics, etc., where one or more properties of the laser radiation are important. In order to realize the applicability and capability of a laser radiation in any application, it is necessary to understand the basic operation mechanism and properties of laser radiation. These aspects of laser radiations along with the important industrial laser types are briefly discussed in this chapter.
2.5.2 NATURE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

Electromagnetic radiations consist of propagating waves associated with the oscillating electric field (E) and magnetic field (H). These components oscillate at right angles to each other and also to the direction of propagation of wave. Since the magnetic field vector is perpendicular to the electric field vector, the description of the propagation of the wave generally considers the oscillation of the electric field vector only. When the oscillations of the electric field vector are in particular order, the light is said to be polarized. In a plane polarized light the electric vector oscillates in a single plane as the wave travels. This is illustrated in Fig. 2.12 for a wave propagating in x-direction while the electric vector is oscillating in xy plane. In contrast, the electric vectors in the completely unpolarized light can assume any possible directions (i.e., electric vector oscillating randomly in more than one plane). For a plane-polarized wave shown in Fig. 2.12, the electric vector oscillating in y-direction varies with space and time.
Fig. 2.12 Schematic of the oscillations of electric (E) and magnetic (H) field vectors associated with plane electromagnetic wave
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2.5.3 LASER OPERATION MECHANISM

Stimulated emission, the underlying concept of laser operation, was first introduced by Einstein in 1917 in one of his three papers on the quantum theory of radiation (Einstein 1917). Almost half a century later, in 1960, T.H. Maiman came up with the first working ruby laser. The three processes required to produce the high-energy laser beam are Population inversion Stimulated emission, and Amplification.
2.5.4 TYPE OF INDUSTRIAL LASERS

Since the development of the first ruby laser in 1960, the laser action has been demonstrated in hundreds of materials. However, the range and variety of active materials for commercial lasers are still limited. Lasers are generally classified into four main types depending on the physical nature of the active medium used: Solid-state lasers, Gas lasers, Semiconductor lasers, and Dye lasers. Table 2.1 gives the list of important lasers in each category.
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Table 2.1 gives typical wavelengths of various types of lasers.
2.5.4.1 SOLID-STATE LASERS In solid-state lasers, active medium consists of a small percentage of impurity ions doped in a solid host material. The first practical solid-state laser was the ruby laser developed by Maimam in 1960. Large numbers of lasers such as Nd: YAG, Nd: glass, alexandrite, and Ti: Sapphires are now available in this class. Among these, Nd: YAG laser is the most commonly used one in the laser machining applications. Hence, operating principles of Nd: YAG laser are explained here. 2.5.4.2 Nd: YAG LASER Nd: YAG laser consists of crystalline YAG with a chemical formula Y3Al5O12 as a host material. The Nd3+ ions substitute yttrium ion sites in the lattice with a maximum doping level
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of around 2%. This is a typical four-level energy laser system earlier illustrated. Such systems offer significant advantages such as ease of achieving population inversions. Hence, simple designs of flash lamps with modest amount of pumping energy are sufficient to achieve the efficient population inversions. The energy levels involved in the population inversion and the laser transitions are shown in Fig. 2.13. Laser transitions take place between the 4F3/2 level and the 4I11/2 level.
Figure 2.13: Schematic of the energy levels of neodymium ion showing the levels involved in population inversion (pumping) and laser transitions. Due to splitting of initial and final energy levels, several lasing wavelengths are possible, 1.064 m being the strongest one. The output of the Nd: YAG laser can be continuous, pulsed, or Qswitched. The light source for pumping depends on the absorption characteristics of the crystal. For continuous operation the laser is excited by continuous krypton-filled or xenon-filled arc lamps or semiconductor diode lasers. Krypton lamps are efficient pumping sources for continuous Nd: YAG laser because the emission lines from Krypton lamps agrees better with absorption lines in Nd: YAG. For pulsed operation, flash lamps are generally used. If the pulses of relatively large-pulse energy are desired, the laser is excited by a flash lamp, which gives pulses at relatively low pulse repetition rates. Nd: YAG laser is also available in frequencydoubled mode in which the output of the laser is in the green portion of the visible spectrum at
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532 nm. In addition to frequency doubled operation, the laser is also available in frequencytripled (355 nm) and frequency-quadrupled (266 nm) modes.
2.5.5 PROCESS CHARACTORISTICS OF Nd.YAG LASERS

Process characteristics of No: YAG compared with CO2 Lasers is as shown in table no. 2.2 Table No.2.2 Laser Technology CO2 Nd-YAG Wave length 10.6 1.06 Emitting medium Gas:CO2+He+N2 Solid:Nd-YAG Crystal Excitation Electrically Flash Lamp or Diode
Main applications per technologies are: CO2 Laser Deep welding Cutting Marking Nd-YAG Laser High precision welding High precision cutting
Marking Drilling
5.5.6 PROCESS PARAMETERS

Beam: Power Velocity Pulsed or continuous wave. Focalization: Optic Focal length Focus spot location Gas: Type, flow rate Geometry Material: Nature Preparation Geometry Gap: position
26
2.6
LASER WELDING
Laser welding has evolved as an important industrial manufacturing process for joining a
2.6.1 INTRODUCTION
variety of metallic and nonmetallic materials. With the developments in the high-power laser technology over the past few decades, laser welding is now capable of joining thicker sections with higher processing speed and better weld quality. Due to the noncontact nature of laser processing, high degree of automation is possible providing economic advantages in the typical industrial environment. Even though, laser welding seems to be a simpler process, it presents significant challenges to produce defect-free welds at high speed and under reproducible conditions. This requires a strong understanding of the underlying concepts of laser material interactions in the regime of laser welding conditions. Since extensive literature is published on the topic of laser welding in dedicated books, book chapters, and journals, this chapter is intended to present only brief discussions on important aspects of laser welding process.
2.6.2 LASER WELDING PROCESS

When a laser beam is irradiated on the surface of a material, the absorbed energy causes the heating, melting, and/or evaporation of the material depending on the absorbed laser power density. The general condition of laser welding process is to create a pool of molten material (weld pool) at the overlapping work piece surfaces. There are two general approaches for laser welding processes. In the first approach sometimes referred as conduction welding, the laser processing conditions are such that the surface of the weld pool remains unbroken.
Figure 2.14
Schematic of the cross sections of (a) conduction and (b) deep penetration laser welding showing various effects. 27
In this approach the energy transfer into the depth of the material takes place by conduction (Fig. 2.14a). The second and the most important approach referred as deep penetration welding corresponds to the laser processing conditions which create a keyhole in the weld pool. Generally, the transition from the conduction mode to the deep penetration welding is associated with the increase in laser power intensity or irradiation time such that surface vaporization at the molten weld pool begins The resulting evaporation-induced recoil pressure forms a small depression in the weld pool which subsequently develops into a keyhole by the upward displacement of molten material sideways along the keyhole walls (Fig. 2.14b). The subsequent ionization of the vapor results in the formation of the plasma plume. The laser energy entering the keyhole wall is determined by the attenuation due to absorption of laser energy in the plasma plume. Within a keyhole, the laser energy is reflected repeatedly (multiple reflection) with efficient Fresnel absorption of energy at the keyhole walls. Thus, the keyhole plays an important role in transferring and distributing the laser energy deep into the material.
Figure 2.15: Schematic of the deep penetration welding process
The surface vaporization continues at the keyhole wall during laser welding to maintain the cavity. The vaporized materials act against the surface tension to keep the keyhole open. The melt accelerated upward flows continuously out of the cavity. Figure 2.15 presents the schematic geometry of deep penetration laser welding.
28
Figure 2.16: Flowchart of various absorption mechanisms during deep penetration laser welding.
Various mechanisms of energy absorption during laser welding process are presented in Fig. 2.16 Under dynamic condition such as a moving laser beam, the welding speed is determined by the stability of the keyhole. Stable welding conditions correspond to the speed at which the keyhole speed achieves steady state. The symmetry of the keyhole is also influenced by the welding speed. At low welding speed, the keyhole may be approximated by the rotational symmetry, whereas at high welding speed, the keyhole profile differs significantly at the front and back wall.
29
2.6.3 SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF LASER WELDING

The creation of a laser weld is based on the phenomenon of localized fusion of the material at the beam point.
Figure 2.17: Schematic representation of laser welding Welding requires high energy density that can be achieved by working at the focal poit of the optical system. The absorption coefficient of the laser beam by the material depends of: Material nature 9 melting nature (melting temperatures, surface status)
Wave length of the laser source (CO2 or Nd:YAG technology) 2.6.4 SOME SPECIFIC CHARACTORISTICS OF THE PROCESS
2.6.4.1 THE KEY HOLE The key hole is a cavity filed with very high temperature ionized metal vapors, which is formed at the beam impact point due to the effect of the high energy densities. The key hole is in equilibrium due to the effect of evaporation of the metal, the pressure of the vapors and the surface tension. The keyhole is created by means of the following process as shown in figure 2.18 Heating of a localized zone by the focused processed beam Creation of molten pool
30
Heating of the molten pool above vaporized temperature
Creation of the keyhole.
Figure 2.18: Specific characteristic of process This keyhole, which is characteristic of welding with high energy density, plays a very important role in laser welding as it allows direct transfer of the energy to the core of the material. 2.6.4.2 THE PLASMA When the material is irradiated with sufficiently larger laser intensity (Iv), significant surface evaporation takes place as explained in the previous sections. Once the vaporization is initiated, the interactions between the resulting vapor and the incident laser beam become important in determining the overall effect of the laser irradiation on the material. One of the most important interactions is the ionization of vapor. The highly ionized vapor is termed as plasma. The keyhole is created along with plasma at the surface of the molten pool. This plasma, made up of ionized vapors, is highly absorbent wit h regard to the CO2 laser beam (absorbing up to 60% of the incident energy). The absorbed energy is the n transmitted to the surrounding media and constitutes a secondary source of heating.
31
Figure 2.19: Plasma In the YAG laser, the plasma is much more absorbent and has less effect on the beam. The plasma constitutes a very high temperature medium that emits radiation throughout the whole spectrum: ultra violet and infrared. The behavior of the plasma depends to a great extent on the energy density and on the gas blanket.
2.6.5 EFFECT OF THE PLASMA ON BEAD MORPHOLOGY
Figure 2.20: Effect of Plasma bead morphology The effect of the plasma on the bead morphology varies according to the incident energy, resulting in widening of the upper section of the bead (nail head effect) Weld metal zone A: due to the action of the plasma (with up to 60% of the beam absorbed).
Molten zone B: due to the action of the keyhole (remaining part of the incident beam excluding the reflecting beam). Total weld metal zone = weld metal zone A + weld metal zone B
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2.6.6 SHIELDING GAS

In laser welding, as any other fusion welding process, the molten metal must be protected from the ambient atmosphere. The nature of the shielding gas has an effect on the formation of the plasma and consequently on the performances of the process to a lesser degree the gas flow protects the focusing optical system from weld spatter. In general, the shielding gases used are inert gases (argon, helium) or in some applications, neutral gases such as nitrogen.
2.7
MAIN TYPES OF WELDS
Figure 2.21: Types of weld
2.8
ADVANTAGES OF THE TECHNOLOGY
Good control of the process, excellent reproducibility, increased quality. No filler required. Weld joint precision and beam fineness allowing, for example, welding of groove or in areas that are inaccessible when using conventional techniques. Low energy input and low temperature increase of the work piece put to good use in welding of compact electronic units. Only slight deformations allowing the use of light clamping tools. Little or no reworking or resurfacing after welding so that finished parts are obtained. Welding in one pass, eliminating tedious preparatory work (beveling) and work piece tooling operations. Short cycle times thanks to high welding speeds No or little spatter.
high productivity.
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CHAPTER 3
COMPONENT STUDY AND CONCEPTUAL DESIGN OF THE FIXTURE

3.1 COMPONENT DETAILS
The following are the details of component, for which design, analysis and manufacture of fixture is envisaged.
Name of the Component Quantity
: :
Steam Turbine Blade Assembly One Set of Turbine blade rotor (it consists of 30 Nos. of 10 Turbine blade assembly Segment)
Customer Name Material of component
: :
TRIVENI Engineering and Industries Ltd., Bangalore. X20Cr13 as DIN Standard as Equivalent Material to AISI 420
Raw Material supplied
Pre-machined, separate elements of turbine blade assembly, Like female spacer, blade profile, spacer and male spacer.
Machining Operation
Laser welding
The figure 3.1 shows the working drawing of component supplied by customer.
3.2
COMPONENT DESCRIPTION
In power plants, Steam turbine blades are used which are critical components. These
blades convert the linear motion of steam at high temperature and high-pressure flowing down a pressure gradient into a rotary motion of the turbine shaft and these blades are subjected to very high centrifugal and bending forces during operation. These turbine blades are made up of Stainless and heat resisting steels: DIN: X20Cr13, or AISI 420.
3.3
CRITICALITY OF COMPONENT
Turbine rotor assembly cannot be manufactured without fixture. Because, there is an
inclination of 10 between each blades (10 blades) of one segment of the assembly. And another criticality of component is that, there should be minimum gap between the each blade, i.e. less than 50 microns. So that, to manufacture the turbine rotor assembly, fixture is needed. It can be
34
used to weld the component as per dimension and the quality requirements. After designing a fixture, turbine blades are positioned appropriately and gap between the elements are also achieved.
3.4CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF COMPONENT MATERIAL

Table No.1 shows the chemical composition of the Stainless and heat resisting steels: DIN: X20Cr13, or AISI 420. Table 3.1: Chemical composition C 0.18 0.22 0.01 Si 0.25 1.00 0.05 Mn P S Ni 0.25 1.00 0.02 0.005 0.5 Permissible tolerance % by mass 0.03 0.005 0.005 Cr 12.5 14.0 0.15 Cu 0.25 Fe Bal.
Min. Max.
3.5MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF COMPONENT MATERIAL

An introduction to mechanical and physical properties of component material as shown in table number 3.2 and 3.3. These properties are dependent on the specific alloy composition and heat treatment. Detailed data is available in material datasheets from suppliers and material property handbooks. Table 3.2: Mechanical properties MECHANICAL PROPERTIES Tensile Strength, yield Tensile Strength, ultimate Tensile Modulus, Typical Torsion Modulus Typical Elongation (min.) Reduction Area (min.) Charpy V-notch impact (typical) Fracture toughness KIC (typical) Hardness (ISO 15156-3 limit) Hardness (typical) Fatigue strength (% of T.S.) -100 C 20 Joules 22 HRC 200C 551 MPa 689 MPa 200 MPa 81 GPa 20% 40 % 2000C -
35
Table 3.3: Physical properties PHYSICAL PROPERTIES Density Thermal expansion coefficient Thermal conductivity Specific heat Electrical resistivity Poissons ratio Magnetic permeability - 400 C 200C 7.80 kg/dm3 10.3 x10-6/C 24.9 Wm-1K-1 460 JKg-1K-1 0.550 m 0.24 2000C -
36
3.6
COMPONENT MODEL
3.6.1 ELEMENTS OF TURBINE BLADE ASSEMBLY
Figure 3.2: Elements of turbine blade assembly (component)
3.6.2 ASSEMBLY OF TURBINE BLADE
Front View
Isometric View
Top View Figure 3.3: Different view of component

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Figure 3.4: Exploded view of component
3.7
REQUIREMENT OF CUSTOMER
Figure 3.5: Turbine blade assembly rotor

38
3.8
DATA REQUIRED FOR START-UP OF FIXTURE DESIGN

Machine Specifications like X, Y and Z-axis Limit, working table size etc., Type of fixture hydraulically, pneumatically or manually operating. Number of component to be mounted on table. Component material and size Pre-condition of component and Operation details.
3.9
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
The conceptual design is the first step for any given design task. The conceptual design is comprised of the initial requirements given to the designer in order to begin formulating a design. The most common information provided is the intended function. This is one of the single most important pieces of information in conceptual design. Drawn from the function are the specifics of potential shape, material requirements, fabrication methods, and others. Additional information that might be provided to a designer is the interaction information, tolerances, environmental requirements, and relative dimensions. Using this information a conceptual design is created. Important to the conceptual design specifically for assemblies is the function of the part and its correlation to the function of the whole. In an assembly a part is no longer a standalone object, it must fulfill its individual role as well as its role as part of the assembly. The information on how the assemblies are connected physically is important as well. Indexing of this information is very important since it contains information that cannot be directly taken from the final work piece part. Within this proposed system text will be used to describe most of the conceptual information.
The conceptual designs for fixture is based on the critical dimensions of the component, and the idea obtained by the detailed study of the component, existing method of manufacturing and existing fixtures if any, the literature survey gives an idea about new method of fixture design. The new concept that can be obtained for this component manufacturing is to complete with two setups of operation that is first setting, second setting, and third setting of laser welding. Figure shows the conceptual design of fixture.
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3.9.1 SELECTION OF MATERIAL [8]

Fixture body material made of EN 8 equivalent to AISI 1040
Locating parts such as nesting surface, pins and pads that required a high hardness and are
finish ground after heat treatment are made of 20MnCr5.
Surface that are exposed to light wear only can be case hardened by cyaniding and do not
require subsequent grinding unless a high degree of accuracy is required.
Dowel pin are made of 20MnCr5, hardened to 60 HRC. Clamping plate made of also EN 8 is case hardened medium carbon steel. 3.9.2 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN OF WELDING FIXTURE ASSEMBLY
Support block Force Nylon cap clamping plate Component
Fixture plate
Clamping Screw Pneumatic cylinder Pin Locators
Figure 3.6: Conceptual design of fixture
40
CHAPTER 4
DESIGN AND ANALYSIS

4.1 DESIGN PRINCIPLES [5]
The design of fixtures should be simple and economical. The principal considerations in fixture design are as follows. Clamping and locating: The component should be properly clamped and located. The method of location and clamping should be such as to reduce idle time to a minimum. Positioning of laser head should be properly positioned relative to the component. It should be ensure that the fixture can be loaded and unloaded easily. The fixture should be strong enough to resist the working forces. Clamps should allow rapid loading and unloading of the components. Fixtures should be lighter in weight. The equipment should be fool proofed besides being safe to use. Tennon strips should be provided for accurate and quick location of the fixture on the machine bed.
4.2
DESIGN FACTORS [5]

Study of the component. Study the type of machine one which component is to be processed and its capacity. Study the locating elements. Study the loading and unloading arrangements. Study of the clamping arrangements. The clamping pressure should be exerted on the solid supporting part of the work to prevent distortion. The clamping pressure should be kept low as far as possible. It should be sufficient to hold the work against the cutting pressure. The movement of the clamp for loading and unloading purposes should be kept limited. The clamp should be positively guided to facilitate loading action. The clamp should be fool proofed. The clamp should be sufficiently robust to avoid bending. 41
The following are the essential factors, which must be considered in designing a fixture:
Operating a lever or a knurled knob should effect the clamping. The hexagonal headed nuts or bolts should be avoided as far as practicable to eliminate the use of spanners.
The clamps should be so arranged on the work to perform as many operations as possible in one setting.
Study clearance between fixture and component. It is necessary to leave sufficient clearance between fixture body and the component to accommodate variable sizes of work piece, which are manufactured either by milled or WEDM. Study of the fool-proofing arrangements. It means the designing of Fixture with such devices so as to make it impossible for an operator to insert a component into a fixture in any position. Study the fixtures are designed to eject heavy work pieces mechanically when it is unclamped. This saves time and labor of operator. Wedges accomplish the ejection of components, spring loaded or cam-actuated plungers. Study of swarf removal arrangement. The removal of chips from fixtures can be accomplished by the following methods:
By designing the shape of the fixture elements to enable the chips to fall out by gravity. By undercutting the corners to clear the work. By using raised supports or buttons for location. By maintaining marginal clearance between the fixture body and the component.
To study base or frame construction. The body and base of fixtures are manufactured by the following methods: Turning Machining Welding and Grinding.
Study of rigidity and vibration problems. Study of safety devices. Study of the methods of manufacture of fixtures.
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4.3
DESIGN STEPS [5]

While designing fixture, following steps may be considered: To inspect the drawing of the component and to note the dimensions to be taken care of. To decide the sequence of machining operations. To decide the location system. To decide the clamping system. To fix the method of positioning the laser head relative to the work piece.
To decide the safety devices to be used.
4.4
DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS
Fixture design consists of a number of distinct activities: fixture planning, fixture layout
design, fixture element design, and fixture body design. They are listed in Figure 4.1 in their natural sequence, although they may be developed in parallel and not necessarily as a series of isolated activities in actual execution. Fixture design deals with the establishment of the basic fixture concepts: Fixture layout is an embodiment of the concepts in the form of a spatial configuration of the fixture, Fixture element design is concerned with the concrete details of the locators, clamps and supports, Fixture body design produces a structure combining the fixture elements in the desired spatial relationship with the machine tool.
4.5
DESIGN PLANNING
Fixture planning is to conceptualize a basic fixture configuration through analyzing all the
available information regarding the material and geometry of the work piece, operations required, processing equipment for the operations, and the operator. The following outputs are included in the fixture plan: Fixture type and complexity Number of work pieces per fixture Orientation of work piece within fixture Locating datum faces Clamping surfaces and Support surfaces.
43
Figure 4.1: various aspects of fixture design. Generation of fixture layout is to represent the fixture concepts in a physical form. The following outputs are included in the fixture layout: Positions of locators Positions of clamps Positions of supports, if any Type of locators Type of clamps Type of supports Clamping forces and sequence
Fixture element design is either to detail the design drawings committed on paper or to create the solid models in a CAD system of the practical embodiment of the conceptual locators, clamps and supports. It is possible to use standard designs or proprietary components. The following outputs are included in the fixture element design: Detailed design of locators Detailed design of clamps Detailed design of supports, if any
Fixture body design is to produce a rigid structure carrying all the individual fixture elements in their proper places.
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4.5.1 PHASES IN FIXTURE PLANNING [5]

In the design of a fixture, a definite sequence of design phases is involved. They can be grouped into five broad stages of design development.
4.5.1.1 Stage one deal with information gathering and analysis. These include product analysis such as the study of design specifications, process planning, examining the processing equipment and considering operator safety and ease of use. In this stage, all the critical dimensions and feasible datum areas are examined in detail.
4.5.1.2 Stage Two involves the consideration of clamping and locating schemes. A clamping scheme is devised in such a way that it will not interfere with the laser head or welding area and are fully compatible with proposed locating surfaces or areas. The locating scheme, using standard elements such as pins is designed to be consistent with clamping and tool-guiding arrangements.
4.5.1.3 Stage Three is the design of the structure of the fixture body frame. This is usually built around the work piece as a single element which links all the other elements used for locating, clamping tool-guiding, etc. into an integral frame work.
4.5.1.4 Stage four this phase consists of the examination of all accumulated design concepts and their possible change because of operators considerations, which consist of the element of the time fatigue and safety. 4.5.1.5 Stage Five this phase is the evaluation of the tentative design for lowest cost per part, which includes fixture design and fabrication costs of fixture. Operation, optimization and all other costs that are applicable wholly or impart to the design. The above procedures are quite general and can be modified depending on the relative importance of the various elements in providing for the required accuracy of the work piece to be located and secured into the fixturing device. With the popular adaptation of modular fixturing elements, the fixture body frame is usually a standard block with fixed arrays of locating and fixing holes or slots.
45
4.6
DESIGN CRITERIA
The following design criteria must be observed during the procedure of fixture design: Design specifications Factory standards Ease of use and safety Economy
4.7
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS OF A FIXTURE

In order to maintain the work piece stability during a machining or welding process, an
operational fixture has to satisfy several requirements to fully perform its functions as a work holding device. The following constraints must be observed while designing a viable fixture:
4.7.1 DETERMINISTIC LOCATION

A work piece is said to be kinematically restrained when it cannot move without losing contact with at least one locator. The work piece is constrained by a set of appropriately placed locators so that it is presentable for the machining operation. Locating errors due to locators and locating surfaces of the work piece should be minimized so as to accurately and uniquely position the work piece within the machine coordinate frame.
4.7.2 TOTAL CONSTRAINT

A work piece should be fully constrained at all times to prevent any movement. Clamps should provide locking forces to hold the work piece in place, once it is located. A totally restrained part should be able to remain in static equilibrium to withstand all possible processing forces or disturbance. A necessary and sufficient condition to warrant work piece stability is to satisfy the condition of force closure.
4.7.3 CONTAINED DEFLECTION

Work piece deformation is unavoidable due to its elastic/plastic nature, and the external forces impacted by the clamping actuation and machining or welding operations. Deformation has to be limited to an acceptable magnitude in order to achieve the tolerance specifications.
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4.7.4 GEOMETRIC CONSTRAINT

Geometric constraint guarantees that all fixturing elements have an access to the datum surface. They also assure that the fixture components do not interfere with laser head during welding operation. In addition to these requirements, a fixture design should have desirable characteristics such as quick loading and unloading, minimum number of components, accessibility, design for multiple cutting operations, portability, and low cost.
4.8
CONSIDERATION OF DESIGN ECONOMICS [5]

The demand for todays modern industry needs maximum productivity at minimum cost is a
4.8.1 DESIGN ECONOMY

challenging one to the tool designer. The tool designer is responsible for finding ways to keep the cost of fixture as low as possible. To obtained design economy, tool designer must know, how quick, simple and easy operations or techniques to be applied. Design economy begins with the tool designers proposed idea to be carried through the completion of the tool. Design should be carefully studied to find ways to reduce the cost and still maintain quality of component. The tool designers assistance in this task is by the following the principles of design economics.
4.8.2 SIMPLICITY
Simplicity is essential and necessary in tool design. Detail drawing should be made as simple and easy as possible. Every detail should be considered for possible saving of material and time. A basic and simple design minimizes the tool cost. Pre-formed materials: their use can greatly reduce tooling cost by eliminating many operations like use of standard structural sections, pre-machined brackets, tooling plate and precision ground flat stock should be specified.
4.8.3 STANDARD PARTS

Use of commercially available standard parts can be greatly improving the quality of tool. Standard parts like locators, clamps, support blocks, pins, screws, blots, nuts and springs, should be planned in the fixture design to reduce the cost of material.
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4.8.4 SECONDARY OPERATIONS

Secondary operations like grinding, heat treatment and some machining should be limited to those areas which are necessary for efficient tool operation.
4.8.5 TOLEARNCE AND ALLOWANCE

General tolerances of fixtures should be maintained between 20% to 50% of part tolerance.
4.8.6 SIMPLIFIED DRAWINGS

Following list will give general guidelines to simplifying the drawings. Eliminate redundant views. Wherever possible denote the details by symbols or standard notations. Use templates and guides to reduces drawing time. Standard parts should not be drawn in detail drawing and referred those parts by part numbers or names.
4.8.7 METHOD PLAN [6]

In the design process, first step is to build the plan or outline of fixtures. Method plan gives brief description of the each and every element of the fixture, like type of location used, the located position is to be clamped and number of operations to be carried out. Using method plan we can also judge the fixture size and approximate cost of the fixture. So that, method plans lead to initialization of the design process and number of elements of fixture are required to get the final finished component. After complete analysis of the component i.e. considering the complexity, critical dimensions and feasibility of manufacturing the final component can be obtained by using fixture.
4.9
IMPORTANT DESIGN CONCEPTS

Identify memorable, style, expressiveness, aesthetic quality, and user preference. Symbolic meanings, historical contexts of objects. Visual honesty, ecology concerns. Usefulness, function and durability. Economy and appropriateness of fabrication / production processes.
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4.9.1 IMPORTANCE OF FIXTURS IN MANUFACTURING

Modern manufacturing aims at achieving high productivity to reduce unit cost. This necessitates fixturing devices to be efficient, i.e. to increase the rate of loading and unloading to speed up the manufacturing cycle time. If t is the total time in seconds or minutes required for producing a part, then is the number of pieces produced in unit time, or the production rate.
Considering the fact that the total manufacturing time is usually composed of
tm + th Where tm is the actual machining time and th is the setting up and handling time, Hence, the production rate is given by:
piece per unit time.
The use of fixtures has twofold benefits. It eliminates individual marking; positioning and frequent checking before machining operation starts, thereby resulting in considerable saving in setup time. In addition, the usage of fixture devices saves labours, through simplifying the locating and clamping tasks and makes possible the replacement of skilled workforce with semi-skilled labour, hence effecting substantial saving in labour cost which also translates into enhanced production rate.
Furthermore, the use of well-structured fixtures with higher locating and clamping rigidity would allow for increase in welding speeds and feeds, thereby reducing tm, hence improving production rate. Besides improving the productivity in terms of the rate of production, there are also other benefits accrued through the use of fixtures. They are: Increases machining accuracy because of precise location with fixtures, Decreases expenditure on quality control of machined parts as fixtures facilitate uniform quality in manufacturing, widens the technology capacity of machine tools and increases the versatility of machining operations to be performed, Either fully or partly automates the machine tool.
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4.10 DESIGN OF FIXTURE ELEMENTS

The various elements of fixture includes Fixture body Pin locator Clamping plate Support block and Pneumatic cylinder.
4.10.1 FIXTURE BODY

Fixture body is the major structural element of a fixture. It maintains the spatial relationship between the fixturing elements mentioned above, viz., locators, clamps, supports, and the machine tool on which the part is to be processed.
Figure 4.2: Fixture plate Material EN 8 Hardness 40 54 HRC
50
Relief
Pin locator
M8 screw hole
Locators for 2nd Setting
Locator for 1st & 2nd Setting
Figure 4.3: Model of Fixture plate
4.10.2 PIN LOCATOR

In this fixture, pin locators are used to locate the component and pins used are hardened.
Material 20MnCr5
Hardness 50 54 HRC
Figure 4.4: Pin locator
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4.10.3 CLAMPING PLATE

A clamp is a force-actuating mechanism of a fixture. The forces exerted by the clamps hold a part securely in the fixture against all other external forces.
Figure 4.5: Clamping plate Material EN 8 Hardness 40 54 HRC
Side edge act as location
View - 1
Clamping surface Figure 4.6: Model of clamping plate
View - 2
This clamp, locates the component assembly first and then acts clamping.
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4.10.4 SUPPORT BLOCK

A support is a fixed or adjustable element of a fixture. Whenever the part displacement/deflection is expected under the action of clamping and processing forces, supports are added and placed below the work piece so as to prevent deformation. Supports in excess of what is required for the determination of the location of the part should be compatible with the locators and clamps.
Material EN 8
Hardness 40 54 HRC
Figure 4.7: Support block
4.10.5 PNEUMATIC CYLINDER

This cylinder pushs the turbine blade assembly with uniform pressure and act as static applied force. So that blades tend to compact each other like male spacer and spacer between the blades minimizes the clearance.
Figure 4.8: Pneumatic cylinder
53
4.11 RESTRICTIONS ON THE DEGREES OF FREEDOM OF A WORKPIECE.

A work piece, just like any free solid body, has six degrees of freedom: Three rectilinear displacements along the mutually orthogonal co-ordinate axes Three angular displacements with respect to the same axes. Pin locator
Figure 4.9: fixture assembly for location
4.12 DIRECT STRESSES: TENSION AND COMPRESSION [11]

Stress can be defined as the internal resistance offered by a unit area of a material to an externally applied load. Normal stresses are either tensile (positive) or compressive (negative). For a load-carrying member in which the external load is uniformly distributed across the crosssectional area of the member, the magnitude of the stress can be calculated from the direct stress formula:
Considering, Force = 5kgf.
= 128.6 kgf/mm2 In this design, force acting on the component is compressive in nature, hence need to know the deformation due to direct load on the component by using the relations.
54
Deformation Due to Direct Axial Load
Where
= total deformation of the member carrying the axial load F = direct axial load L = original total length of the member E = modulus of elasticity of the material A = cross-sectional area of the member
Figure 4.10 shows force acting on the component in fixture assembly
Figure 4.10 force acting on the component.
Deformation
The deformation induse in component is 0.000001607 mm, which is negligible. From the above results, it is concluded that clamping force will not give any distortion to component and fixture. because No Physical contact of between tool and job No Mechanical forces will develop Very low Heat affected zone ( less than 0.5mm )
55
Minimum thermal distortion Clamping is only to hold the turbine blade assembly in proper position Rapid cooling Rapid welding time, i.e. 6 mili second / pulse.
4.13 STRESS ANALYSIS OF COMPONENT
Figure 4.11: Component: Stress-Stress1
Table 4.1 Component: Stress-Stress1 result

Name Stress1 Type VON: von Mises Stress Min 5.47628e-007 N/m^2 Node: 7468 -3.2544 mm) -10.7003 mm) Location (-49.4 mm, -92.8391 mm, Max 4.44519 N/m^2 Node: 1037 Location (8.40374 mm, -25.2476 mm,
56
Figure 4.12: Component: Displacement-Displacement1
Table 4.2 Component: Displacement-Displacement1 result

Name Displacement1 Type URES: Resultant Displacement Min 0m Node: 731 Location (28.6079 mm, -29.2664 mm, 0 mm) Max 2.44904e-012 m Node: 22535 Location (-49.4 mm, -93.3565 mm, -3.94819 mm)
57
Figure 4.13: Component: Strain-Strain1
Table 4.3 Component: Strain-Strain1 result

Name Strain1 Type ESTRN: Equivalent Strain Min 2.49201e-018 Element: 2771 Location (-49.2976 mm, -92.8161 mm, -3.4753 mm) Max 1.54318e-011 Element: 1470 Location (8.30722 mm, -26.9271 mm, -10.3235 mm)
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4.14 THERMAL ANALYSIS OF COMPONENT

4.14.1 IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS FOR THERMAL ANALYSIS
Most of the previous discussion assumed that laser is uniformly irradiated on a semiinfinite material and that the heat transfer is one-dimensional. These are very simplified assumptions and facilitate the general understanding of laser interaction with the material. However, in practice, there exist a number of complex parameters which play important roles during laser interaction with material. The refinement of the simple model explained here is likely to result in more realistic results after incorporating these complex parameters. Some of these important considerations for thermal analysis are explained in the following sections.
Fig. 4.14 Variation of calculated freezing (solidification) rate with fractional melt depth during
59
Laser irradiation of nickel. The calculations were performed for an initial melt depth of 0.025 mm Using three absorbed laser power densities (Q0, W/cm2).
4.14.2
BEAM SHAPES
It was assumed that the large area of the material was irradiated uniformly with the laser
beam. This corresponds to the constant laser power density at all the points on the irradiated surface. However, the laser power density (intensity) can be distributed in several distinct shapes. The most common in the laser material processing is the Gaussian distribution of energy.
4.14.3
PULSE SHAPES
The temperature distribution during laser irradiation can be greatly influenced by the
temporal variation of laser beam intensity. The continuous wave (CW) laser beams with constant laser intensity with time are easiest to define in the thermal model. The complexity in the thermal analysis arises due to pulsed operation of laser. In such analysis, it is important to define the temporal shape of the pulse. Various single-pulse shapes such as rectangular pulse, triangular pulse, and smooth pulse are shown in Fig. 4.15. Rectangular pulses are generally characterized by the width of the pulse; whereas triangular and smooth pulses are characterized by the width at full width half maxima (FWHM). For the same width (for rectangular pulse) or width at FWHM (for triangular or smooth pulses), the rectangular pulses generally give higher temperature rise compared to triangular and smooth pulses. During multipulse operation, temperature of the material increases during each pulse followed by cooling during the time between the adjacent pulses. Since the cooling is not complete during the short duration between the pulses, the initial temperature during heating with the subsequent pulses is always higher than that during heating with preceding pulses. This results in the higher temperature during heating with subsequent pulses. Thus, the pulsed heating of the material is associated with temperature fluctuations (heating and cooling) during each pulse and time interval following the pulse (time between the adjacent pulses). This is schematically shown in Fig. 4.16. The pulsed output of the laser may be approximated by the constant average output such that thermal analysis yields the continuous increase in temperature during heating (dashed curve in Fig. 4.16b).
60
Fig. 4.15 Various single-pulse shapes showing temporal variation of the intensity: (a) rectangular pulse, (b) smooth pulse, and (c) triangular pulse
Fig. 4.16 Schematic of temporal evolution of surface temperature during (a) single pulse and (b) multipulse laser irradiation of material (dotted curve indicate the average temperature)
4.14.4 MOVING SOURCE OF HEAT

The thermal model explained in the preceding section considers the irradiation of material where both the laser beam and the material are stationary. Most of the practical laser applications such as welding, cutting, shaping, etc. require the laser beam to move relative to the work piece. Hence, calculation of temperature distributions around the moving source of heat (laser) becomes
61
important. The theory of moving sources of heat was first advanced by Rosenthal (1946). The schematic of the model geometry for heating with moving point source is presented in Figure 4.17 for a point heating source moving with a constant velocity (v) in the x-direction, with point source as origin
Fig. 4.17 Schematic of the (a) heating model geometry with a moving point source of heat, and (b) typical temperature distribution (isotherms) in the xz plane through the point source
4.14.5 TEMPERATURE DEPENDENT PROPERTIES

Another important consideration for accurate determination of temperature distribution during laser irradiation is the temperature dependence of the thermo physical and other properties. Properties such as thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity, absorptivity, etc. are strongly temperature dependent and expected to influence the temporal and spatial evolution of temperature during laser irradiation.
62
4.15 TOOLING MATERIALS [5]

4.15.1MILD STEEL
Fe410C to IS: 2062 Composition: C 0.2%, Mn 1.50%, Smax 0.04 %, Pmax 0.04%. balance Fe Most of the parts, which do not require any hardening, are made from this cheap material the parts that require only hard skin hardened to provide a tough exterior. can also be made of mild steel. Mild steel parts are case
4.15.2 CASE HARDENING STEEL

17 Mn1 Cr95 IS Code: 1570 Group W Composition: C 0.17%, Mn 1%, Cr 0.95%, Si 0.10%, balance Fe These steels have fine grains with high toughness. These steels are shallow hardened and when hardened a hard case and a softer core will form. They can be case hardened to a depth of 0.5 to 3 mm. These steels are quenched in water or brine and are generally used for fabricating the parts, which are bearing surfaces.
4.15.3 OIL HARDENING NON SHRINKING STEEL

T90Mn2W50Cr45 IS Code: 1570 Part6 Composition: C 0.95%, Cr 0.50%, Mn 1,2%, Si 0.25%, balance Fe This is a general purpose steel for practically all cold working applications. These steels possess excellent wear resistant and abrasion resistance, toughness and give excellent finish when polished. It used where distortions in heat treatment have to be kept to a minimum.
4.15.4 LOW CARBON STEELS

These are used where only moderate strength is required together with considerable plasticity. Steels with carbon content between 0.05 to 0.10% are used for sheets, strip, tubing, wire, nails etc: steels with carbon content between 0.1 to 0.2% are used for rivets, screws and parts to be case hardened. Chemical composition; Cmax 0.18%, Si max0.45%, Pmax 0.06%, Mn 0.7% - 1.05%, S 0.08% - 0.15%, Al 0.02%-0. 05%, balance Fe
4.15.5 TOOL STEELS:

The selection of proper tool steel depends on the purpose or operation it is supposed to perform i.e. cutting, shearing, forming, drawing, extruding, rolling etc. Each of these operations requires in the tool steel a particular physical property or a combination of such metallurgical
63
characteristics as hardness, strength, toughness, wear resistance, and resistance to heat softening, before optimum performance can be realized. Other important factors requiring due consideration in selection of proper tool steel are harden ability, permissible distortion during heat-treatment and machinability. Chemical composition: C-0.7 to 0.8, Si-0.25 to 0.5, Mn-0.6 to 0.8, Cr-0.3 to 0.4, P-max 0.03%, S-max 0.03%, balance Fe
i.
SL NO
1 2
CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONS OF VARIOUS STEELS

Table - 4.4 TYPE OF C STEEL %
Case hardening Heat treated & tempered steel Structural steel Cold rolled Wear resistance steel HSS
0.07 0.160.27 0.250.65
Cr %
Mn %
0.2-0.4 0.260.64
Mo %
Si %
0.7 0.120.38
P(max) S(max) Fe % % %
0.3 0.4 0.4 0.0150.04 Balance Balance
IS CODE
IS: 1570 IS: 4431
3 4 5
0.40.5 0.570.65 0.91.05 1.21.35
0.33 0.5-0.8 1.41.65 3.84.5 0.250.40 3.0-4.0
0.3 0.150.35 0.150.35 3.54.0
0.03 0.045 0.03
0.03 0.45 0.025
Balance IS: 2062 Balance IS: 4030 Balance IS: 4398
1.0
Balance
IS: 1570
ii.
TOLERANCE USED FOR THE FABRICATION OF TOOL

Table - 4.5
GENERAL TOLERANCE FOR METRIC DIMENSIONS IS: 2102 0.5 to6 6 to30 30 to 120 to 315 to Nominal Above 120 315 1000 dimensions Up to & in mm including 0.02 Tolerance in mm 0.05 0.2 0.5 0.8
1000 to
2000
Angular tolerance 0.5

Tolerance on Holes H7
1.2
4.15.8 BSP (BRITISH STANDARD PIPE) THREAD & METRIC THREAD

Table - 4.6 BSP METRIC 1/8 M10 1/4 M14 3/8 M16 1/2 M18 3/4 M24 64
4.16 DESIGN CHECK LIST [5]

A number of rules have been formulated to identify the locating and clamping surfaces on a work piece. The following are some rules based for fixture design system.
The size of locating face should be greater than the diameter or width o the locating
element.
If there are through holes on the supporting faces that require machining in that setup,
then the part must be elevated to avoid collision of the tool with the base plate.
The height of the locating element should not be greater than the height of the part to
avoid collision with the tool.
Parts of the same geometric design but with the difference specifications usually require
distinct processing steps and sequences. Here different locating and holding requirements for fixturing.
The closer the fixture component is placed to a machined feature, the more the
machining operation is restricted.
The selection of primary locating surface cannot simply be based on part geometry. The
configurations of the machine tool and the positional and orientation tolerances of the geometric features to be machined are important considerations.
The special orientation of the part cannot be completely determined by the primary
locating surfaces, it serves only as a stop for repetitive and accurate positioning. A fixture component is selected primarily based on the following factors. Form of the part to be supported, work piece geometry Dimensional ratio of the part surfaces to the surfaces of the fixture component. Degrees of freedom to be limited.
65
CHAPTER TOOL MANUFACTURING, ASSEMBLY AND TRY-OUTS 5.1 INTRODUCTION
Manufacturing refers to the processes of converting the raw materials into useful products. This is normally accomplished by carrying out a set of activities such as product design, selection of raw material, and materials processing. There exist a large number of conventional manufacturing processes which are used for the manufacturing of common products. However, the manufacturing engineering is a dynamic field marked with continuous advancement in the traditional approaches and the incorporation of novel approaches for manufacturing advanced products. Not all manufacturing processes can produce a product with equal ease, quality, and economy. Each manufacturing process is generally characterized by some advantages and limitation over the other processes. On the same lines, manufacturing using lasers may offer extraordinary benefits in some cases or may be a total failure in others. In order to keep the manufacturing of materials using lasers in the correct context, this chapter intends to give a brief overview of the various manufacturing processes.
5.2
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
There are a large number of manufacturing processes currently used in industries. It is
convenient to discuss the manufacturing processes by grouping them into certain classes based on some characteristic common features. The manufacturing processes can be classified in various ways based on factors such as geometry of work piece, temperature of the work piece, and type of deformations: 1. Primary and secondary manufacturing processes: Primary manufacturing processes involve the initial conversion of the raw materials into the semifinal product stage. The output of primary manufacturing processes is then subjected to secondary manufacturing processes to obtain the final or finished product geometry. Various primary manufacturing processes include casting, forging, rolling, extrusion, etc., whereas secondary manufacturing processes involve various machining and forming processes. 2. Hot working and cold working processes: When the manufacturing process is carried out at temperatures above the re-crystallization temperature of the material, it is referred to as the hot working process, whereas below the re-crystallization temperature it is referred to as the cold working process. Hot working processes are generally carried out at elevated temperatures. For
66
example, rolling of steel may be a hot working (hot rolling) or cold working (cold rolling) process. 3. Metal forming and metal removal processes: Metal forming processes involve the manufacturing of a product by deforming the raw material, whereas metal removal processes, as the name suggests, involves the removal of material from the work piece to obtain the desired shapes. Various rolling, forging, and bending operations can be regarded as metal forming processes. Material removal processes include various machining operations.
5.3
NONTRADITIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES

Nontraditional machining processes are evolved to meet the special machining needs for
which the conventional machining proves unsatisfactory both in terms of economics and achievable machining quality. Most of these needs come from the rapid technological advancement in the areas of materials development for advanced applications in aerospace, automotive, and nuclear power industries. Increasing development and utilization of super-hard, high-strength, high-temperature, and high-performance materials in these applications is increasingly demanding complex machining requirements for such difficult-to-machine materials. Some of these difficult-to-machine materials are titanium, nimonics, metal matrix composites, advanced ceramics, and aluminides. Conventional machining is limited mainly due to unavailability of ultrahard tool material for economical machining of these difficult- tomachine materials. In most of the cases, nontraditional machining is the most economical and effective way of machining these materials. Nontraditional machining processes are generally considered to be manufacturing processes that use common energy forms in new ways or that applies new forms of energy. Nontraditional machining processes are categorized based on the form of energy employed such as mechanical, electrical, thermal, and chemical.
5.4
LASERS IN MANUFACTURING
Lasers are finding continuously increasing utilization in the manufacturing processes. The
applications of lasers have been demonstrated in many casting, forming, joining, and machining processes. Some of these processes are still in the stage of development. Currently, there are several laser-based manufacturing processes which are commonly used for specific applications. This section outlines these laser-based manufacturing processes. Lasers have been extensively used for joining (welding and soldering) of variety of materials. The various laser welding processes involve spot welding, seam welding, and deep penetration welding. Laser welding generally involve the formation of keyhole by the surface
67
vaporization of material (Fig. 5.1). This keyhole facilitates the absorption of light energy and distribution of heat such that melting of the work pieces at the joint results in the formation of weld. The laser welding offer significant advantages over the conventional welding such as high welding speed, possibility of dissimilar welding, welding of difficult-to-weld materials, microwelding, precision welding of components, narrow heat affected zone (HAZ), etc. There exist some specialized applications (such as inside welding, welding of devices, etc.) where conventional welding may not produce quality welds. Such applications are well handled with laser welding processes. Laser welding is particularly economical for high production volumes compared to other competent welding processes. There may be some limitations on the thickness of the work pieces and the speed of laser welding. The selection of laser welding for a given application must be derived from the welding capabilities of the various laser sources, overall economics of the manufacturing, and the quality of the welds produced.
Figure 5.1 Schematic of laser penetration welding.
The flexibility of lasers in the manufacturing processes is due to ability of the lasers to sequentially weld and machine (cutting, drilling, etc.) by optimizing the laser processing parameters. Raw material is transferred into the finished tool in this activity generally, during fabrication. Each part of the tool is manufactured by referring to their respective design and drawing. Before taking up fabrication, the tool drawings are studied and a process plan for each part is prepared. Attention is bestowed on fabric ability during design stage itself. Tolerance and hardness required and related aspects are selected for implementation.
68
During tool manufacturing, following procedure is followed. 1. Process planning 2. Manufacturing. The product design is aimed at determining the size and shape of product that will give satisfactory performance for an adequate life whereas the process design function includes developing methods of manufacturing the product so that it can be produced at competitive price.
5.4.1 PROCESS PLANNING [3]

Systematic determination of the detailed methods by which the parts or elements can be manufactured economically from initial to final stages is taken up. The process sequence is determined for a particular part based on the specific machines. Plans are presented in the form of process sheets, giving sequence of operations, machine tool employed and an estimate time for each operation and related details.
5.4.2 AIMS OF PROCESS PLANNING [3]

Aims of process planning are as follows: To choose economical methods of manufacturing a product. To determine the sequence of operations to be performed during manufacturing of product. To prepare a material list for all the components of the product. To determine the machine tool to be used. To determine the type of cutting tools, jigs, fixtures, dies etc., to be used. To determine the stages of inspection and type of tools and gauges. To determine type of labor to be used. To determine the setup time and standard time for each operation and fix up rate of payments. To determine the parts to be manufactured and what parts of the product to be purchased. To determine the estimated cost of the product.
69
5.5
TOOL MANUFACTURING [3]

For fixture manufacturing, usually the conventional machining is used for rough
machining purpose; finishing operation is carried out on CNC machines. The machines used for fixture manufacturing is as follows 1. Conventional milling machines 2. Conventional lathe machines 3. Radial drilling machine 4. Jig boring machine 5. Tool and cutter grinder 6. Cylindrical grinding machine 7. Surface grinding machine and 8. Arc welding machine etc.,
5.6
INSPECTION
5.6.1 CRITICAL DIMENSIONS WITH TOLERANCE

During fixture manufacturing, designer has to mention the critical dimension in the detail drawing with fits and tolerance, if any. These dimensions are very important dimensions, if any variation with these dimensions it will causes functional effects, while in assembly. The fixture manufacturing tolerance should be 40% of normal allowable tolerance on fixture.
5.7
ASSEMBLY OF FIXTURE AND TOOL TRY-OUT

After the tool is manufactured and assembled, the tool is Tried to see that the machined
component is true to the geometry and dimensions specified by the customer, following are trial and prove out procedure. 1. Purpose: this procedure defines the method for proving fixture. 2. Responsibility: tool room is responsible for performing trials for the purpose of prove-out, process planning and approval process (PPAP) as per this guideline. Tool engineer is responsible for approving tool trials conducted as per procedure. 3. Process: every tool will be tried to meet the objectives stated below. Trials will be conducted in three stages. a) Physical check: each fixture meets construction norms of tool room
70
b) Functional check: parts machined in each fixture is in sequence, do not contain any errors due to construction issues. c) Quality performance check: finished parts that have undergone all fixture sequence comply with drawing and design intent. The above procedure is carried for laser welding fixture and found satisfactory.
71
CHAPTER
COST ESTIMATION
6.1 INTRODUCTION [15]
It is an art of finding the cost which is likely to be incurred for manufacturing of an article, before it is actually manufactured. The direct and simplest way to determine the tool cost design is to add the total material cost and labour required to fabricate the tool. This must be carefully done not to forget any part or operation and list the material in or the time separate part list. Then use a worksheet; list each part and calculate material and labour cost. The time for each machining includes setup and break downs as well as actual machining the final cost is got by adding the cost of designing the tool. The next step is to calculate the number of parts per hour the tool will produce. The simplest method is to divide one hour by the simple part time or the time it takes to load the machine and unload each part. Cost estimation is the process of calculating the approximate total cost involved in producing a component (tool) right from raw material purchase to end stage. It will also include profit and the overhead charges. Cost estimation is carried out to predict the cost of a tool to be built before it is actually manufactured. The tool costs can be estimated in different ways, either on the data of production planning or based on a forecast procedure. The first procedure assigns costs to each working step and to the used material. The high accuracy of this procedure has some disadvantages and difficulties. The method is time consuming and requires from the accountant detailed knowledge of working hours and costs in tool making. Besides this it can be applied only after the tool design has been finalized. In the present case, it is decided to estimate the tool cost accurately and hence this method is followed. The total cost of the tool includes following costs: 1. Material cost 2. Machining cost 3. Heat treatment cost 4. Design charges 5. Tryout cost
72
6.2
COST ESTIMATION OF FIXTURE

(i) Volume of Fixture plate = = = Weight of the Fixture plate = Length x width x height 200 x 150 x 40 mm 1200000 mm3 density of the material (Kg/mm3) x volume of the material = Weight of the Fixture plate = 7850 10-9 kg/mm3 [44] X 1200000 9.4 kilogram ~ 10 kg.
6.2.1 RAW MATERIAL COST
(ii) Volume of Clamping plate= = = Weight of clamping plate =
200 x 75 x 20 300000 mm3 7850 10-9 x 150000 2.355 kg ~ 3 kg.
(iii) Volume of Supporting block
= = =
100x80x50 mm 400000 mm3 7850 10-9 x 400000 3.14 kg ~ 4 kg
Weight of supporting block
Table 6.1: Market cost of material per Kg SI.NO Material 1 Mild steel (St-42) No. of Kgs required 20 X 2 Market price Per Kg in Rs. 42.0 Total cost in Rs. 1680.00
Total raw material cost = Rs 1680.00
Table 6.2: Cost of standard item SI.NO Description 1 2 4 5 Std.Pneumatic cylinder Dowel pins (8and 6) Washers/kg Fasteners Total numbers 1 4 Total cost in (Rs) 5000.00 500.00 95.00 2050.00 Total cost of standard item = Rs 7645.00
73
6.2.2 MANUFACTURING COST [15]

MACHINING TIME ESTIMATION The total estimated time for complete machining considering a new designed fixture is as follows TIME ALLOWANCE The classifications of time Allowance are as under 1. Set up time. 2. Operation time : a) handling time and b) Machining time 3. Break - down time 4. Miscellaneous allowance SEP-UP TIME This is the time required for setting and fixing the job and different tools on the machine. It also includes time to study the drawings, blue prints, set machine, inspect job and setting of gauges etc. OPERATION TIME This is time taken by the machine for the actual operation on the job. Operation time includes (a) handling time and (b) Machining time HANDLING TIME Means all the time required in physical movements while performing the machining operation. MACHINING TIME Means time taken by the machines from the start when the tool touches the job to the end when too leaves the job. BREAK-DOWN TIME This time is counted from when the last element of operation has been completed. MISCELLANEOUS ALLOWANCE Personal allowance Fatigue allowance Tool changing and grinding allowance Measuring allowance Other allowance TOTAL TIME = Setting time (5% of machining time) +Handling time (5% of machining time) + Break down time (5% of machining time) + Miscellaneous (15% of machining time) + machining time. TOTAL TIME = 60 + 30 + 45 + 135 = 235 minutes (i.e. ~ 4 hours.)
74
6.3
COST INCURRED OF FIXTURE MANUFACTURING

= = = Raw material cost + cost of standard item 1680.00 + 7645.00 Rs. 9325.00 Machine hours X Time taken 235 x 125 Rs. 29375.00
Total material cost
Machining cost
= = =
Total Machining cost = Machining cost +welding charges + Heat treatment cost + Inspection charges = 29375+50+ 500 + 1000 = Rs. 30925.00 Prime cost: Prime cost = = = Overhead charges: Over head charges = = = Indirect expenses: Indirect expenses = = = Design cost: Design cost = Rs. 10,000 8% of prime cost 0.08 X 40250 Rs.3220.00 10% of prime cost 0.1 X 40250 Rs. 4025.00 Total material cost + total machining cost 9325 + 30925 Rs. 40250.00
Total Manufacturing cost: Total manufacturing cost = Prime cost + Over charges + Indirect expenses + Design cost = 40250+4025+3220+10000 = Rs. 57495.00
75
Profit: Profit = = = 15 % of total manufacturing cost 0.15 X 57495 Rs. 8624.25
Risk and trial cost: Risk and trial cost = = = 10% of total manufacturing cost 0.1 X 57495 Rs. 5749.50
TOTAL TOOL COST Total tool cost = = TOTAL TOOL COST = Total manufacturing cost + Profit + Risk & Trial cost 57495 + 8624.25 + 5749.50 Rs. 71868.75 ~ 72,000.00 (Rs. Seventy two thousand only)
Formula used for calculations: 1. Weight of the component =density of the material (Kg/mm3) x volume of the material. 2. Volume for square in cross section (mm3) = (length) 3. 3. Volume for the rectangular cross section (mm3) = length x breadth x height 4. Volume for the circular cross section (mm3) = x (radius) 2 x length.
5. Machining cost = Number of hours taken X Cost per hour. 6. Design cost = 10% of manufacturing cost. 7. Risk factor = 20% of total manufacturing cost. 8. Tool trial and corrections cost = 5% of manufacturing cost. Direct Cost for Manufacturing the Product Machining cost depending on the running time of machines: 1. Conventional milling per hour = Rs.85. 2. Conventional turning per hour = Rs.60 -70. 3. Arc welding per inch = Rs.15. 4. CNC milling per hour = Rs.500. 5. CAD/CAM activity per hour = Rs.350. 6. Drilling operation for a hole = Rs.10.
76
7. Jig boring operation per hour = Rs.400. 8. Gas cutting per inch = Rs.5. 9. Power hack saw cutting per hour = Rs.35. 10. Surface grinding per hour = Rs.115. 11. Cylindrical grinding per hour (or how much stock to be removed) = Rs.120. 12. Direct hardening per Kg = Rs.25.
77
CHAPTER
CONCLUSION AND SCOPE FOR THE FUTURE WORK

7.1 CONCLUSION
The design, analysis and manufacturing of laser welding fixture for turbine blade assembly is the main task carried out and has been accomplished satisfying, economical and delivery schedule requirements. Since the component, which was very difficult to weld a turbine blades assembly segment? For positioning and clamping in proper orientation and to achieve required tolerance. After designing a fixture, turbine blades are positioned appropriately and gap between the blades are also achieved (i.e. less than 50 microns) and loading and unloading is very simple. The following conclusions can be drawn from this dissertation work. By using this fixture, production can be increased at a lower rate. The delivery schedule can meet with in time The design is very simple & easy to locate, clamp and unclamp the assembled component; hence rejection rate of the component is minimum. Part can be welded quickly. A detailed drawing of each element has been drawn
Increase in productivity brought the per component cost reduction and Does not require skilled operator, Hence it reduces cost of manufacturing
Therefore fixture plays an important role in manufacturing, to improve productivity
78
7.2
SCOPE FOR THE FUTURE WORK

Further improvement can be made to reduce the clamping time in fixture. At present the
work piece is clamped by special clamp (pneumatic clamping), so these can be replaced by hydraulic clamping for reducing the clamping time. Hence greater consistency can be achieved as the operator interference is reduced. The methodology developed in this dissertation work can be modified for multiple turbine blade assembly, so that further set-up time and laser welding time reduced.
79
Appendix - A
COMPONENT AND FIXTURE 3D MODEL
80
81
82
83
APPENDIX - B
COMPONENT AND FIXTURE 2 D DRAWING
84
APPENDIX - C COMPONENT AND FIXTURE ASSEMBLY DRAWING
85
BIBLIOGRAPHY
REFERENCE BOOKS: 1. Fundamentals of Jigs and fixtures by P.H.Joshi Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, Second Edition.
2. Production technology by HMT.
3. Production technology by O.P.Khanna 4. Jigs and Fixtures design manual by Erik.K.Henriksen. 5. Jigs & fixture design by Edward G.Hoffman. 7 Tool engineering design by Nagpal Khanna Publishers, Sixth Edition. 8 An Introduction to Jigs & Tool Design by Kempster.M.H.A 9 Production technology by O.P.Khanna & M. Lal Dhanapat Rai Publications, Third edtion. 10. A Text Book of Machine Design by R.S.Khurmi and J.K.Gupta Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, third edition 11. Design data handbook by K. Mahadevan & K. Balaveera Reddy. CBS Publications & Distributors, third edition. 12. Fundamental positions of tolerances by John.V.Liggett. 13. Laser Theory, Laser technology center, GT&TC, Mysore. 14. Estimation and Coasting by T.R.Banga and S.C.Sharma.
HAND BOOKS:
1. Machine tool design hand book by (CMTI) published by Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing
Company Limited, 22nd Reprint 2004.

2. Design data hand book by PSG Institute of Technology. 3. Westermann tables for engineering component and metal cutting operations by New age
international (p)Ltd.,
4. Jigs and Fixtures Design hand book by ASME
86
WEB SITES: 1. www.howstuffworks.com 2. www.carrlane.com 3. www.ame.com 4. www.efunda.com 5. www.engineeringedge.com 6. www.gigapedia.org Fixture Technical Data Fixture Technical Data Fixture Technical Data Mechanical element designs Tooling material Technical eBooks
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DESIGN, ANALYSIS AND MANUFACTURING OF LASER WELDING FIXTURE FOR TURBINE BLADES ASSEMBLY

DEPARTMENT OF P.G.STUDIES, G T & T C, MYSORE 570 016.

OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT WORK

SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

Stress and thermal analysis Manufacturing process of fixture

1.5.1 SAMPLE WORK PIECE

1.5.2 DESIGN BRAINSTORMING

DEPARTMENT OF P.G.STUDIES, G T & T C, MYSORE 570 016.

1.5.3 DESIGN FORMATION AND SELECTION

1.5.4 FINAL DESIGN

1.5.5 PROTOTYPE CONSTRUCTION

DEPARTMENT OF P.G.STUDIES, G T & T C, MYSORE 570 016.

DEPARTMENT OF P.G.STUDIES, G T & T C, MYSORE 570 016.

incorporating special work holding and tool guiding devices.

2.2.1 HISTORICAL REVIEW

2.2.2 DEFINITION OF FIXTURE [1]

2.2.3 ELEMENTS OF FIXTURES [1]

2.3.1 THE MECHANICS OF LOCATING [1]

Figure 2.1: the twelve degrees of freedom

2.3.2 3-2-1 PRINCIPLE OF LOCATION

DEPARTMENT OF P.G.STUDIES, G T & T C, MYSORE 570 016.

DEPARTMENT OF P.G.STUDIES, G T & T C, MYSORE 570 016.

DEPARTMENT OF P.G.STUDIES, G T & T C, MYSORE 570 016.

2.3.3 LOCATING GUIDELINES

DEPARTMENT OF P.G.STUDIES, G T & T C, MYSORE 570 016.

DEPARTMENT OF P.G.STUDIES, G T & T C, MYSORE 570 016.

DEPARTMENT OF P.G.STUDIES, G T & T C, MYSORE 570 016.

2.3.4 DIFFERENT TYPES OF LOCATION

DEPARTMENT OF P.G.STUDIES, G T & T C, MYSORE 570 016.

2.3.5 REDUNDANT LOCATION

Figure 2.9: Redundant - locator

DEPARTMENT OF P.G.STUDIES, G T & T C, MYSORE 570 016.

2.3.6 FOOL PROOFING

DEPARTMENT OF P.G.STUDIES, G T & T C, MYSORE 570 016.

2.4.1 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF CLAMPING

2.4.2 PRINCIPLES OF CLAMPING Position

Fig-2.11: clamping on unsupported part

DEPARTMENT OF P.G.STUDIES, G T & T C, MYSORE 570 016.

Work piece variation

2.4.3 TYPES OF CLAMPS

6. Quick action clamps 7. Multiple clamps 8. Power clamps

TYPES OF FIXTURE DEPENDING ON CLAMPING METHOD

Essential features required for hydraulic fixtures:

DEPARTMENT OF P.G.STUDIES, G T & T C, MYSORE 570 016.

INTRODUCTION TO LASER [14]

2.5.2 NATURE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

2.5.3 LASER OPERATION MECHANISM

2.5.4 TYPE OF INDUSTRIAL LASERS

DEPARTMENT OF P.G.STUDIES, G T & T C, MYSORE 570 016.

Table 2.1 gives typical wavelengths of various types of lasers.

DEPARTMENT OF P.G.STUDIES, G T & T C, MYSORE 570 016.

2.5.5 PROCESS CHARACTORISTICS OF Nd.YAG LASERS

5.5.6 PROCESS PARAMETERS

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2.6.2 LASER WELDING PROCESS

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Figure 2.15: Schematic of the deep penetration welding process

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2.6.3 SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF LASER WELDING

Heating of the molten pool above vaporized temperature

Creation of the keyhole.

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2.6.5 EFFECT OF THE PLASMA ON BEAD MORPHOLOGY

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