A Critical Comparison of Sustainable Waterproofing Systems in The UK/International Construction Industry

A Critical Comparison of Sustainable Waterproofing Systems in the UK Construction Industry Manniex A Critical Comparison of Green Flat Roofing Systems
in the UK Construction Industry Manniex
Samantha Samantha
Faculty of Economics & Management Commercial Sciences & Management Field of Study Master of International Business Economics & Management Degree Programme
Confidential
Company Project
A Critical Comparison of Sustainable Waterproofing Systems in the UK Construction Industry
Master Thesis by
Samantha MANNIEX
Submitted for the Degree of Master of International Business Economics and Management
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Hogeschool-Universiteit Brussel 2010
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A Critical Comparison of Sustainable Waterproofing Systems in the UK Construction Industry Manniex A Critical Comparison of Green Flat Roofing Systems in the UK Construction Industry Manniex
Samantha Samantha
Academic Year 2009 - 2010
Table of Contents
A Critical Comparison of Sustainable Waterproofing Systems in the UK Construction Industry 1 - Introduction
The Global Threat of Climate Change The United Kingdoms Response 2016: The Zero-Carbon Target BRE and The Green Guide to Specification The Company: Krete Sustain Systems Ltd PEST Analysis The External Environment of Krete Sustain Systems Ltd Political Factors Economic Factors Socio-cultural Factors Technological Factors Project Methodology General Research Questions Specific Research Objectives Project Overview
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2 - Literature Review
2.1 - Introduction Definitions Call to Action on Sustainability: The Brundtland Report The Importance of Materials Embodied Energy and Full Life Cycle Analysis Potential Flaws in the Code for Sustainable Homes Cost of Ownership and Full Life Cycle Limitations of Existing Environmental Assessment Tools Zero Carbon Homes in 2016 Concluding Comments
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3 Legislation Discussion
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Introduction The Climate Change Act 2008 The UK Low Carbon Transition Plan The Code for Sustainable Homes The Green Guide to Specification Concluding Comments
4 Primary Research
Introduction Choice of research methodology Presentation of Survey Results Discussion of Results Concluding Comments
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5 - Competitor Comparison
Introduction The Use of Plastics in Building Comparison of RoofKrete with five international waterproofing membrane systems Cement Products and Pollution Application of RoofKrete Concluding Comments Embodied Energy Introduction Reducing Energy Consumption in the Building Industry Embodied Energy Comparison by Product Embodied Energy of Transport (to UK) Cradle to Site Embodied Energy of Application Embodied Energy of Disposal Concluding Comments
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6 - Discussion
Recommendations for Krete Sustain Systems Ltd Improvements of RoofKrete
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7 - Conclusion
Research Questions and Objectives Summary of main findings Contributions to Knowledge Prospects for Future Research
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8 - List of References 9 - Appendices

Questionnaire blank copy
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A Critical Comparison of Sustainable Waterproofing Systems in the UK Construction Industry
1 - Introduction
The Global Threat of Climate Change For many years environmental scientists have been warning of the imminent dangers of climate change. An increase of certain gases in the atmosphere has caused the planet to warm up by 0.74 degrees C in the last 100 years (Act on CO2, 2010). Although this might seem like only a minor increase, it is still enough to upset the Earths delicate balance and cause dramatic changes in global weather patterns. Heat waves, floods and droughts are just a few of climate changes serious effects. The scientific community consistently agrees on two main points: firstly, that the actions of human beings have directly caused climate change, and secondly, that we need to make drastic changes to our behaviour immediately, otherwise matters will become much worse (Act on CO2, 2010). Global decision makers began to seriously heed the scientists warnings only in the last two decades. Long-term changes, such as shifts in rainfall patterns and declines in Arctic sea-ice, all follow the predicted pattern of climate change and unmistakeably the result of increased human activity (Act on CO2, 2010). Now governments around the world are implementing schemes that are designed to tackle the threat of climate change head-on. These schemes range from carbon credit trading, to the total revamping of traditional forms of energy use, which means replacing fossil fuels with renewable forms of energy. Wind farms, hydroelectric power and solar panels are well known examples, and new green technologies are constantly under development. The goal is to create a sustainable planet where future generations can enjoy a quality of life similar to ours today. However, the human race first
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needs to ensure that it can undo most of the environmental damage that begun during the time of the Industrial Revolution (NOAA Research, 2010). Tackling climate change is the biggest part of this crucial challenge.
The United Kingdoms Response Many countries have committed significant time and resources to finding climate change solutions. In particular, the United Kingdom has been at the forefront of this movement, leading the way by setting ambitious environmental targets. Especially important is the UK governments Low Carbon Transition Plan, (see appendices) a roadmap outlining a plan to make the UK a low-carbon nation. According to this plan, the goal is to reduce carbon emissions by 34% on 1990 levels by the year 2020 (The Low Carbon Transition Plan, 2009). The Low Carbon Transition Plan provides a detailed examination of main industry sectors. For each one, it discusses the proposed carbon cutting changes and how they will affect daily life and work. The building industry is a major player in this strategy and the transition plan devotes an entire section to it, Transforming our homes and communities (The Low Carbon Transition Plan, 2009). This clearly shows the role the building sector plays in making the UK one of the worlds leading low carbon nations. As previously mentioned, the UK has developed some ambitious goals to show its commitment to tackling the worlds environmental problems. These goals cannot be reached without the cooperation of the building industry. One particular goal involves the UKs housing stock, and is outlined in the next section.
2016: The Zero-Carbon Target In 2016, all new homes in the UK will be zero-carbon. This will be measured by the Code for Sustainable Homes (the Code), which is a key focus of this project and will be addressed in
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more detail during subsequent chapters. Previously, there have been a number of approved international systems for rating the sustainability of buildings. However, the government has recognised the need for greater consistency and simplicity to encourage the UK construction industry to adopt an entirely new approach to building (UK Green Building Council, 2010). The Code was launched in December 2006, and introduced as a voluntary standard in England from 2007. In 2008 it became mandatory to rate all new homes on the Codes scale, regardless of the actual score, simply so that home-owners would better understand their propertys environmental impact. However, from 2016 onwards it will become mandatory for all new homes to reach level 6 (zero-carbon) on the Code scale. A similar target is planned for non-domestic buildings, such as offices, schools and hospitals. However, the more diverse and complicated nature of these buildings means that they require further research by the UKGBC and other industry experts. As a result, the zero-carbon target for non-domestic buildings has been set for 2019 (UK Green Building Council, 2010).
BRE and The Green Guide to Specification The Building Research Establishment (BRE) maintains a directory of green construction firms, known as the Green Guide to Specification, which is an important reference source for architects when specifying suitable materials for sustainable building projects. Membership of this directory can present a significant opportunity for a small to medium sized sustainable building company to increase its business and improve its national visibility.
The Company: Krete Sustain Systems Ltd The idea for this project came from an awareness of the increasing global relevance of sustainability, combined with an existing interest in current affairs and environmental issues. I met the managing director of Krete Sustain Systems (Dr Jenkins) through personal networking and persuaded the company to allow me to write a thesis on sustainable waterproofing membranes. The benefit for the company would be that my research would help the company to better understand current sustainability issues, and potentially create
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future business opportunities. During October 2009 the managing director and I discussed how a research project could help the company better understand the marketing possibilities of focusing on sustainability. The managing director and I thought that the present international attention on environmental issues would provide a suitable backdrop for increased marketing of Kretes product. Now is a perfect time to highlight the green and sustainable characteristics of Krete Sustain Systems flagship product, the waterproof construction membrane known as RoofKrete System 4 (hereafter referred to as RoofKrete). RoofKrete has been used on various British construction projects over the last thirty years. Its main applications are on flat roofs and balconies, but it has also been used in more diverse projects such as: a buried earth shelter in Tintagel, Cornwall, boat building, and gridshell construction (Krete Sustain Systems Ltd, 2009). A gridshell is a curved structure usually made from timber, which is also an extremely sustainable material. However, extra materials are required to make a timber structure waterproof, which is why RoofKrete became the perfect choice for the Downland Gridshell project (The Architecture Ensemble, 2002). In addition to being fully waterproof, RoofKrete is also highly durable and carries a thirty-year warranty. University tests have suggested that the product is likely to outlast the life of the building (Krete Sustain Systems Ltd, 2009). RoofKrete has been used on many roofs around the south of England during the last thirty years, and Krete Sustain Systems Ltd can now use these successful projects as evidence to prove its durability claims for RoofKrete and increase the products credibility. The company has also won some major awards, such as the Classroom of the Future Award from Devon County Council in 1992, the Architects Journal Award in 1995 for the Downland Gridshell project (Dawson, 2002), and the Millennium Products Award from The Design Council/previous Prime Minister Tony Blair (The Design Council, 2010). More recently, RoofKrete has won the EcoHouse award from the Daily Telegraph/Home Building and Renovation Magazine (Krete Sustain Systems Ltd, 2009). These awards suggest that RoofKrete has already gained a certain level of recognition among experts in the UK.
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Extensive laboratory testing at the universities of Bath and Portsmouth has proven that RoofKrete has the durability attributes required to make it a suitable choice for long-lasting and strong buildings (Krete Sustain Systems, 2010). Additionally, the product has already been proven capable of considerable longevity. Furthermore, the raw materials used to make RoofKrete are highly green and can be sourced locally almost anywhere in the world. This considerably reduces the transportation-related embodied energy of the final product, and means that it could be easily manufactured in almost any country (Krete Sustain Systems, 2010). As part of this research project, a comparison will be produced showing how RoofKrete performs against its main competitors. This comparison will show how the components of RoofKrete (sand and Portland cement) have superior sustainability ratings than those of major competing products. Cost is also an important consideration, and when comparing costs, it must be noted that the life expectancy of a RoofKrete flat roof far exceeds that of its competitors, and therefore the associated maintenance costs will also be lower. Krete Sustain Systems Ltd refers to this situation as fit and forget, and identifies it as one of RoofKretes major assets (Krete Sustain Systems, 2010). The company and I were aware that the UK government had recently released a number of sustainability directives, and were therefore confident that we could attract attention within the industry by making an analysis, aimed mainly at architects, which compared the sustainable features of RoofKrete with its main competitors. In February the managing director and I attended a non-domestic buildings task force workshop run by the UK Green Building Council. The aim of this event was to gather opinions on the content and direction of the non-domestic zero-carbon initiative from a range of industry experts. We believed that this knowledge would help us to show how RoofKrete is suitable for meeting the design needs that will result from future changes in UK sustainable building policy. In future, it is hoped that RoofKrete will be the first choice for architects when they specify sustainable waterproofing membranes, particularly for flat roofs and balconies.
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The target audiences of this project will be the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) and the Royal Institute of Chartered Surveyors (RICS). Between them, these two industry bodies represent the main areas of our target market, specifically new build (RIBA) and refurbishment (RICS). Moreover, the scope has potential to reach even further, as a result of green building legislation due to be enforced in coming years. Finally, the competitors mentioned in this research project are large companies, and all of them market their waterproof membrane systems globally. Krete Sustain Systems Ltd is currently only selling RoofKrete within the UK, although it aims to enter the global market in the future. Therefore, the main focus will be on the UK for the purpose of this project, although the global potential will be kept in mind throughout and discussed at times when it is directly relevant. Because the conclusions of this project will contribute to the companys future marketing strategy, it will be helpful to briefly consider the macro-environment within which Krete Sustain Systems Ltd is operating. This is an important first step in planning any marketing strategy, because macro-level factors may be critical determinants of the companys future opportunities and threats (Grant, 2005, p.68). An organisations macro-environment consists of political, economic, socio-cultural and technological elements (Grant, 2005, p.68). Marketers and strategists refer to an analysis of these factors as a PEST analysis. The managing director of Krete Sustain Systems Ltd suggested that these analyses should be carried out in an attempt to achieve a clearer picture of the companys current strategic position.
PEST Analysis The External Environment of Krete Sustain Systems Ltd

Political Factors
Krete Sustain Systems Ltd currently trades in the UK market only. Within this area there are some key political factors that will be likely to affect the external environment of the company. The passing of the Climate Change Act 2008, with the resulting Low Carbon Transition Plan and the 2016 zero carbon housing target, mean that there is now a distinct
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government focus on, and long-term commitment to, the promotion of sustainability in the UK. This creates a potentially promising business environment for a company that is offering an environmentally friendly product.
Economic Factors
After the financial crisis, the UK economy has been left in an especially bad state. The new Conservative government have already introduced many austerity measures aimed at rescuing the economy, such as increased VAT (value-added tax). This is likely to make the average British consumer feel poorer, more price-sensitive and therefore less likely to pay more for expensive sustainability measures on their homes. Krete Sustain Systems Ltd must be competitive with the rest of the market with the price per square metre of RoofKrete. In its marketing strategy Krete Sustain Systems should also aim to highlight the fact that due to RoofKretes long life span, it may save the customer more money in the long run than similarly priced competitors.
Socio-cultural Factors
The UK governments widespread promotion of sustainability is likely to have raised awareness of this issue in the construction industry. This has been indicated to some extent by the existence of projects such as the Downland Gridshell Museum, and the Great British Refurb. Whether awareness of sustainability issues has been significantly raised within the private consumer market is still uncertain.
Technological Factors
There are certain measures that can be taken to improve the product RoofKrete in terms of making it more environmentally friendly. RoofKrete is made from a large proportion of cement. The cement industry is strongly focused on improving the quality of its products and carries out ongoing research and development aimed at making cement more environmentally
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friendly, for example, by reducing the amount of carbon dioxide emitted during cement production (Lafarge, Cement, 2010).
Comments on PEST analysis

A brief assessment of the environmental factors affecting Krete Sustain Systems and the product RoofKrete has shown a number of positive signs for the company. The current political climate in the UK is quite focused on the promotion of sustainability in building, and the government have been actively raising awareness of this topic. The economy is in a poor state, meaning that people will be acutely sensitive to prices and as a result may prefer to invest in products that require little maintenance. Ongoing technological advances in the cement industry, especially regarding sustainable production processes and components, means that Krete Sustain Systems will have more opportunity to improve the ingredients of RoofKrete.
Project Methodology
The methodology for this project will consist of three strands: two that will analyse secondary data, and one that will collect and analyse primary data via a research tool. Firstly, an in-depth review of relevant literature will be conducted. Then there will be an analysis of three pieces of government legislation: the Climate Change Act 2008, the UK Low Carbon Transition Plan, and the Code for Sustainable Homes. The aim is to examine how the recommendations of the legislation relate to the themes identified in the literature review. Finally, the methodology will include a piece of primary research, aimed at a small target group of UK architects, who are the eventual target audience for this research project. It is hoped that the primary research will be able to provide answers and greater insight to the questions and themes raised during the literature review and legislation analysis. The primary research aims to find out what architects think about the efficiency of current environmental assessment methods i.e., the Green Guide to Specification, whether they think the Green Guide could
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be improved in any way, and also to gain a clearer indication of the factors that constitute an environmentally friendly building product, which is necessary to make a meaningful product comparison. It was decided that a combination of secondary and primary data would be a suitable method for this research project. Secondary data refers to data that has already been collected by a party other than the current researcher, such as journal articles, government legislation, or the results found by previous studies. Crowther (2008) recommends that researchers should examine secondary data before even embarking on collection of primary data. It may be the case that the secondary data can successfully answer the research questions, in which case the use of costly and time-consuming primary research can be avoided. There are a number of drawbacks concerning the use of secondary data, which shall be briefly outlined here. There is a huge amount of secondary data available, especially on the Internet. The researcher needs to ensure that they do not succumb to information overload, which wastes valuable time and effort, and that they clearly identify the data that is relevant to their research questions (Crowther, 2008). Additionally, there is the fact that someone else has already collected the secondary data for a different purpose, meaning that the current researcher should be very careful about how they interpret it. Therefore it is important to evaluate the usability of secondary data sources before attempting to include it in a research project (Crowther, 2008). To better ensure usability, the secondary data included in this project was selected according to the guidelines suggested by Jankowicz (1991, in Crowther, 2008). It was straightforward to find the government legislation that pertained to climate change, because there was a limited amount of it in existence. The literature was chosen from various environmental journals, and the most recent studies were selected where possible. The advantages of secondary data are quite numerous, and tend to outweigh many of the disadvantages. Secondary data is especially useful in business related projects, and is commonly used in this context, where it can be used to identify the problem and set objectives (Crowther, 2008). Used in this way, secondary data can be a good opportunity for the researcher to explore the topic further, refine the research questions and objectives, and may also help them to design the primary research process, if any is required.
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A triangulation approach (Cano, 2003) was chosen because it seemed that any single method would be insufficient to cover the breadth of knowledge required by this research. Additionally, the use of triangulation improves the reliability of the primary research by corroborating it with other sources of data, and helps to improve primary research by enabling the researcher to identify key variables and use the primary research to investigate these further. The primary research method will be discussed in further detail in Chapter 4.
General Research Questions After extensive discussions with the managing director of Krete Sustain Systems Ltd, carrying out a basic strategic analysis of external and internal environment factors, and gaining further understanding of the product RoofKrete, it became possible to form the research questions for this project. It seemed possible that RoofKrete could be the most sustainable and environmentally friendly waterproofing membrane system currently available on the UK market, and therefore should be the first choice for architects looking for a suitable product for constructing a waterproof flat roof on a low-carbon, sustainable building. Therefore the first and most important research question is as follows:
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Is RoofKrete the most sustainable and environmentally friendly flat roofing product in the UK market today?
Secondly, there is a need to examine the concept of embodied energy more closely, especially the embodied energy of transport. During preliminary research and reading, it appeared that this concept may be a very important influence on the environmentally friendly nature of a product, and so far has not been carefully considered either by competitors who are calling their products green, or by the Buildings Research Establishment (BRE) when it created the Green Guide to Specification. This study will present a deeper discussion of this concept, highlighting the fact that a product wishing to call itself green or environmentally friendly needs to have a low overall embodied energy rating. The study will also compare the
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embodied energy of RoofKrete with 5 major flat roofing competitors. This leads to the second research question:
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Why is the concept of embodied energy so important?
After conducting the above research, especially in relation to embodied energy, it is possible that some limitations in the current BRE green material ratings system might be discovered. The aim is to assess the impact of these, and suggest how the system could be improved in the future, which culminates in the third and final research question:
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What are the limitations of environmental assessment methods such as the Green Guide to Specification? How might this method need to change in the future?
Specific Research Objectives

Present the issue in an appropriate political and timely context Conduct an in-depth literature review to identify opinions on the current themes related to this topic, and identify any gaps that may be filled by this research. Examine three pieces of legislation: The Climate Change Act 2008, the Code for Sustainable Homes, and the UK Low Carbon Transition Plan. Conduct primary research with British architects, aiming to find out how they choose products for green building projects. Identify the key factors that make a building product environmentally friendly. Examine the concept of embodied energy and how it relates to a products environmental impact over its full life cycle. Create comparisons showing how Kretes product, RoofKrete, measures up to its main competitors in the UK waterproofing membrane market.
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Discuss the implications of this projects findings for Krete Sustain Systems Ltd., and suggest how the company might use the findings of this project in a new marketing campaign.
Further discuss the future implications of this research for green building in the United Kingdom and globally.
Project Overview The topic of green building lies within the wider context of sustainable development and climate change, all of which are currently under intense discussion around the world. Many countries are now developing certain schemes, such as carbon credit trading, by which their governments hope to reduce the damaging effects of national economic activities on the environment. It is important therefore to first present some background to the green building topic, discussing the opinions of experts in the field in an attempt to provide support and justification for this project. This will be the main focus of the literature review section in Chapter 2.
Chapter 3 will examine three pieces of government legislation in detail: the Climate Change Act 2008, the UK Low Carbon Transition Plan, and the Code for Sustainable Homes. Chapter 4 will discuss the chosen research method and the alternatives that were considered. It will also present and discuss the results of primary research in the form of a questionnaire conducted with British architects. The aim is to build upon the knowledge gained from the literature study and the legislation analysis, and will enable identification of the main criteria that should be present for an environmentally friendly and sustainable building product. Chapter 5 will present a comparison of RoofKrete against waterproofing membranes manufactured by the main competitors in the UK. These products are sold not only in the UK but also all over the world. The most important sustainability factors were already identified
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in Chapter 5, and these shall be compared for each product along with the embodied energy levels. Chapter 6 will bring together the results of the whole study and discuss the implications for Krete Sustain Systems Ltd and the green building industry in general. It will also offer some recommendations for the company, which will be aimed at improving its economic performance. Chapter 7 will conclude the research project, discuss the answers to the original research questions, plus any new findings, and furthermore will suggest topics for further research in this field. The questionnaire shall be placed in the Appendices section.
2 - Literature Review
2.1 - Introduction Before starting to investigate any topic from a new perspective, it is important and enlightening to evaluate existing studies and opinions related to the key themes of the project. This literature review will first briefly introduce the concept of sustainability in a global context, highlighting the progress of attitudes from the early days of the Brundtland Report, to the recent government targets such as zero-carbon homes by 2016, and the role of the Code for Sustainable Homes. Then it will analyse further studies that deal with themes on which the rest of the research can be developed. The purpose of the literature review is firstly to build a
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foundation for the new research that will be carried out by this project and secondly to evaluate existing works to find out if any gaps are present that this research could further build upon. It is hoped that evidence will be found which not only points to the existence of significant and pressing issues, but also justifies the need for this projects existence.
Definitions At this early stage it will be helpful to clearly define three terms that will be used frequently throughout this research project.
Green is often used to refer to anything related to environmentalism, or to the state of being environmentally friendly. Green building, green politics, and green energy are commonly found examples.
Environmentally friendly is a synonym for green, and will be used throughout this research project as a more specific substitute for the former.
Sustainable is often incorrectly substituted for the former two terms. Specifically, to be sustainable means to have the capacity to endure (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary 2010).
Call to Action on Sustainability: The Brundtland Report Back in 1987, the Brundtland Report was a call to action that urged the entire world to work together on building a sustainable future (Brundtland, 1987). This comprehensive report on environmental issues showed how sustainability is a relatively recent concern, which only emerged properly during the latter half of the twentieth century. The Brundtland Report marked the start of a global shift towards environmental awareness. In particular, it recommended changes to international institutions and legal mechanisms, effectively calling
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for increased international action on issues of common concern (Brundtland, 1987). Perhaps most relevantly for this project, the report highlighted the need for increased co-operation with industry (Brundtland, 1987). Naturally, the Brundtland Report is a product of its time, and has been subjected to a number of criticisms, namely that some of its predictions failed to come true. Nevertheless, it has been highly influential in shaping global attitudes towards environmental issues and can therefore be considered a seminal document in the field. John Robinson supports one key message of the Brundtland Report, that sustainability must be an integrative concept, across fields, sectors and scales (Robinson, 2004, p.378). He acknowledges that since the publication of the Brundtland Report in 1987, further developments have suggested that it will not be easy to achieve this level of integration. More specifically, Robinson suggests that integration of sustainability must happen across all sectors, and to stand any chance of success, must involve the private sector, which is the chief engine of economic activity on the planet (Robinson, 2004, p.378). Robinson argues that governments alone do not have the will or the capability to accomplish sustainability on their own and that is why he identifies the importance of private sector co-operation. Still, a combined effort by government and the private sector is not sufficient for a successful sustainable future. Civil society must also be involved, meaning that people have to change their attitudes. We need a political constituency for change, a market for different products and consumption patterns, and social acceptance of both the public policy and the private sector actions needed to accomplish these goals, no fundamental changes in behaviour or practice are possible (Robinson, 2004, p.378). Many governments and NGOs are now zealously pursuing the goals described by Robinson. The UK has been especially active in implementing a political constituency for change by setting environmental targets. Additionally, the UK government has tried to present clearly defined pathways to guide the country towards the targets. Robinsons mention of a market for different products and consumption patterns (Robinson, 2004, p.378) directly refers to the need for a wider acceptance of environmentally friendly products, so that they soon become the norm. This is especially relevant within this projects area of study - the building industry.
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The Importance of Materials A large part of the literature focuses on the importance of using sustainable building materials, and one study in particular examines in detail the role of such materials in maintaining sustainable societies. Berge (2009) draws attention to L.P. Hedebergs Four Conditions to Achieve a Sustainable Society. Three of these conditions are directly relevant to the research questions of this project,
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Do not take more out of the crust of the Earth than can be replaced. This means that we should try to avoid the use of fossil fuels and mining, because materials extracted from beneath the Earths surface can only be renewed very slowly and in small quantities.
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Do not use man-made materials that take a long time to decompose. Many man-made materials, that have never been a part of the natural lifecycle, are very difficult for Nature to break down. For example, plastics can take many years to decompose.
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Use resources efficiently and correctly, stop being wasteful. When using materials to build with, accurate quantities should be used in order to avoid needless waste. This is also an important consideration during the material manufacturing process (Berge, 2009, p.xiv).
Berge questions the feasibility of a building technology that meets all of the above requirements emerging during our lifetimes (Berge, 2009). In addition to the three aspects mentioned above, there are many others that should be considered when sustainable buildings are created, for example, cost and longevity. Building materials play a huge role in sustainable construction, and have the potential to help societies reach a high level of sustainability. Berge highlights a number of other aspects worthy of consideration when thinking more deeply about green building. He summarises these as follows:
Work - Methods used to produce each building component. How production currently takes place and other ways which it can take place. Raw Materials - Occurrence of material resources, their nature, distribution and potential for recycling.
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Energy - The energy consumed when producing and transporting the materials, and their durability. Pollution - Pollution during production, use and demolition, the chemical footprint of each different material (Berge, 2009, p.xv).
It has now been established that identifying and using the correct building materials is an important element of sustainable building. Dorothy Chwieduk (2003) further expands on this by highlighting the importance of promotion of quality when designing a sustainable building strategy, in particular focusing on quality of materials (Chwieduk, 2003, p.216). Chwieduk discusses the value of using the Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) method to consider the energy and environmental effects of buildings, systems, elements and materials starting from the extraction through to production and use to the end-use (i.e. the disposal and/or recycling) (Chwieduk, 2003, p.216). Chwieduk specifically highlights the importance of embodied energy as a critical part of the LCA consideration. She goes on to point out that selection of materials should be performed with the least impact on the environment, taking the complete life cycle into account (Chwieduk, 2003, p.217). The themes introduced by Chwieduk: embodied energy, quality of materials, and full life cycle analysis, are further expanded upon in later studies that will be discussed during this review.
Embodied Energy and Full Life Cycle Analysis Embodied energy, as mentioned by in the previous study, is a very important part of the sustainable building analysis. Yohanis and Norton (2001) develop this idea further in their study of the life cycle operational and embodied energy for a generic office building in the UK. Firstly, they provide a useful definition of embodied energy as, the energy embodied in a building is that used to extract, manufacture and transport building materials and components (Yohanis & Norton, 2001, p.77). Secondly, they categorise energy use into operational energy (for running of the building) and embodied energy of building materials (Yohanis & Norton, 2001, p.78). The fact that buildings are becoming increasingly more efficient at using energy means that embodied energy is becoming a larger part of the total energy used over a
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buildings life cycle. Yohanis & Norton point out the problems involved in accurately measuring embodied energy, due to a lack of reliable and accurate data (Yohanis & Norton, 2001, p.77). However, this study is now nine years old, and since it was written the industry has devised more accurate methods of measuring embodied energy, such as can be referenced in Bjorn Berges book The Ecology of Building Materials (2009). The issue of life cycle analysis is again mentioned by Yohanis & Norton, who link it to the concept of embodied energy by arguing that recurring embodied energy should form a significant part of whole life cycle analysis (Yohanis & Norton, 2001). They also give illustrative estimates for the additional energy associated with replacement and repair over the lives of various buildings, which reinforces the point that this is an aspect that cannot be ignored. In conclusion, Yohanis & Norton suggest that the additional consideration of recurring embodied energy over the lifetime of a building further strengthens the case for proper design and selection of materials to reduce overall energy consumption in the construction industry (Yohanis & Norton, 2001, p.88). From the conclusions presented in this study, and also in the work of Chwieduk, it can be clearly seen that embodied energy of building materials is a topic meriting further investigation, and as such should form a major part of this research project. It seems that any method of assessing the greenness of buildings ought to take embodied energy of materials into account. The works of Chwieduk and Yohanis & Norton, while providing some enlightening perspectives on embodied energy, were both published long before the Code for Sustainable Homes (the Code) was introduced in the UK. The Code is the UKs universal system for rating the sustainability of domestic buildings. Examining a more recent study will be helpful to determine how embodied energy of materials might relate to the Code.
Potential Flaws in the Code for Sustainable Homes McManus, Gaterell and Coates (2009) produced a recent article arguing that the Code has some inherent flaws. McManus et al suggest that the Code may be unable to meet its targets for sustainable energy due to inconsistencies between the ways in which low and zero-carbon
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technologies are assessed, and how they behave in real-life situations (McManus, Gaterell & Coates, 2009). The paper concludes that further research and policy changes are needed to ensure that sustainable energy is delivered in the housing sector (McManus, Gaterell & Coates, 2009). In particular, the study mentions that reaching the highest level of the Code, zero-carbon, may be especially difficult due to a number of factors. The most relevant of these is failure to consider the full lifecycle of the technologies that are likely to be used (McManus, Gaterell & Coates, 2009, p.2017). The main emphasis of this study is that embodied energy will have a strong impact, which must be included in any attempt to develop a sustainable energy strategy. McManus et al suggest that it is vital to examine the full life cycles, including all maintenance requirements, for all technologies that will be included in zero-carbon homes (McManus, Gaterell & Coates, 2009, p.2017). This means that a construction product with low embodied energy levels would contribute to improving the overall energy efficiency of new buildings. A product of this sort may offer a significant advantage over other flat roofing materials if it can be proven to have the lowest embodied energy level over its full life cycle (McManus, Gaterell & Coates, 2009, p.2017).
Cost of Ownership and Full Life Cycle A further theme in the literature is cost, which will be especially relevant to architects when choosing which materials to specify. Cost in this context refers to the overall cost of ownership (Malin, 2000, p.410). In Malins article the author addresses the commonly held perception that environmentally preferable materials cost more and concludes that this does not need to be the case (Malin, 2000, p.408). He introduces the idea of life cycle costs, an idea that is especially relevant to this project and that relates to the literature already discussed. Malin offers a useful definition of the term environmentally preferable, which is synonymous with green and, broadly defined, can be any material that contributes to an optimally green building (Malin, 2000, p.409). More specifically, the author suggests that environmentally preferable can also refer to materials that have the best environmental performance over time (Malin, 2000). Malin also lists a number of criteria that are commonly looked for when identifying a building material as being green. These are as follows:
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recycled content, low embodied energy (reducing the pollution associated with energy used to make the product), and the use of minimally processed, natural raw materials (avoiding the toxic intermediaries and by-products of the petrochemical industry) (Malin, 2000, p.409). Malin argues strongly that although some green materials may at first be more costly than ordinary materials, they may enable the owner to recoup the initial costs over the life cycle of the building. This happens especially in the case of materials whose environmental benefits come from providing enhanced building performance (Malin, 2000). In summary, Malin makes two key points, firstly, that there is a strong relationship between cost and full life cycle. Secondly, materials that perform well and require less maintenance over the life cycle of a building will be more cost-effective in the long term (Malin, 2000). The literature that has been discussed so far strongly suggests that the research questions of this project are highly relevant and valid. It seems possible that the current green roofing products in the industry may not be as green as previously thought. This presents an opportunity for a new product to come into prominence. This product should meet all of the green criteria specified above by Malin, also have a long life cycle (possibly outlasting the building itself), and be comparable in cost to the leading roofing materials on the market (Malin, 2000). However, in the UK at least, the green building industry is regulated by legislation exists that attempts to regulate the types of materials that are used when creating environmentally friendly buildings. The Code for Sustainable Homes is a major area of environmental policy that is supported by the Green Guide to Specification, an environmental assessment method and comprehensive directory of green building products and systems.
Limitations of Existing Environmental Assessment Tools As already suggested by McManus et al in their 2009 study, the Code for Sustainable Homes may be flawed because it does not properly consider the full life cycles of the products involved in achieving zero-carbon housing. Grace Ding (2007) offers a further discussion of environmental assessment tools, examines their limitations and suggests a new approach. At the beginning, Ding admits that creating a single environmental assessment method is no
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easy task (Ding, 2007, p.451). She goes on to present an in-depth analysis of environmental assessment methods worldwide, a breadth that is beyond the scope of this project. However, it will be interesting to briefly examine some of the limitations that she discovers, to see whether they can be relevant to this analysis of the Code for Sustainable Homes. Ding identifies that the primary role of a building assessment method is to provide a comprehensive assessment of the environmental characteristics of a building using a common and verifiable set of criteria and targets for building owners and designers to achieve higher environmental standards (Ding, 2007, p.452). Ding goes on to suggest that, in general, existing environmental assessment methods are limited in a number of ways that reduce their effectiveness and usefulness (Ding, 2007). Ding suggests that the overall reason for these limitations is that we still do not clearly understand the interactions between building construction and the environment (Ding, 2007, p.452). Additionally, Ding argues that current assessment systems are too complex, that they involves large amounts of qualitative data that cannot be easily measured, and that financial aspects of building projects are not acknowledged in the evaluation framework. As a solution, Ding recommends that a multipledimensional model of project appraisal should be used (Ding, 2007, p.452). She refers to a previous study (Ding & Langston, 2002) that creates a sustainability index consisting of four main criteria (Maximise wealth, maximise utility, minimise resources and minimise impact). Minimise resources is particularly relevant to this project and refers to all inputs over the full life cycle expressed in terms of energy (embodied and operational) (Ding, 2007, p.460). Ding and Langston suggest that an environmental assessment method that used the four criteria in tandem with a weighting system would be helpful to greatly simplify the measurement of sustainable development (Ding, 2007, p.464) and make it easier to select optimum design solutions (Ding, 2007, p.464). The work of Ding presents some useful opinions supporting the research questions of this project and the views of the previous authors. There is now a clear consensus throughout the literature that the concept of embodied energy is extremely important. However, it seems that Dings work is a little simplistic, and possibly does not examine the many worldwide environmental assessment systems in adequate detail. Also, the paper was published in 2007, which was too early to include any references to the Code for Sustainable Homes.
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Zero Carbon Homes in 2016 The Code for Sustainable Homes is closely linked to the UK zero-carbon domestic homes target in 2016. Many UK builders agree that this is a challenging target with a range of diverse barriers that will make it more difficult to reach. However, the overall opinion is that the challenge is not impossible if certain conditions are met. Osmani and OReilly (2009) examined this topic further by conducting a series of questionnaires with major players in the UK building industry. Firstly, most of the respondents agree that the 2016 target is exceptionally demanding. Secondly they point out that there are numerous legislative, cultural, financial and technical barriers facing house builders to deliver zero-carbon homes in England by 2016 (Osmani & OReilly, 2009, p.1917). However, the same group of house builders did concur that the challenges are not completely insurmountable. They believed that if a swift, all-embracing and above all realistic strategy is adopted and implemented across the supply chain (Osmani & OReilly, 2009, p.1917) English house builders could successfully deliver the required zero-carbon homes by 2016. The respondents pointed out an issue with the perceived reliability of green construction technologies. Renewable and environmentally friendly methods are often seen as detrimental to profit, outside space and aesthetics (Osmani & OReilly, 2009, p.1919). However, it is unclear whether this includes building materials or refers to more visible technologies such as solar panels, which may indeed be problematic in the above-mentioned ways. Respondents also identified issues with cost, citing what they viewed as the higher perceived costs of sustainable building materials. At least as far as building materials are concerned, and supporting the issues already discussed in the work of Malin, this can be mitigated by paying attention to the full life cycle of products and not just the initial cost. A product that requires less maintenance over the lifecycle of the building will work out more cost-effective, especially if it also increased the performance of the building (Malin, 2000). 75% of respondents identified legislation as a barrier to achieving zero-carbon, stating that it was unclear (Osmani & OReilly, 2009, p.1920). Some respondents stated that if clarity was still lacking by the time the Code for Sustainable Homes became compulsory, they would
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prefer not to build zero-carbon homes but instead to absorb the extra cost of non-compliance fines.
Concluding Comments The literature examined in this review covered themes ranging from the broad to the specific. Firstly, clear definitions of sustainability and environmentally preferable were presented, which was helpful to provide further clarity. Several themes received a high degree of consensus throughout the entire body of literature, which strongly suggests that they are worthy of further investigation. These were as follows: the importance of considering the quality and full life cycle of building materials, the key role of embodied energy, and the possibility that current assessment tools may have certain limitations. This implies that there is a need to examine the quality and life cycle of building materials, specifically those designed for flat roofing applications. Also it will be important to consider the topic of embodied energy more thoroughly, and in light of the eventual findings, make some suggestions regarding the effectiveness of the current method of assessing green buildings (The Code for Sustainable Homes and BREs Green Guide to Specification).
3 Legislation Discussion
Introduction
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The methodology for this project will consist of three parts. Firstly, an examination of UK government policy, specifically The Climate Change Act 2008, The Low Carbon Transition Plan, and the Code for Sustainable Homes. The goal is firstly to identify which parts of the legislation can be relevant to RoofKrete, and secondly to identify the criteria for an environmentally friendly building product. Finally some predictions will be made regarding the effect of future developments in legislation on the business opportunities of Krete Sustain Systems Ltd. The second part of the methodology consists of a series of questionnaires sent to UK architects. This research tool will collect and assess their views on the CSH, the future of green flat roofing, and the importance of embodied energy. Finally, RoofKrete will be compared to its main competitors in the UK flat roofing market.
The Climate Change Act 2008 An Act to set a target for the year 2050 for the reduction of targeted greenhouse gas emissions; to provide for a system of carbon budgeting; to establish a Committee on Climate Change; to confer powers to establish trading schemes for the purpose of limiting greenhouse gas emissions or encouraging activities that reduce such emissions or remove greenhouse gas from the atmosphere; to make provision about adaptation to climate change; to confer powers to make schemes for providing financial incentives to produce less domestic waste and to recycle more of what is produced; to make provision about the collection of household waste; to confer powers to make provision about charging for single use carrier bags; to amend the provisions of the Energy Act 2004 about renewable transport fuel obligations; to make provision about carbon emissions reduction targets; to make other provision about climate change; and for connected purposes.
The target for 2050: (1) It is the duty of the Secretary of State to ensure that the net UK carbon account for the year 2050 is at least 80% lower than the 1990 baseline.
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(2) The 1990 baseline means the aggregate amount of (a) Net UK emissions of carbon dioxide for that year, and (b) Net UK emissions of each of the other targeted greenhouse gases for the year that is the base year for that gas. (The Climate Change Act, 2008) The text of the Climate Change Act 2008 shows that limiting greenhouse gas emissions will be important, as will recycling and the disposal of waste, and carbon reduction targets. The response to the Climate Change Act 2008 identifies how various industry sectors in the UK, and the general public, can work together to achieve this goal.
The UK Low Carbon Transition Plan This document is a response to the directions set out in the Climate Change Act 2008. It presents a detailed report of the UK governments plan for meeting national carbon reduction targets. Due to the passing of the Climate Change Act 2008, the UK is now the only country in the world to have legally binding carbon reduction targets. Specifically, the goal is to cut national carbon emissions by 34% by 2020, and at least 80% by 2050. This ambitious plan will require people to make major changes in how they live and work. The government plans to make extensive investments in green technology, such as renewable and efficient energy sources; nuclear, solar and wind power. The proposed changes will affect every area of society, so introduction must be carefully monitored and guided, and encouraged by use of incentives. To make the governments plan successful, people must become more educated in sustainability. For example, builders will learn to build in a way which saves energy (The UK Low Carbon Transition Plan, 2009). Using a sustainable waterproofing membrane on flat roofs and balconies will be one way to help achieve this. Greenhouse gas emissions from the UKs homes constitute 13% of the countrys overall total. Improvements on 2008 levels have already been made, but by 2050 all homes are expected to have reached an emission level of practically zero (The UK Low Carbon Transition Plan, 2009).
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Requiring new-build homes to be built to high environmental standards, reaching zero carbon homes from 2016 (The UK Low Carbon Transition Plan, Chapter 4, p.81). Progress towards the zero carbon standard will be made through progressive tightening of the Building Regulations. The Government recently set out proposals for the first step of 25% improvement in 2010 (The UK Low Carbon Transition Plan, Chapter 4, p.94). Building zero carbon homes will require substantial change on the part of house builders and their suppliers (The UK Low Carbon Transition Plan, Chapter 4, p.95). The government has started the change process well in advance in order to give the building industry enough time to adapt to the new frameworks and methods they need to start building in a way that is more environmentally friendly. The government has also defined a series of steps that will clearly guide along the path to achieving the regulatory challenges. The Low Carbon Transition Plan acknowledges that, The alternative to meeting our carbon budgets is not a low cost, high carbon future, but a high cost high carbon future (The UK Low Carbon Transition Plan, Chapter 4, p.99). It is clear that cost is an important concern for everyone involved in this transition. The government needs to offer a range of incentives to reward people for adapting to the changes, especially for those on lower incomes. The Transition Plan strongly states the governments commitment to help everyone achieve the goals, and explains that they will design carbon reduction policies to minimise costs, and offer subsidies where they are most needed. To be widely adopted and hence successful, this ambitious plan needs to be affordable for British people on all levels of the socio-economic scale. The Code for Sustainable Homes
Introduction The Code for Sustainable Homes (the Code) was introduced in April 2007 in England, and is a voluntary standard aimed at improving the overall sustainability of British homes. It aims to set a single clear framework where builders can construct homes to a higher environmental
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standard (Communities & Local Government). Mandatory Code ratings were introduced in May 2008, and now every new home must include a Code rating, although it is still possible to have a statement of non-assessment. (Communities & Local Government) In order to obtain a Code rating, houses are assessed by trained and licensed examiners who then award the building a rating of one to six, based on its overall performance against a set of nine environmental categories. The Code is closely linked to national building regulations, which are the minimum standards required by law. The Code has been set to exceed these standards, and hence provides an indication of the future direction of the house-building industry in regards to environmental issues. This section presents a more in-depth examination of Code categories, to decide which are more relevant to RoofKrete, and how they might affect the future choices that architects make.
Categories of the Code for Sustainable Homes Category 3 Materials part A Aim: to encourage the use of materials with lower environmental impacts over their lifecycle (CSH Technical Guide, 2007, p.89). The production, use and disposal of building materials constitute significant use of energy and resources both in the UK and abroad (Communities & Local Government, 2010). For flat roofing, the most highly relevant section of the Code is Category 3 (Materials), which is worth a significant amount of credits (15) and contains mandatory elements. In the listed criteria for category 3 part A, roof is one of the stated at least three of the five key elements that should achieve a relevant Green Guide rating of A+ to D (CSH Technical Guide, 2007, p.89). The Green Guide to Specification is a key part of the Code, and is the nationally recommended source of information for specifiers. The aim of the Green Guide is to aid specifiers in considering the environmental implications of their choices (CSH Technical Guide, 2007, p.89). The Green Guide uses a life cycle assessment method to measure the
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environmental impacts of building materials from cradle to grave. It rates materials and components on a scale from A+ to E, with products scoring A+ having the lowest impact on the environment. A+ scoring roofing products will be the most frequently chosen by architects wishing to specify roofing for a sustainable building. Category 3 Materials part B Aim: To recognise and encourage the specification of responsibly sourced materials for the basic building elements (Communities & Local Government, 2010). Responsible sourcing of materials is based on the fundamental principle of life cycle stewardship, which is at the heart of the Brundtland definition of sustainability as development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (Communities & Local Government, 2010). This statement in the Code means that, in future, specifiers need to consider the environmental impacts of using materials not just on the roof itself, but all the way from mining/harvesting to production through to disposal as waste. (Communities & Local Government, 2010). This is very significant for RoofKrete and its competitors, because the products that are proven the most sustainable are more likely to become the future market leaders in a sustainable build, low-carbon UK.
The Green Guide to Specification For the purposes of the Code for Sustainable Homes, the Green Guide from BRE is the definitive rating system for all possible materials that might be used on a new build. Currently, the highest scorers include materials such as bitumen, PVC and mastic asphalt. High scorers will naturally be first choice for architects who wish to specify materials for a low-carbon building. The fact that bitumen, PVC and mastic asphalt all score A+ in the Green Guide suggests that BRE have so far failed to properly acknowledge the concept of embodied energy in building materials. As Bjorn Berge pointed out only a year ago, this is quite a new
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perspective and it is not yet being recognised by the majority of todays decision makers (Berge, 2009, p.19). When decision makers finally do acknowledge the importance of full lifecycle embodied energy of materials, the Green Guide to Specification is likely to undergo some changes. These will be discussed in greater detail in a later chapter.
Concluding Comments From this examination of category 3 of the Code for Sustainable Homes, it is clear that two main aspects of building materials are the most important: low life cycle impact, and responsible sourcing of materials. The former refers to the embodied energy of a material over its complete life cycle (from cradle to grave), and the latter refers to the use of materials that are sustainable, and sourcing them using the least environmentally damaging means possible.
4 Primary Research
Introduction
Choice of research methodology

It was decided that primary research was required as opposed to purely studying the research of others, as this project is aiming to produce new perspectives on a current issue on which previous empirical studies seem rather limited. For the primary research, two different methods were considered before settling on the final choice. The advantages and drawbacks of in-person interviews and questionnaires were weighed up to assess their suitability for the project. In-person interviews have the advantage of being highly flexible and having greater clarity, because the researcher can ensure that the respondents fully understand each question
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by explaining it to them. In-person interviewing also helps build rapport, which is likely to encourage better responses. However, the respondents were widely dispersed around the country, and constraints of time and budget meant that interviews were finally discarded in favour of questionnaires conducted by email. It was anticipated that architects would be more likely to reply and cooperate with a less time-consuming research method. It was decided that a questionnaire sent and returned by email would be the most convenient way of collecting the required data. Questionnaires usually fall into the category of quantitative research methods, although the inclusion of qualitative open-ended questions is commonly done and allows respondents a chance to express their opinions more freely. The main drawbacks with qualitative research are greater ambiguity and difficulty in analysing the results, and the risk that the researcher will impose too much of their own bias on the results during analysis. It was decided to construct a questionnaire containing a mixture of open and closed-ended questions. The questionnaire was designed so that it could be completed in less than 10 minutes. This was deemed necessary to further encourage the respondents to give answers. It was important that each question should be worded in a clear and straightforward manner, in order to minimise the risk of ambiguity. The questions were prepared in collaboration with the managing director of Krete Sustain Systems Ltd, who had enough industry and product knowledge to help make sure that each question was clear enough to make sense to architects. The questionnaire consisted of 10 questions: 7 closed-ended and 3 open-ended. The closedended questions were included in order to gather an overall background picture of the respondents approach to green building, to find out which products they had specified in the past, which information sources they most frequently used, and which factors they considered most important for an environmentally friendly building material. For ease of analysis, the questions asked respondents to select from a list of answers, but also gave them the option to select other and specify their own response. This ensured that the research tool did not overly constrain respondents into a framework imposed by the researcher. The final questions in the survey were open-ended and allowed the respondents to give their opinion freely. It was considered that the small number of three open-ended questions would not be overly complex
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or time-consuming to analyse, but would add a useful angle to the research by giving respondents the chance to express their own opinions. Reliability and validity are important issues to consider when conducting empirical research. Reliability refers to the degree of consistency with which instances are assigned to the same category by different observers, or by the same observer on different occasions (Cano, 2010). Validity is the extent to which the research tool is appropriate for generating the data required. The target group of respondents were taken from a database of architects provided by Krete Sustain Systems Ltd. These architects had previously been in contact with the company and therefore it could be guaranteed that they already had a certain level of knowledge about sustainable building, which would enable them to give more meaningful responses. In the aim of receiving a reasonably sized sample, fifty surveys were sent out by email.
Presentation of Survey Results 15 respondents returned the survey.

Figure 1: Question 1 - Approximately what percentage of your previous projects has required you to specify sustainable building materials?
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Figure 2 Questions 2-5
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Figure 3: Question 6 - Which of the following information sources do you use when selecting building materials? (Please select all that apply)
Figure 4 - Question 7 Apart from embodied energy, which of the following factors do you consider to be important for sustainable building materials? (Please select all that apply)
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Figure 5: Question 9 Have you ever specified a green roof? If so, what type of material did you specify to be placed underneath it?
Discussion of Results Over half of the respondents had specified sustainable building materials for 50-100% of their previous projects. This indicates that this response group should be fairly knowledgeable about the topic and should be able to offer some insightful opinions. 75% of the respondents have previously heard of RoofKrete, although only one respondent had specified it. This could be as a result of recent increased marketing efforts by Krete Sustain Systems Ltd, or of informal discussions on green building online forums. All but one of the respondents had heard of embodied energy, and 8 people had specifically considered it when choosing materials for previous projects. The Green Guide to Specification from BREAAM was the most commonly used reference source, selected by 10 respondents. 2 respondents each identified the Green Book Live and the Green Building Bible. This result is not surprising, because the Green Guide is the standard national assessment method and information source, which is also closely linked to
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the Code for Sustainable Homes and other legislation. The Green Guide relates to one of this projects main research questions and the result of the primary research for this question helps to justify the focus of this project on the Green Guide.
A list of possible green criteria was provided in question 7, and respondents were asked to select all answers that were applicable. All 15 respondents identified durability as important. 14 and 13 respondents chose recyclability and reduced use of fossil fuels respectively. 12 respondents identified low life cycle cost, and 11 and 9 respectively chose local manufacture and low total install costs. For the category other, 5 respondents also stated that they would take into account the following factors: appearance, chain of custody information, carbon neutral, use of renewable resources, such as sand, and simplicity of use and of repair. The criteria included on the list were identified during the discussion in the literature review and consist of: durability, minimal maintenance, minimal impact on the environment, nonpolluting, zero harmful emissions, reusable/recyclable, low embodied energy, low use of petrochemicals, and local production. The fact that there are recurring similarities between the response data and the information found in the literature review suggests that these can be considered key factors for a building product to be identified as environmentally friendly or green. The overall view of the respondents support the opinions raised in the work of a number of researchers discussed in the literature review, such as Chdiewuk and Yohanis & Norton, who all state that it is important to consider embodied energy during the full life cycle when assessing the environmental impact of a building material. As shown in question 9, over half of the respondents have specified green roofs in the past. Green roofs are vegetated layers that sit on top of the conventional waterproofed roof surfaces of a building. They are popular because of their environmental benefits, which range from insulation and cooling properties, to the ability to provide a habitat for various types of flora and fauna (The Green Roof Centre, 2001). However, green roofs require the fitting of a waterproof base membrane underneath, and many of these membranes contain materials that may not be environmentally friendly. Respondents who answered yes to question 9 were
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asked to state which membrane they chose. The list was sorted into categories of: bitumen, single ply PVC/TPO, other petrochemical products, and copper based products. It has already been pointed out that none of these materials can be classed as sustainable or environmentally friendly, so the end result is that the finished green roof is actually less beneficial to the environment than it otherwise should be, or might be believed to be. It was noticeable when analysing the results that some respondents displayed scepticism regarding the Green Guide to Specification. Some respondents were confused about why a PVC single ply waterproofing membrane should be rated at the highest level of the Green Guide to Specification. One respondent stated that he avoided using the Green Guide for this exact reason. However, another respondent named PVC the best product for the job, but another commented that there does not yet seem to be anything else. This suggests that even though some architects may currently view PVC as the best product for the job, at the same time they are aware that from an environmental perspective it is far from perfect, and not even fit to be called environmentally friendly or sustainable. Another respondent points out that the Green Guide may not fully consider end of life options. Yet another respondent identifies some desirable features of PVC that may help to explain its high rating; long life (PVC membranes usually come with a 25 year manufacturers warranty), light, thin, easily shaped to fit any kind of roof, and easily repairable. This respondent concurs that the components of PVC may not be very green, but he believes that this disadvantage is mitigated by the small amounts used in manufacturing PVC single ply roofing membranes, and by the durability/life cycle-related benefits. None of the respondents made any comment that could imply they believed PVC should be classed as a genuinely environmentally friendly product, and those few respondents who did show evidence of supporting it seemed to do so simply because they believe it is the best product currently available, the lesser of the evils, as one architect commented. Some respondents were critical of PVC and other petrochemical products, and of the Green Guide to Specification itself, which further suggests that the Green Guide might not be a very effective method of assessing the environmental impact of materials.
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3 respondents pointed out that the Green Guide is not comprehensive enough, and that it could be improved by providing a comparison of materials against a recognised set of environmentally friendly criteria. This supports the work of Grace Ding (2007), who also suggested that environmental assessment methods should be more comprehensive. One respondent also suggested that an international agreement is needed on how to measure embodied energy and embodied carbon. 2 respondents were concerned about manufacturers influencing the Green Guide, and one suggested that it should become partially state-owned. One respondent stated that rating a toxic and non-recyclable product such as PVC as A+ in the Green Guide is contrary to advertising.
Concluding Comments A simple coding method was used to analyse open-ended questions 8 and 10a and 10b, which counted as qualitative responses and could not be easily presented in graph format. This was a way of identifying themes within the responses, and being able to clearly spot the main issues that the respondents had raised. However, the nature of this coding technique means that the researcher has to fit answers into a set of categories, which may cause a loss of the respondents true meaning. The main limitation of this research tool was the small size of the sample. With only 15 respondents, it is difficult to make any generalisations based on the results, and there is a need to be cautious. However, the results can be said to offer some indication of attitudes within a small snapshot of the industry. Although some respondents have no strong objection to the Green Guide, many others suggest that it has certain flaws and they are uncertain why petro-chemical products should be rated at the top level. This sets the scene for the next chapter, where six waterproof membrane products will be compared in terms of the previously discussed environmentally friendly criteria. It was not expected that the results of the questionnaire would give outright answers to the research questions, and this is especially the case with such a small group of respondents. However, the responses have served to provide useful guidance that will help with the next
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step of the project. The respondents opinions about the environmentally friendly factors have indicated that RoofKrete could be in a good position to perform well in the comparison exercise. The majority of respondents in the sample already knew about the concept of embodied energy, and over half of them had already considered this in their previous projects. This indicates that architects already acknowledge the concept of embodied energy as important. Finally, there is some uncertainty amongst the respondents about the usefulness of the Green Guide to Specification, partly because some respondents have noticed the inconsistencies within it, especially in relation to PVC products. It was suggested that the Green Guide is too limited with its product range and should be expanded to include a much greater variety of products, including a list of all their sustainable characteristics. A suggestion was made about having an international agreement on how to measure embodied energy and embodied carbon, which could be an opportunity for future research.
5 - Competitor Comparison
Introduction Krete Sustain Systems is a small to medium sized company, and has a variety of major competitors in the UK. Each of these companies offers a wide range of construction products, and together they occupy a large proportion of the UK and international market share. For the purpose of this comparison, the focus is on products that directly compete with RoofKrete. Specifically, these are waterproof membrane systems that can be used on flat roofs and balconies, and as a waterproof base layer under green roofs.
The Use of Plastics in Building Three of the six manufacturers discussed here use plastics as the main component of their waterproof membrane products, commonly used for flat roofs and balconies. All these
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products are rated A+ in the Green Guide to Specification. This compels a more detailed examination of plastics in general, and of the specific components of each waterproof membrane product. To begin with, plastics are divided into two categories, thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics. Thermoplastics leave the factory complete, but require the application of heat and pressure to become malleable enough to be worked and cut as required by most building needs. PVC (polyvinylchloride) is one commonly used example of a thermoplastic. Thermosetting plastics are slightly different, in that they do not leave the factory complete, but are completed by secondary companies or at the building site where they are combined with hardening products. Polyurethane is one example of a thermoplastic that is commonly used in flat roofing (Berge, 2009). Plastics are created by the extraction and refinement of crude oil and natural gas. These processes should immediately raise a red flag, because it is commonly known that global supplies of fossil fuels are quickly declining. It would be difficult to understand how any product that relies on fossil fuels for its production can be called sustainable. In addition, plastics emit a large amount of various damaging substances during production and use, and also when they are disposed of. Most importantly, Berge points out that plastics emit large amounts of greenhouse gases during the production process. The process also consumes very high levels of energy (Berge, 2009, p.148). In short, it seems unlikely that building products consisting mainly of plastics can be genuinely classed as environmentally friendly or sustainable.
Comparison of RoofKrete with five international waterproofing membrane systems 1. Sarnafil Products: PVC Single Ply and TPO Single Ply waterproofing membranes Green Guide rating: A+ Embodied Energy: Ranging from 48.2 MJ/kg to 71.5 MJ/kg
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Sarnafil is currently the leading supplier of single ply PVC and TPO waterproofing membranes in the UK, and also distributes its products worldwide in over 40 countries. The single-ply membranes can be classed into two categories according to their main components, PVC (polyvinylchloride) and TPO (thermoplastic olefin, also known as FPO, or flexible polyolefin). Both are thermoplastics, meaning that pressure and heat is required to make them malleable enough to be applied to the roofing deck. PVC is one of the earliest plastics, discovered in 1838 and first produced commercially 100 years later (Berge, 2009, p.148). It is produced by a polymerisation of vinyl chloride, which itself is composed of 51% chlorine and 43% ethylene. Many additives are often used in production of PVC, and these include constituents that are damaging for the environment, such as phthalates. PVC production plants emit large quantities of harmful gases into their air, and workers may also be exposed to toxic substances during the production process. PVC is also problematic to dispose of, as it contains environmentally dangerous substances that can emerge when PVC waste is burnt or exposed to solar radiation. Additionally, it decomposes extremely slowly (Berge, 2009, p.153). Denison and Halligan support Berges observations by pointing out that PVC is one of the most controversial types of plastics, because of its hazardous ingredients and by-products (Denison & Halligan, 2010, p. 59).. These byproducts include dioxin, which is a potent carcinogen with no known safe dose (Denison & Halligan, 2010, p. 59). All of the above-mentioned factors indicate that there are inherent inconsistencies between the concept of an environmentally friendly building material, and the ingredients, production processes, and associated by-products of PVC. Thornton (2002) goes even further to support the views of Berge and Denison & Halligan in his detailed report for the University of Oregon focusing on PVC building products. He states that PVC is the antithesis of a green building material, calls it one of the most environmentally hazardous consumer materials ever produced, and strongly suggests that the phasing out of PVC in favour of safer alternatives should be a high priority (Thornton, 2002, p. xvii). Durability is another important issue that influences architects decisions when specifying appropriate building materials, especially for a sustainable building. Plastics are susceptible to many external factors, such as heat, cold, wind and ultra-violet light. This means that plastic
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building products will have an unpredictable lifespan. When plastic roofing materials are used, it is subsequently quite difficult, time-consuming and expensive to replace them. This suggests that they ought to have a long lifespan of at least 50 years, comparable with other materials used in the same building (Berge, 2009, p.154). Sarnafil quote both their PVC and TPO flat roofing membranes as having a lifespan of 20 years (Sarnafil, 2010). Recycling of building materials is another important issue in sustainability. Plastics have a relatively short lifespan, especially on a roof where they will be easily exposed to many of the climate factors that cause them to degrade. Despite this short lifespan, plastics also take a long time to decompose. Melting down can be used to recycle some types of plastics, including PVC. However, reclaiming the original material is difficult because the use of additives makes most plastics impure. Thornton points out that even in Europe, which recycles more PVC than the United States, only around 3% of PVC is recycled (Thornton, 2002). In general, the likelihood of successful recycling large quantities of plastic roofing materials does not appear to be very high. 2. Firestone Product: Rubbergard EPDM rubber sheet roofing membrane Green Guide rating: A+ Embodied Energy: 120.0 MJ/kg EPDM stands for ethylene propylene rubber, and is part of the family of thermosetting plastics. The manufacturer, Firestone, describes it as a single ply synthetic rubber roofing membrane made of ethylene - propylene - diene terpolymer, mixed with carbon black, oils, curing agents and processing aids (Firestone, 2010). Firestone also makes three sustainability-related claims about Rubbergard. Superior durability and longevity is the first, and Firestone claim that the worlds first Rubbergard roof proves this. This roof was laid in 1980 and according to Firestone, is still performing well today. Secondly, Firestone says that Rubbergard requires little or no maintenance and because of this has a very low lifecycle cost. Finally, Firestone state that Rubbergard is an environmentally friendly inert material with limited environmental impact during manufacture and use (Firestone, 2010). However,
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Denison & Halligan offer an argument that contradicts Firestones claims. The former say that, while natural rubber is very environmentally friendly, synthetic rubber products such as EPDM are not the same. Just as with many other petro-chemical derived building products, EPDM is subject to high levels of embodied energy and emissions of harmful chemicals during the production process (Denison & Halligan, 2010). 3. Icopal Ltd Product: Bitumen Waterproofing Membranes Green Guide rating: A+ Embodied Energy: 75.0 MJ/kg Icopal Ltd is the UK market leader in bitumen waterproofing membranes, but is also a global company that distributes its product range in over 46 countries. Bitumen is a widely used waterproof membrane material that is made from the end product of the crude oil refining process, after petrol and diesel have been produced (Denison & Halligan, 2010). With this in mind, it seems that bitumen cannot be classed as a sustainable building material, as it comes directly from a natural resources (oil) that is rapidly diminishing on this planet. Additionally, the production of bitumen is energy-intensive and causes substantial pollution, although not as much as plastics. A bitumen membrane must be heated in order to apply it to a roofing deck, and the process of heating causes the bitumen to emit dangerous fumes. These fumes can also be released when the bitumen is exposed to sunlight. In this case there is also a risk of the fumes being released into the building. Bitumen membranes are often used on roofs due to their highly waterproof qualities, but unprotected bitumen membranes are not especially durable, because they are susceptible to damage caused by damp, sunlight and fluctuating temperatures. However, bitumen can be very durable when protected from these conditions (Berge, 2009). When bitumen is used as a waterproofing membrane it is generally combined with plastics or rubbers. Thie presence of these additional substances causes difficulties in recycling the bitumen membranes at the end of their lives. However, it is worth mentioning a Dutch company called Esha Waterproofing, which has been a pioneer in the recycling of bitumen waterproofing membranes, by extracting the bitumen content and producing new membranes that contain 44% recycled material (Denison & Halligan, 2010).
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4. Ruberoid Product: Mastic Asphalt Roofing Green Guide rating: A+ Embodied Energy: Unavailable Due to limited information available on the Ruberoid website, the companys technical department was contacted. They stated that Ruberoid does not advertise mastic asphalt as a green or sustainable product and that there are no embodied energy figures available. They estimated that embodied energy levels for mastic asphalt would be very high and therefore they advised that mastic asphalt would be unsuitable for use on an environmentally friendly low-carbon building. However, mastic asphalt is still rated as an A+ material for flat roofs in the Green Guide to Specification, which means that mastic asphalt is worthy of a closer examination to find out why this might be the case. Mastic asphalt is very similar to bitumen, and comes from the same crude oil base although it is found naturally occurring in lakes on the earths surface (Denison & Halligan, 2010). It is a thermoplastic substance, and differs from asphalt concrete (as used on road surfaces) by containing a greater proportion of bitumen. Mastic asphalt requires heating to over 210 degrees centigrade before it is applied to the roof surface. In the same way as bitumen, this process will produce toxic fumes, and the extra use of energy to make the heat will further increase the total embodied energy of the mastic asphalt roof (Berge, 2009). These factors support the opinions of the Ruberoid technical staff, however do not explain why asphalt would be rated as an A+ environmentally friendly material in the Green Guide.
5. Liquid Plastics Product: Decothane (seamless liquid roof membrane) Green Guide rating: A+ (if laid over timber deck), D (if laid over concrete)
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Embodied Energy: 105 MJ/kg Liquid Plastics is the UK market leader in liquid waterproofing membranes, and also distributes products all over Europe and North America. The brand leader of the company is a product called Decothane, which is made from a type of thermosetting plastic called polyurethane (Liquid Plastics, 2010). Polyurethane has a base of isocyanates, meaning that Decothane is another contributor to the plastics-related environmental problems already discussed at the beginning of this chapter, such as the emission of greenhouse gases and high levels of embodied energy during production. Additionally, polyurethane production involves the highly toxic substance phosgene, which became notorious as a result of the Bhopal disaster at the Union Carbide plant in India, 1984 (Greenpeace, 2010) Exposure to isocyanates is also considered to be a major cause of asthma among workers in the production plants (Bekke, 2000 in Berge, 2009, p.152). Like all plastics, polyurethane also takes a long time to decompose, and can produce environmentally harmful substances when it becomes a waste product (Berge, 2009). 6. Krete Sustain Systems Ltd Product: RoofKrete System 4 Green Guide rating: Not rated yet Embodied Energy: 600 kWh/m3 (1.1 MJ/kg) RoofKrete consists of sand and cement. Sand is classed as a soil material (Berge, 2009, p.119), one of a variety of fine-particled materials that originally came from minerals or from organic, decomposed animal or plant sources. Seen within the larger life cycle, these products are in a state of continuous degradation and regeneration, and have been used for building purposes throughout history (Berge, 2009, p.119). Sand is a plentiful global resource, available locally in many countries, and sand can be easily recycled. The extraction of sand, like many other soil materials, requires very low amounts of energy, which helps keep the total embodied energy of RoofKrete at a low level (Krete Sustain Systems, 2010).
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Cement consists of mineral binders in powder form, that turn solid when mixed with water. Portland cement is mainly composed of limestone and is the most widely used in the building industry today, including as one of the ingredients in RoofKrete, although there are many different kinds of cement in existence (Berge, 2009). There is a contradiction inherent in cement, because it is widely known as a building product with a high carbon emission during production, yet at the same time concrete (made from cement) is widely used in the construction of low-energy buildings (Denison and Halligan, 2010). This is due to concretes distinctive ability to absorb heat and act as a climate modifier for passive construction buildings. Despite the problematic cement production process, there is ongoing research and development aimed at reducing the environmental impact of cement, and progress has already been made. When producing concrete, traditional cement can now be partly replaced with a number of alternative ingredients, such as fly ash (a recycled product). This has some positive implications for RoofKrete, which will be addressed in more detail in the final chapters.
Cement Products and Pollution The production of Portland cement has some harmful effects on the environment. The cement is produced in kilns that require energy usually sourced from fossil fuels. In this respect, the emissions and pollution levels are comparable to those of other uses of fossil fuels (Berge, 2009). The raw materials used to produce Portland cement also emit large amounts of carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide. It is also possible for Portland cement to cause skin allergies, and the dust in particular has been cited in the past as a significant problem. Cement products are relatively inert and harmless when disposed of, unlike plastics (Berge, 2009).
Application of RoofKrete RoofKrete does not need heat to be applied onto the roofing deck. The galvanised steel mesh is shaped over the deck and fixed into place with metal staples. The cement and sand mixture is combined with water and then applied onto the mesh with a trowel. In this respect applying RoofKrete can be compared to laying a cement floor, although it is much thinner (5mm
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average), and is a relatively clean and straightforward procedure (Krete Sustain Systems Ltd, 2010).
Concluding Comments After examining the various waterproof membrane components more closely, a number of interesting conclusions can be drawn. Firstly, all six products require a certain amount of energy in their production stages, or in production of their component parts. There are a number of reasons why plastics, which represent three of the membrane products discussed, may have dubious green credentials. Plastics are created from fossil fuel products, which are in limited supply on the planet. Once the existing supplies of oil and natural gas have been exhausted, there will be no more available. Due to this, plastic-based building products cannot be called sustainable, and waterproofing membranes made from Decothane, Rubbergard, or either of Sarnafils single ply membranes (PVC and TPO) are not the most suitable choices to incorporate into the fabric of a low-carbon green building. To further strengthen this argument, it can also be noted that plastic-based roofing membranes fall seriously short in terms of embodied energy, durability, recyclability and non-toxicity. Bitumen and mastic asphalt are closely related in terms of base materials, and both come from crude oil, a fossil fuel that is rapidly declining. The production of bitumen causes a great deal of pollution and requires large amounts of energy. Application of both products as waterproofing membranes onto a flat roof requires very high levels of heat, which expends more energy in addition to producing potentially toxic fumes. The components of RoofKrete are not entirely free of the potential to cause environmental damage. Sand is environmentally friendly and sustainable, but cement requires considerable amounts of energy during its production processes. These processes also emit a number of toxic and polluting substances. However, it is important to note that RoofKrete membranes are only 5mm thick on average, which reduces the amount of product required for each
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building application. Commonly used cement based construction products are usually much thicker than RoofKrete. In conclusion, all six of the waterproof membrane products are associated with some ingredients or processes that are harmful to the environment, whether during production, application or disposal. To attempt to calculate empirically exactly which one is the most harmful would be time-consuming and beyond the scope of this project. Embodied energy is still a crucial factor to consider, and it is likely that a comparison of embodied energy levels throughout the full lifecycles of these waterproof membranes will clearly show which products are the most environmentally friendly and sustainable.
Embodied Energy Introduction
Embodied energy is the sum of all the energy used in extraction, manufacture, transportation of the product to the site, and the application of the product to the building. It can also include the energy used in disposing of a product at the end of its useful life (Denison & Halligan, 2010, p.9). The less energy used in carrying out all these processes, the lower the embodied energy of the product. It is important to be aware, as pointed out by Denison and Halligan, that the measuring of embodied energy is still a relatively new field, and therefore embodied energy figures can be misleading and open to varied interpretations. To improve consistency when comparing the embodied energy of building products, Denison & Halligan recommend using figures from a single source as a tool for comparison (Denison & Halligan, 2010, p.9). This advice will be followed during this comparison exercise, where the main focus will be on embodied energy figures taken from the University of Baths Inventory of Carbon and Energy (ICE). This study was carried out in 2008 by Geoff Hammond and Craig Jones, and based on Cradle to Gate analyses of publicly available information, and which is frequently referenced in literature that discusses sustainable construction in the UK.
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There are three boundary frames that can be used when referring to embodied energy. These refer to different stages of the full life cycle of a product:
Cradle to Gate transport from manufacturing site to factory gate. This is the most commonly used boundary frame at the moment. Cradle to Site also includes energy used in transporting the finished product from the factory gate to the site where it will be used. Cradle to Grave includes energy used from the beginning of the product life through to the disposal at the end.
The durability and recyclability of a product is an important concern when assessing embodied energy. Denison & Halligan point out that it may sometimes be better to use products with high embodied energy that will last for the lifetime of the building, rather than choosing those with lower embodied energy and lower life spans, or need frequent maintenance (Denison & Halligan, 2010, p.9). This suggests that the ideal building product is one that has not only a low embodied energy level, but that is also highly durable and easy to recycle. The building industry is one of the worlds largest consumers of energy, accounting for approximately 40% of all energy used in society (Berge, 2009 p.19). In a conventional building, the energy required for manufacture, maintenance and renewal of the materials could range from 2000 to 6000 MJ/m2 (Gielen, 1997; Thormark, 2007 in Berge, 2009, p.19). This wide range is due to the use of many varying types of materials within the average building. For example, a building made entirely from timber would require much less energy than one made from concrete. This suggests that the issue of choosing materials is important when the aim is to create a truly green building, and possibly as important as the consideration of operating energy. However, Berge suggests that the former concept is still relatively new and less likely to be recognised as a key factor by decision makers (Berge, 2009, p.19). The embodied energy of a product is measured all the way from cradle to grave. The starting point is usually to measure the energy used to manufacture the product, including the mining or harvesting of all raw material components. Energy used in all other stages of processing is then measured, as is the energy used in transporting the finished product from the factory gate to the customer. The embodied energy of materials forms 85-95% of the total
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energy input in the production of a building. The total amount can be split into three categories: 1. Direct energy consumption used in extraction of raw materials and the production process, 2. Secondary energy consumption in the manufacturing process energy used within the factory, 3. Transport-related energy transport of raw materials, and getting the final product to the customer (Berge, 2009, p.19).
Reducing Energy Consumption in the Building Industry There are a number of possible ways to reduce the general energy consumption when constructing a building. Among those relevant to this study are the following:
Decentralised production Products are made close to the site where they will be used. This reduces energy costs of transport. There is also the option to use locally sourced materials, once again helping to keep energy costs low.
Use of low energy products The choice of suitable building products can reduce embodied energy by 15 20%, as shown in a study by Thormark (Thormark, 2007 in Berge, 2009, p.19).
Ability to recycle building materials If materials can be recycled locally, then a great deal of embodied energy can be recouped.
Table 1: Comparison of weights and embodied energy for commonly used building materials Material Concrete with Portland cement Bitumen Bitumen Sheeting Polyethylene (PE) Polypropylene (PP) Polyvinylchloride (PVC) Weight (kg/m2) 2400 1000 1300 940 940 1380 Embodied Energy (MJ/kg) 1.5 50 40 110 115 85
The above data was taken from a larger table compiled by Berge (2009) from a number of sources including Jochem et al, 2004; Muehlethaler et al, 2006 and Hammond et al, 2006
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Table 2: Comparison of embodied energy and embodied carbon Material Asphalt Bitumen Cement (general) Polyurethane Polyethylene (e.g. Sarna single ply) Polypropylene (PP) PVC (general) Synthetic Rubber (e.g. EPDM) Sand (General) Embodied Energy (MJ/kg) 2.60 47 4.6 72.10 110.00 115.00 77.20 120.00 0.10 Embodied Carbon (kgCO2/kg) 0.045 0.48 0.83 3.00 unknown unknown 2.41 4.02 0.005
Figures taken from a study published by the University of Bath Sustainable Energy Research Team (SERT), based on Cradle to Gate analysis of publicly available information. The survey is called Inventory of Carbon and Energy (ICE) and was written by Geoff Hammond and Craig Jones, 2008. Available from: www.bath.ac.uk/mecheng/sert/embodied/
Embodied Energy Comparison by Product

Table 3: Embodied energy comparison by product
Company Sarnafil Firestone
Product PVC & TPO Single Ply Rubbergard EPDM rubber sheet roofing membrane Bitumen Roofing Membrane Mastic Asphalt Decothane (seamless liquid roofing membrane) RoofKrete
Country of Production Switzerland USA
Green Guide Rating A+ A+
Embodied Energy From 48.2 MJ/kg to 71.5 MJ/kg 120.0 MJ/kg
Icopal Ltd Ruberoid Liquid Plastics
UK UK USA & UK
A+ A+ A+ (if laid over timber deck) D (if laid over concrete) Not yet rated
75.0 MJ/kg Unavailable 105 MJ/kg
Krete Sustain
UK
1.1 MJ/kg
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Systems Ltd
Data assembled from information retrieved from the Sarnafil website, http://www.sarnafil.co.uk//embodied_energy, and the Green Guide to Specification
It can immediately be noted that the embodied energy of RoofKrete is far lower than any of the other products, measuring 1.1 MJ/kg against the lowest of the competitors (Sarnafil TPO Single Ply), which measures 48.2 MJ/kg. Embodied energy is currently measured only in terms of production and transport to factory gate (Cradle to Gate). However, if the full lifecycle of the building material (Cradle to Grave) is being considered, there are a number of other factors that will affect the amount of embodied energy. It appears that these following factors are not currently being considered by the industry when designing systems for assessing the green credentials and sustainability of building materials. In addition to Cradle to Gate, there are three other major areas where embodied energy needs to be measured and taken into account. These were briefly mentioned at the beginning of the chapter as the boundary frames identified by Denison & Halligan, and will now be discussed in further detail.
Embodied Energy of Transport (to UK) Cradle to Site Building materials need to be transported from their place of manufacture to their place of use. Many materials are produced at sites outside the UK. Therefore, they will probably have a long distance to travel before they arrive at their final destination. Any form of transportation uses considerable energy and certainly should be included when measuring the embodied energy of any product. For the purpose of this comparison, it is important now to find out firstly, where each roofing material is produced, and secondly, how much energy is used during its cradle to site stage, i.e., transporting it from factory site to the UK. Sarnafil manufactures its PVC and TPO products in Switzerland, Firestone makes EPDM in the USA, and Liquid Plastics produces Decothane in the USA. As Switzerland is the nearest to the UK, it is logical to measure the embodied energy of transport from Zurich to London, for the sake of comparison.
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The distance from Zurich to London is approximately 780 kilometres (480 miles). The embodied energy of transport (by road) is approximately 2 MJ/ton/km (Berge, 2009). Therefore, for products being transported to the UK from Switzerland; the embodied energy per ton (per pallet of Single Ply material) will be 1600 MJ/ pallet. The other products will have even higher levels of embodied energy of transport, as they come from locations further afield. On the other hand, a product that is manufactured in the UK and used locally in the UK market will achieve far lower levels of embodied energy for transport. This gives locally produced products a distinct advantage when considering the full amount of embodied energy over the life cycle of a building material.
Embodied Energy of Application Energy expended during the application of the roofing material to the roofing deck is another part of the full life cycle that is often overlooked in most embodied energy analyses. The method used to fix the material to the roof varies depending on which type of material is being used. The application process adds a high amount of embodied energy to all of the waterproofing membrane systems examined in this comparison. For PVC and TPO there are two alternative application methods. 1. Full bond adhesive, used approximately 50% of the time. This is often used to stop wind uplift on high buildings or in areas of the country where buildings are subject to frequent strong winds. The adhesive is made from polyurethane, and it usually requires approximately 2kg/m2 of weight to fix the membrane onto the roof. Polyurethane has a higher embodied energy rating than either PVC or TPO, so the use of this adhesive would further increase the total lifecycle embodied energy of a PVC or TPO membrane. 2. Mechanical fixing, which is used approximately 50 % of the time, is an alternative method for fixing PVC and TPO membranes. This involves bolting the membrane onto the roofing deck using steel fixing plates. The embodied energy of this process has not yet been measured. EPDM membranes are also fixed using the previously mentioned two methods, but by far the most common choice is the full bond adhesive, which
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is used on approximately 90% of EPDM flat roofs (R. Jenkins, personal communication, June 27, 2010). Bitumen and mastic asphalt, which are closely related products, both require the use of intense heat to apply them onto the roofing deck. Bitumen is commonly applied using the Pour and Roll method, involving pouring boiling bitumen onto the deck and embedding the bitumen membrane into it. Alternatively bitumen can be applied with a propane gas powered torch, which required temperatures of around 500 degrees Celsius and the use of a large propane gas bottle. Mastic asphalt requires use of similar heat-based fixing methods. The precise embodied energy for these fixing methods has not yet been measured, and doing so is beyond the scope of this project. However, it can be clearly seen from the above description that fixing methods requiring heat and fixing methods that use polyurethane containing products, must have quite high levels of associated embodied energy. It can be safely concluded that a flat roofing product that can be fixed onto the roofing deck without the use of either of the above-described methods, should be a better choice in terms of overall embodied energy levels. RoofKrete is fixed onto the deck by first applying three layers of thin galvanised steel mesh, which is held in place with metal staples. RoofKrete is then mixed with water and applied on top of the mesh with a trowel. Just as with the other products, the embodied energy of the RoofKrete fixing process has not yet been properly measured. However, because it does not require the use of heat methods, or polyurethane derived adhesive products, it can be suggested that RoofKrete carries a lower embodied energy for application compared to its main competitors. Although the production of steel can be harmful to the environment, the small amounts used for the application of RoofKrete (1mm diameter wire, weighing 0.7 kg/m2, with three layers used on a RoofKrete roof) mean that the amount of environmental impact directly traceable to RoofKrete itself is still minimal (R. Jenkins, personal communication, July 16, 2010). As a final point regarding application, most flat roofing systems will require re-fixing or complete renewal after 15-20 years of life. This issue of durability again requires more use of energy. RoofKrete has been proven to outlast the life of a building (potentially 75+ years of life). This is yet another factor suggesting that its total life
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cycle embodied energy may be considerably lower than the other waterproof membrane products in this comparison exercise.
Embodied Energy of Disposal As part of a full Life Cycle Analysis, it is also necessary to consider what happens to the product in question when it reaches the end of its life. Deciding on the most suitable method of product disposal is an important part of sustainability and of course, as much of the product as possible should be recycled. Products made from petrochemicals, such as PVC and TPO roofing membranes, Decothane, EPDM rubber membrane, bitumen and mastic asphalt, can often present problems when they reach the end of their functional lifespan. It is possible to recycle production waste, and end-of-life petrochemical products in small quantities, but handling large amounts every day can be more challenging. In contrast, sand-and-cement RoofKrete can easily be recycled, both when it is production waste or when it reaches the end of its useful life on a roof. It can simply be ground up and used in road building.
Concluding Comments Embodied energy is a relatively new consideration with regards to green building, and as suggested by Berge (2009), one that might not yet be fully recognised by decision makers. To get an accurate level of embodied energy for a product, it should be tracked and the energy consumption should be measured all the way from cradle to grave. This includes the following stages: cradle to gate (energy used for manufacturing process and to transport product to factory gate), cradle to site (transport from factory gate to place of use), application methods, and disposal methods. Berge suggests three ways to reduce the embodied energy of building: local production (producing the materials close to the site where they will, be applied to the building), use of low embodied energy materials, and ensuring that the materials can be recycled locally (Berge, 2009). Embodied energy data assembled by the University of Bath and Berge shows that concrete made with Portland cement has an
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embodied energy level that is a fraction of other materials, especially those that are petrochemical-based.
In the product comparison, it can be noted that RoofKrete has the lowest embodied energy because its largest ingredient is sand. It also appears that the currently used measures of embodied energy fail to consider the three stages mentioned above: transport, application and disposal. For transport, Switzerland (where Sarnafil products are manufactured) was used as a comparison point, and it was found that transporting products from Zurich to London adds approximately 1600 MJ/pallet of embodied energy. Therefore products that can be manufactured locally, using locally found ingredients, will have a distinct advantage in this area. Application is another area where all flat roofing materials will find a large increase in embodied energy. The process of fixing roofing membranes onto the roofing deck requires methods that expend large amounts of energy, either through use of extreme heat, adhesives containing more petrochemicals, or the addition of extra component parts made from steel. The lifespan of roofing materials on the building is another important factor that is linked to embodied energy of application. A product that needs to be reapplied during its lifetime on the building will increase its total embodied energy even further. Once again, products that can be fitted and forgotten for the lifetime of the building will have a distinct performance advantage in terms of embodied energy of application. It can be seen that RoofKrete performs well in this comparison, because it does not require heat or adhesives for application, and does not need to be reapplied during the lifetime of the building. Finally, the products were considered at the end of their lifecycle, where recycling would be the most environmentally friendly scenario. Petrochemical products have short life spans and are difficult to recycle in large amounts, as would be required when disposing of roofing membranes. RoofKrete has an advantage in this area, because not only does it have a much longer lifespan, but also it can easily be recycled and used in other applications. When considering the embodied energy performance of the six products, it now seems clear that RoofKrete is the most environmentally friendly in categories of cradle to gate, transport, application and disposal. When considering these categories as stages of a full life cycle, it
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can be suggested that out of the six products discussed, RoofKrete has the lowest embodied energy from cradle to grave.
6 - Discussion
The findings from this study have presented some interesting discrepancies so far. On one hand the Code for Sustainable Homes states clearly that embodied energy and the environmental impact of building materials are both vital considerations when specifying materials for sustainable buildings. Most of the architects who responded to the surveys also support this view. However, when examining the flat roofing section of the Green Guide to Specification (which is used by specifiers to select materials for building according to the Code), one finds a number of glaring inconsistencies. A+ is the highest level of the Green Guide. Products rated A+ are the most environmentally friendly in their category. The roofing products examined earlier in this study (PVC/TPO single ply, EPDM rubber, bitumen, mastic asphalt and Decothane liquid roofing) are all rated A+ in the Green Guide. As already discussed in detail, all of these products come from non-sustainable petro-chemical source materials, produce toxic substances at certain points of their lifecycles, are relatively difficult to recycle, and carry high levels of embodied energy. The latter factor comes from a consideration of the energy expended over the entire lifecycle of each product, not just from cradle to factory gate. Embodied energy of transport refers to the energy used in transporting a product from the factory gate to its place of application. With the exception of bitumen and mastic asphalt, which are both produced in the UK by Icopal and Ruberoid respectively, the other products have to be transported into the UK from factories as far away as the United States. To illustrate these points more clearly, Figure 6 shows a screenshot taken from the BRE website and displays the Green Guide to Specifications A+ rating breakdown for PVC flat roofing material. It should be remembered that A+ is the highest rating of the Green Guide.
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Figure 6: The Green Guide to Specification rating for PVC single ply roofing membrane
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After considering all the findings, it seems clear that the Green Guide, which is one of the most commonly used environmental assessment methods in the UK at the moment, still has certain limitations. There appear to be many inconsistencies between the requirements specified in the Code for Sustainable Homes and the information found in the Green Guide to Specification. After studying the six waterproofing membranes in detail, the result is that RoofKrete seems to perform better than the leading waterproofing membrane products on the market in terms of the key environmentally friendly and sustainability criteria discussed in the literature and defined by architects, and especially in terms of low maintenance costs over full life cycle,
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and low embodied energy levels from cradle to grave. Additionally, Krete Sustain Systems Ltd can match the installed price of single ply PVC, which is the product most commonly specified for flat roofs and balconies in the UK. Due to these findings, it can be concluded that the existing assessment method (The Green Guide to Specification) is still flawed, and further investigation is required in order to produce a method that truly considers all the relevant factors associated with an environmentally friendly and sustainable building product. This study has highlighted the fact that limitations in the current methods do exist, and prepared the way for future research geared towards development of a more suitable environmental assessment method for green building products in general. It can be recommended that the BRE and Green Guide should look more closely at each individual element of a building material, and assess the overall environmental impact of the material on this basis. The embodied energy of transport (from factory gate to building site) is another critical factor that is currently overlooked. Materials that can be sourced, produced and disposed of locally will have a distinct advantage over others in terms of embodied energy of transport. This should certainly be taken into account when assessing their environmental impact. The implications of this study for RoofKrete are immense. Although the product comparisons that were made may be lacking in scientific rigour, they are still functional enough to highlight the main point that RoofKrete outperforms its competitors in all categories that are important for an environmentally friendly building product. In order for Krete Sustain Systems Ltd to market RoofKrete more successfully, the company should consider getting an official BREAAM assessment to prove beyond doubt that RoofKrete is greener and more sustainable than the rest of the waterproofing membranes currently on the UK market.
Recommendations for Krete Sustain Systems Ltd Krete Sustain Systems Ltd should consider having RoofKrete certified through the Building Research Establishment, either by paying an assessment fee ranging from 7,000-10,000, or
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by working closely with architects who are involved with the BRE. Krete Sustain Systems has previously been reluctant to get the BRE certification, because the previous company director always believed that RoofKrete was far superior to PVC and other petrochemical membrane products that scored A+, and therefore would not accept being rated in the Green Guide at the same level. However, with the introduction of green building legislation, getting certified with the BRE is an essential tool to help Krete Sustain Systems Ltd to attract more business via architects who will specify RoofKrete in the future. This also means that if the Green Guide to Specification is changed, as it clearly needs to be, more architects will become aware of RoofKretes sustainability attributes and Krete Sustain Systems Ltd will be better prepared to ensure RoofKrete is rated at the top of the scale. Having the certification from the BRE would be a definite asset for RoofKrete in the next recommendation that will be discussed below. In addition to pursuing opportunities in new build, Krete Sustain Systems should consider trying to increase its share in the refurbished buildings market. This research project has focused on legislation mainly regarding new build, but refurbishment of existing buildings is a far larger market in the UK than new build. The role of existing buildings is acknowledged in the Low Carbon Transition Plan when it talks about the importance of people improving their homes, and the drive to raise standards in every home (The UK Low Carbon Transition Plan, 2009, p.82). Clearly, there is as much need for environmentally friendly and sustainable building products in the refurbishment market as there is in the new build. The Royal Institute of Chartered Surveyors (RICS) is the main industry body concerned with refurbishment of existing buildings in the UK. It is hoped that the results of this research can now help to convince the RICS that RoofKrete is the best waterproofing membrane for the sustainable refurbishment of flat roofs and balconies on UK buildings, in line with government targets.
Improvements of RoofKrete Management of Krete Sustain Systems has suggested that it is possible to further improve RoofKrete by adapting the products used to make it. As mentioned in the materials section in
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Chapter 6, cement production has quite a high level of associated embodied energy. To decrease this, and lessen the environmental impact of RoofKrete, it would be possible to replace up to 20% of the Portland cement with fly ash, which is a 100% recycled product. The cement industry is continually trying to improve its production processes in an aim to become more environmentally friendly. Krete Sustain Systems Ltd currently partners with Lafarge Cement, which is the largest cement supplier in the UK. It would be possible however, for Krete Sustain Systems Ltd to source its cement from a different supplier. Two suppliers are currently under consideration, because they claim to be more environmentally friendly than the market leader Lafarge. Novacem makes cement using a carbon neutral production process that it claims will offer performance and cost parity with ordinary Portland cement, but with a carbon negative footprint (Novacem, 2010). Celtic Cement offers ultra low carbon cement replacements, with a strong focus on local production, reducing pollution, and conserving natural resources which are all important aspects of producing environmentally friendly building materials. Krete Sustain Systems Ltd markets itself on being environmentally friendly and sustainable. Partnering with a cement supplier who puts such emphasis on maintaining environmentally friendly products and processes would be better aligned with Kretes overall company image, as well as further improving the composition of RoofKrete.
7 - Conclusion
Research Questions and Objectives At the beginning of this project, three research questions were defined.
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1.
Is RoofKrete the most environmentally friendly waterproof membrane flat roofing system on the UK market today?
According to the evidence presented, RoofKrete appears to be the most environmentally friendly flat roofing membrane currently available on the UK market.
2.
Why is the concept of embodied energy so important?
Embodied energy of a product tells us how much impact the full lifecycle of that product has on the environment. Currently, many products that claim to have low embodied energy only measure the amount used from first sourcing to factory gate (cradle to gate). However, the full lifecycle of a product is far more extensive than this and care needs to be taken to include every stage when measuring embodied energy. Embodied energy of transport is especially important, and should encourage specifiers to choose building materials that can be locally produced.
3.
What are the limitations of environmental assessment methods such as the Green Guide to Specification? How might this method need to change in the future?
The Green Guide to Specification fails to fully consider the environmental impact caused over the full lifecycle of building materials. It could be improved by considering the impact of each separate element of a material, and by focusing more carefully on embodied energy over the full lifecycle, not just cradle to gate. It can be seen that this research has met all of the stated research objectives as defined in Chapter 1, also that it has managed to comprehensively answer all of the research questions and identify a number of areas where further research could be carried out in the future.
Summary of main findings
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During the legislation analysis, it was shown how the Climate Change Act 2008 and the UK Low Carbon Transition Plan provided the foundations for the development of the Code for Sustainable Homes. It was then discovered that the Code for Sustainable Homes puts strong emphasis on two particular areas: responsible sourcing of materials, and environmental impact of materials. The former refers to the production methods and sustainability of building materials, and the latter refers to the embodied energy of the full lifecycle of a material from cradle to grave. Once it was made clear that the Code for Sustainable Homes attached great importance to these two areas, it was then possible to use this information to prepare the next step in the methodology. A survey was sent to a target group of architects, and the results clarified the criteria for an environmentally friendly building material, showed that low embodied energy was one of these criteria, and indicated that many respondents believed that the Green Guide to Specification was flawed, because it gives top environmentally friendly ratings to petrochemical products such as PVC/TPO, mastic asphalt, EPDM and bitumen. The focus was then narrowed down to concentrate on a certain category of building materials waterproof membrane products commonly used on flat roofs and balconies. The findings from the survey results were used to guide the final part of the methodology the comparison of RoofKrete with five UK and international market-leading competitors, who all manufacture waterproof membrane systems using the petro-chemical based products stated above. The comparison exercise, using scientific data from a variety of secondary sources, suggested that RoofKrete, made from sand and cement, should be rated more highly in the Green Guide to Specification than any of the petro-chemical competitors that currently lead the UK and worldwide markets for waterproof membrane systems, and who, according to the information in the Green Guide, are the most environmentally friendly products available. RoofKrete performs better in all the identified environmentally friendly categories, uses less energy over its full lifecycle, and can be priced competitively against other similar waterproof membrane products. However, RoofKrete is currently not listed in the Green Guide to Specification, partly due to the Krete managements scepticism about the Green Guides credibility.
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Due to the findings of this research, it was recommended that Krete Sustain Systems Ltd should take steps to have RoofKrete certified by the Building Research Establishment (BRE). The BRE are responsible for developing and maintaining the Green Guide to Specification, so being certified with this institution will help to make RoofKrete more desirable to architects, and therefore improve business for Krete Sustain Systems Ltd. The results of the primary research, although due to the small sample size cannot be used for sweeping generalisations, also suggested that some architects believe that the Green Guide is flawed and should undergo changes in order to better assess how environmentally friendly building materials really are. As it is expected that the Green Guide will be updated and modified in future to better reflect the environmentally friendly factors of building products, having the BRE certification for RoofKrete will be the first step towards getting the product onto the highest level of the Green Guide to Specification.
Contributions to Knowledge The findings of this research have further supported the doubts about environmental assessment methods that were already raised by researchers such as Ding (2007). These research findings have highlighted some discrepancies between the recommendations stated in the Code for Sustainable Homes, and the environmental assessment rating system linked with the Code (The Green Guide to Specification). Specifically regarding materials used for flat roofing, the stipulations of the Code do not match the attributes of the products that are currently rated the highest in the Green Guide. If embodied energy and environmental impact are critical considerations in the Code, it seems illogical that petro-chemical products such as PVC can be given the highest rating, as this suggests that they are highly environmentally friendly. Findings from the comparison exercise suggest that this is not the case.
Prospects for Future Research
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Future research could focus on providing a more rigorous scientific analysis of embodied energy over the full life cycle of building products. It would be beneficial to the industry if a standardised system could be developed to objectively measure embodied energy. This would involve a considerable amount of scientific research. As suggested by McManus and Coates, the Code for Sustainable Homes is currently limited by a failure to consider the full lifecycle of the technologies that are likely to be used (McManus, Gaterell & Coates, 2009, p.2017). As found from the results of this research project, this is a serious limitation that needs to be urgently addressed. As pointed out by respondents from the UK building industry in the work of Osmani and OReilly (2009), the Code for Sustainable Homes needs to be made clearer and more consistent if all UK builders are to adhere to it. Research to improve the Code would benefit the UK by improving the chances of reaching the 2016 zero-carbon target. Additionally, there is the possibility to apply the environmental criteria of the Code to the issue of refurbishing existing UK housing stock. This is a much larger market than new build, and would be a worthwhile area for Krete Sustain Systems Ltd to explore with RoofKrete.
8 - List of References
Act On CO2 (2010) Climate Change The Facts, Retrieved April 1, 2010 from: http://actonco2.direct.gov.uk/home/climate-change-the-facts/Rising-temperatures-and-thegreenhouse-effect.html The Architectural Ensemble (2009) Project List, retrieved June 27, 2010 from: http://www.thearchitectureensemble.com/project_list.html Bartlett, E. & Howard, N. (2000). Informing the decision makers on the cost and value of green building. Building Research & Information, 28(5/6) (2000), 315-324.
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Berge, B. (2009), The Ecology of Building Materials, Architectural Press Brundtland G (ed) (1987) Our Common Future: The World Commission on Environment and Development, Oxford, Oxford University Press. Building Research Establishment - The Green Guide to Specification, retrieved July 2, 2010 from: http://www.bre.co.uk/greenguide/podpage.jsp?id=2126 Cano, V. (2003) Reliability and Validity in Qualitative Research, Queen Margaret University, Edinburgh, Psychology Department. Retrieved July 28, 2010 from: http://www.qmu.ac.uk/psych/rtrek/study_notes/web/sn5.htm Celtic Cement Environmental Benefits, retrieved on August 2, 2010 from: http://www.celticcement.com/environmental_benefits.html Chwieduk, D. (2003). Towards sustainable-energy buildings. Applied Energy 76 (2003) 211217.
Communities and Local Government (2010) The Code for Sustainable Homes, retrieved January 30, 2010 from: http://www.communities.gov.uk/planningandbuilding/buildingregulations/legislation/codesust ainable/ Crowther, D, (2008) Research Methods: A concise introduction to research in management and business consultancy, Second edition, Elsevier Ltd. Dawson, S (2002), Weald and Downland Open Air Museum Edward Cullinan Architects, in The Architects Journal. Retrieved June 27, 2010 from: http://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/home/working-details/175895.article
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Denison, J & Halligan, C. (2010), Building Materials and the Environment, Retrieved June 27, 2010 from: http://www.stephengeorge.co.uk/ The Design Council (2010) Millennium Products, retrieved February 25, 2010 from: http://www.designcouncil.org.uk/about-us/Who-we-area-and-what-we-do/OurHistory/Millennium-Products/ Ding, G. (2007), Sustainable construction The role of environmental assessment tools. Journal of Environmental Management 86 (2008) 451-464. Firestone Roofing, retrieved July 2, 2010 from: http://www.firestonebpe.com/roofing/_en/ Foreign and Commonwealth Office (2010) The UK Low Carbon Transition Plan, retrieved June 27, 2010 from: centralcontent.fco.gov.uk/.../DECC-Low-Carbon-Transition-Plan The Green Roof Centre - Green Roofs, retrieved June 27, 2010 from: http://www.thegreenroofcentre.co.uk/green_roofs Hammond, G & Jones, C. (2008), Embodied Energy and Carbon in Construction Materials, Proc. Institution of Civil Engineers: Energy (in press). Icopal Ltd - Bituminous Roofing Reinforced Bitumen Membranes, retrieved July 2, 2010 from: http://www.icopal.co.uk/Menus/Bituminous%20Roofing.aspx Krete Sustain Systems Ltd Embodied Energy, retrieved July 2, 2010 from: http://www.krete.co.uk/embodied-energy Krete Sustain Systems Ltd Sustainability, retrieved July 2, 2010 from: http://www.krete.co.uk/sustainability
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Lafarge Cement Whats New? Retrieved on August 2, 2010 from: http://www.lafarge.co.uk/wps/portal/uk/2_1-Whats_new Liquid Plastics - Our Products, retrieved July 2, 2010 from: http://www.liquidplastics.co.uk/Our-Products Malin, N. (2000), The cost of green materials, Building Research & Information, 28(5/6) (2000), 408-412. McManus, A., Gaterell, M.R., & Coates, L.E., (2009), The potential for the Code for Sustainable Homes to deliver genuine sustainable energy in the UK social housing sector, Energy Policy 38 (2010) 2013-2019. NOAA Research (2010) Observing Climate Variability and Change, Retrieved March 31, 2010 from: http://www.oar.noaa.gov/climate/t_observing.html Novacem Carbon Neutral Cement Cement Our Solution, retrieved on August 2, 2010 from: http://novacem.com/technology/novacem-technology/ Office of Public Sector Information (2010) The Climate Change Act 2008, retrieved June 27, 2010 from: www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts2008/pdf/ukpga_20080027_en.pdf Osmani & OReilly, (2009), Feasibility of zero carbon homes in England by 2016 - A house builders perspective, Building and Environment 44 (2009), 1917-1924. Robinson, J. (2004), Squaring the Circle? Some thoughts on the idea of sustainable development, Ecological Economics (2004). Ruberoid - Flat Roofs, retrieved July 2, 2010 from: http://www.ruberoid.co.uk/pages/ruberoid_homepage/product_library/category_page/default. aspx?CatID=34
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Sarnafil Environment Embodied Energy, retrieved July 2, 2010 from: http://www.sarnafil.co.uk//embodied_energy sustainable. (2010). In Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Retrieved August 14, 2010, from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sustainable Thornton, J. (2002), Environmental Impacts of Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Building Materials, Healthy Building Network (2002) Retrieved on August 2, 2010 from: http://www.healthybuilding.net/pvc/ThorntonPVCSummary.html UK Green Building Council (2010) Our Priorities, retrieved January 30, 2010 from: http://www.ukgbc.org/site/home UK Green Building Council (2010) Resources, Retrieved February 25, 2010 from: http://www.ukgbc.org/site/resources Yohanis, Y.G. & Norton, B. (1999) Life cycle operational and embodied energy for a generic office building in the UK, Energy 27 (2002) 77-92.
9 - Appendices
Questionnaire blank copy
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A critical comparison of green flat roofing materials in the UK

Im a business and economics student at Hogeschool Universiteit Brussel (HUB) in Belgium, and am researching sustainable flat roofing products for my masters thesis. This project is in collaboration with a company called Krete Sustain Systems Ltd, (www.krete.co.uk) which believes that its flat roofing system RoofKrete, is the greenest and most sustainable waterproof membrane product available today. My goal is to evaluate the validity of this claim by comparing the sustainability features of RoofKrete against the UKs current market leading products. Opinions from UK architects will form a significant part of my research. I would therefore be very grateful if you would answer the following 10 questions. 1) Approximately what percentage of your previous projects has required you to specify sustainable building materials? 0-25% 25-50% 50-75% 75-100% 2) Have you previously heard of RoofKrete? Yes (if so, where?) No
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3) If yes, have you specified RoofKrete for a past building project? Yes (please give further details) No
4) Have you heard of embodied energy? Yes No
5) Have you ever specifically considered embodied energy when specifying materials for previous projects? Yes (please give details)
No
6) Which of the following information sources do you use when selecting building materials? GreenPro The Green Guide to Specification from BREEAM Green Book Live The Green Building Bible Other (please specify)
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7) Apart from embodied energy, which of the following factors do you consider to be important for sustainable building materials? (please select all that apply) Durability Recyclability Manufactured locally Reduced use of fossil fuels (e.g. in petro-chemical products) Low lifecycle cost Low total install costs Other (please specify)
8) How would you define a 'green' building material?
9) Have you ever specified a green roof? If so, what kind of membrane did you specify to be placed underneath it?
10) PVC single-ply is the top-selling flat roofing membrane in the UK. It is also rated at the highest level (A+) of the BRE Green Guide to Specification. However, PVC is made from fossil fuels, has a high embodied energy rating, produces damaging substances during production/application/disposal, and has an unpredictable lifespan as a roofing material.
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a.
Why do you think PVC scores A+ in the Green Guide?
b) How do you think the Green Guide could be improved in the future?
End of questionnaire
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A Critical Comparison of Sustainable Waterproofing Systems in The UK/International Construction Industry

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A Critical Comparison of Sustainable Waterproofing Systems in the UK Construction Industry Manniex A Critical Comparison of Green Flat Roofing Systems

in the UK Construction Industry Manniex

A Critical Comparison of Sustainable Waterproofing Systems in the UK Construction Industry

Academic Year 2009 - 2010

8 - List of References 9 - Appendices

A Critical Comparison of Sustainable Waterproofing Systems in the UK Construction Industry

PEST Analysis The External Environment of Krete Sustain Systems Ltd

Comments on PEST analysis

Why is the concept of embodied energy so important?

Specific Research Objectives

Choice of research methodology

Presentation of Survey Results 15 respondents returned the survey.

Figure 2 Questions 2-5

Embodied Energy Introduction

Embodied Energy Comparison by Product

Company Sarnafil Firestone

Country of Production Switzerland USA

Green Guide Rating A+ A+

Embodied Energy From 48.2 MJ/kg to 71.5 MJ/kg 120.0 MJ/kg

Icopal Ltd Ruberoid Liquid Plastics

75.0 MJ/kg Unavailable 105 MJ/kg

Why is the concept of embodied energy so important?

Summary of main findings

Prospects for Future Research

A critical comparison of green flat roofing materials in the UK

4) Have you heard of embodied energy? Yes No

8) How would you define a 'green' building material?

Why do you think PVC scores A+ in the Green Guide?

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