UNIT 3 - On 24022012

IFETCE/EEE/VIIIsem/PQ/EE2028/PPT/VER 1.
AFDs and Their Effect on Power Quality
IFETCE/EEE/VIIIsem/PQ/EE2028/PPT/VER 1.0
What Kind of Power Quality Effects?
Power factor?
PF = kW / kVA High motor content means lagging PF 100HP motor, 460V, 93% eff, 119A
(100HP x 0.746kW/HP) / 0.93 = 80.2kW 119A x 460V x 1.73 / 1000 = 94.8kVA PF = 80.2kW / 94.8kVA = 84.6% @ FL But at actual load, more like 70% or less
PF is improved with AFDs to 90 95% AFDs seen as resistive load

IFETCE/EEE/VIIIsem/PQ/EE2028/PPT/VER 1.0 3
What Kind of Power Quality Effects? Incoming Sine Wave Notching?

Arises from SCR front ends on AFDs Forced commutation causes line notches But modern AFDs use diode front ends Self commutating no notching
What Kind of Power Quality Effects? Voltage sag?

Standard motor starters allow 650% inrush Weak power systems are affected 500HP motor on 1000kVA, 5.75%Z Xfmr 650% X (500 / 1000) X 0.0575 = 19% sag AFD limits inrush to 110% (or 150%) 110% X (500 / 1000) X 0.0575 = 3% sag
What is K-Factor? K-factor is a weighting of the harmonic load currents according to their effects on transformer heating, as The higher the K-factor, the greater the harmonic heating effects.
What kind of Power Quality Effects?

Harmonic Distortion
AFDs, DC Drives, UPSs, DC power supplies (computers, duplicators, faxs) will cause current (and voltage) harmonics
Single phase 3rd, 6th, etc (triplens) can cause transformer neutral conductor overheating Three phase 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th, etc can cause equipment malfunctions Big questions How much? and How much is too much?
What are Harmonics?
Definition: Harmonics are integral multiples of some fundamental frequency that, when added together, result in a distorted waveform.
What are Harmonics?
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sin(5x) f(x) = sin(x) f(x) = 5 The resulting wave shows a strong departure from the smooth waves comprising it:
f(x) = sin(x) + sin(5x) 5
What are Harmonics? In fact, any function may be constructed from a sine wave and some number of its harmonics:
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Where do they come from? The power company typically supplies a reasonably smooth sinusoidal waveform:
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Where do they come from? ...but nonlinear devices will draw distorted waveforms, which are comprised of harmonics of the source:
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Common sources of Harmonics Lighting ballasts
UPS systems
AC and DC drives
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AC drives and Harmonics
Converter
DC bus & smoothing
Inverter
Determine the line-side harmonics
Determines load-side harmonics
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EFFECTS OF LOAD-SIDE HARMONICS: Have implications for the motor insulation and windings. Essentially have zero effect on other equipment on the power system. Inverter
Determines load-side harmonics
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LINE-SIDE HARMONICS CAN HAVE FAR-REACHING EFFECTS ON THE POWER SYSTEM: Distribution transformers
Converter DC bus & smoothing
Standby generators Communications equipment Switchgear and relays
Determine the line-side harmonics
Computers, computer systems Diagnostic equipment
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Typical 6-step converter waveform: Harmonic Content I5 = 22.5% I7 = 9.38% I11 = 6.10% I13 = 4.06% I17 = 2.26% I19 = 1.77% I23 = 1.12% I25 = 0.86%
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Harmonics and transformers

Transformer overheating and potential insulation failure result from several conditions caused by harmonics: Increased skin and proximity effects Harmonics circulating in the primary winding AFC AFC Increased hysteresis losses Increased eddy current losses DC in the primary windings
Harmonics and transformers

Many transformers are rated by K factor which simply describes their ability to withstand harmonics. Transformers may also be derated to compensate for the additional heating caused by harmonics. Improved transformer designs have also been developed, with oversized neutral busses, special cores, and specially designed coils.
AFC
AFC
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Harmonics and power-correction capacitors
Power correction capacitors can cause series and parallel resonance effects on a power system. If a harmonic is generated which excites a system resonance, amplification of that harmonic may occur.
Calculation of the harmonic resonance frequency for the system can give an indication of potential resonance problems.
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Harmonics and power-correction capacitors

EXAMPLE:
1500 kVA 5.75%
Assume a 1500 kVA supply xfmr, with a 5.75% impedance.
600 kVAC
Also assume 600 kVA of power correction capacitors on the system
The harmonic resonance frequency is defined by: kVAsc kVAC = 1500 / 0.0575 = 6.6 600
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hr =
Recommended limits - IEEE 519

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has set recommended limits on both current and voltage distortion in IEEE 519-1992. Voltage distortion limits (@ low-voltage bus): Application class Special system General system Dedicated system THD (voltage) 3% 5% 10 %
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Recommended limits - IEEE 519

MAXIMUM HARMONIC CURRENT DISTORTION in percent of IL Isc/IL <20 20-50 50-100 100-1000 >1000
Isc: IL:
<11 4.0 7.0 10.0 12.0 15.0
Individual harmonic number (odd harmonics) 11<h<17 17<h<23 23<h<35 2.0 1.5 0.6 3.5 2.5 1.0 4.5 4.0 1.5 5.5 5.0 2.0 7.0 6.0 2.5
TDD 5.0 8.0 12.0 15.0 20.0
Maximum short-circuit current at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC). Maximum demand load current (fundamental) at the PCC.
Attenuation of Harmonics
Inductive Reactance Method: Benefits: Add a line reactor or isolation transformer to attenuate harmonics. Low cost. Technically simple. Concerns: Tends to offer reductions in only higher order harmonics. Has little effect on the 5th and 7th harmonics. Because of the associated voltage drop, there are limits to the amount of reactance that may be added.
Passive Filters Method: Benefits: Provide a low-impedance path to ground for the harmonic frequencies. May be tuned to a frequency between two prevalent harmonics so as to help attenuate both. Tuning the filters may be a labor-intensive process. Filters are difficult to size, because they offer a path for harmonics from any source. Quite sensitive to any future system changes.
Concerns:
Active Filters Method: Inject equal and opposite harmonics onto the power system to cancel those generated by other equipment. Have proven very effective in reducing harmonics well below required levels.
Benefits:
Concerns:
The high performance inverter required for the harmonic injection is costly. Power transistors are exposed to conditions of the line, so reliability may be a problem.
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12-pulse Rectifiers Method: Two separate rectifier bridges supply a single DC bus. The two bridges are fed from phaseshifted supplies. Very effective in the elimination of 5th and 7th harmonics. Stops harmonics at the source. Insensitive to future system changes. May not meet the IEEE standards in every case. Does little to attenuate the 11th and 13th harmonics.
Benefits:
Concerns:
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18-pulse Rectifier Method: An integral phase-shift transformer and rectifier Input which draws an almost purely sinusoidal waveform from the source. Meets the IEEE standards in every case! Attenuates all harmonics up to the 35th. Stops harmonics at the source. Insensitive to future system changes. Concerns: Can be expensive at smaller HPs
Benefits:
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Comparison of waveforms
6-pulse converter
note the level of distortion and steep current rise.
12-pulse converter
the waveform appears more sinusoidal, but still not very smooth.
18-pulse converter
virtually indistinguishable from the source current waveform. IFETCE/EEE/VIIIsem/PQ/EE2028/PPT/VER 1.0 29
Harmonics
Harmonics is a sinusoidal component of a periodic wave or quantity having a frequency that is an integral multiple of the fundamental power frequency. The equation representing a harmonic frequency (fh )is given by, fh = f1 h
Where f1 is the fundamental frequency and h is the harmonic order. For example, if the fundamental power frequency is 50 Hz, then the 2nd harmonic is 100 Hz; the 3rd harmonics is 150 Hz, etc. As their names imply, odd harmonics have odd numbers (e.g., 3, 5, 7, 9, 11), and even harmonics have even numbers (e.g., 2, 4, 6, 8, 10). Harmonic number 1 is assigned to the fundamental frequency component of the periodic wave.
Harmonic number 0 represents the constant or DC component of the waveform. The DC component is the net difference between the positive and negative halves of one complete waveform cycle.
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Waveform Distortion composed of fundamental and 5th harmonics
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Waveform Distortion composed of fundamental and 3rd harmonics
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The majority of nonlinear loads produce harmonics that are odd multiples of the fundamental frequency. Certain conditions need to exist for production of even harmonics. Uneven current draw between the positive and negative half cycle of operation can generate even harmonics. The uneven operation may be due to the nature of the application or could indicate problems with the load circuitry.
Transformer magnetizing currents contain appreciable levels of even harmonic components and so do arc furnaces during startup.
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Sub-harmonics
Sub-harmonics have frequencies below the fundamental frequency and are rare in power systems. When sub harmonics are present, the underlying cause is resonance between the harmonic currents or voltages with the power system capacitance and inductance.
Sub-harmonics
Sub-harmonics may be generated when a system is highly inductive (such as an arc furnace during startup) or if the power system also contains large capacitor banks for power factor correction or filtering. Such conditions produce slow oscillations that are relatively undamped, resulting in voltage sags and light flicker
Fourier series representation
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Basics of the harmonics phenomena
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Harmonic content of a 6-pulse converter
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Harmonic components are added to the fundamental
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POWER DEFINITIONS UNDER NON-SINUSOIDAL CONDITIONS

Apparent power S (volt-ampere-VA): The product of the RMS voltage and current. Active power P (watts-W): The average rate of delivery of energy. Reactive power Q (reactive volt ampere-VAR): The portion of the apparent power that is out of phase, or in quadrature, with the active power
Displacement and True Power Factor
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True power factor is calculated as the ratio between the total active power used in a circuit (including harmonics) and the total apparent power (including harmonics) supplied from the source True power factor = Total active power (P)/Total apparent power(S)
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Example of Linear loads
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Example of Non-linear load
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Harmonic distortion Wave form
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Voltage and Current Waveform Distortion Phenomenon

IEEE 519-1992, Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electrical Power Systems, recognizes this by basically saying:
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IEEE 519-1992
The control over the amount of harmonic current injected into the system takes place at the end-use application. Assuming the harmonic current injection is within reasonable limits, the control over the voltage distortion is exercised by the entity having control over the system impedance, which is often the electric utility.
Effect of load voltage due to harmonic current flowing through the system impedance
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Causes of Harmonics
Harmonics can arise
in the generating system, in the distribution system, and from the loads connected to the network.
If a generator produces a non-ideal sinusoidal waveform, the voltage waveform will contain a certain amount of harmonics.
Harmonic current generation from nonlinear loads (Non-Linear loads are those in which the load does not draw a sinusoidal current) .
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Harmonics Effects
The most notable effects that harmonics have on a power system are impact on the quality of the AC voltage waveform (i.e., it will become distorted), thus causing problems with other sensitive loads connected to the same supply. In transformers, harmonic currents cause the RMS current to be greater than its capacity, leading to increased conductor loss and heating.
In motors, decreased efficiency, excessive heating, and vibration are symptoms of harmonic voltage distortion. The tripping of protective relaying, telephone interference, and false meter readings are other consequences of harmonics in power systems.
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Common Sources of Harmonics

In general, sources of harmonics are divided into: (a) Commercial loads (b) Industrial loads (c) Residential loads
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Common Sources of Harmonics
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IFETCE/EEE/VIIIsem/PQ/EE2028/PPT/VER 1.

AFDs and Their Effect on Power Quality

What Kind of Power Quality Effects?

PF is improved with AFDs to 90 95% AFDs seen as resistive load

What Kind of Power Quality Effects? Incoming Sine Wave Notching?

What Kind of Power Quality Effects? Voltage sag?

What kind of Power Quality Effects?

What are Harmonics?

What are Harmonics?

f(x) = sin(x) + sin(5x) 5

Common sources of Harmonics Lighting ballasts

AC drives and Harmonics

DC bus & smoothing

Determine the line-side harmonics

Determines load-side harmonics

AC drives and Harmonics

Determines load-side harmonics

AC drives and Harmonics

Standby generators Communications equipment Switchgear and relays

Determine the line-side harmonics

Computers, computer systems Diagnostic equipment

AC drives and Harmonics

Harmonics and transformers

Harmonics and transformers

Harmonics and power-correction capacitors

Harmonics and power-correction capacitors

Assume a 1500 kVA supply xfmr, with a 5.75% impedance.

Also assume 600 kVA of power correction capacitors on the system

Recommended limits - IEEE 519

Recommended limits - IEEE 519

<11 4.0 7.0 10.0 12.0 15.0

TDD 5.0 8.0 12.0 15.0 20.0

Waveform Distortion composed of fundamental and 5th harmonics

Waveform Distortion composed of fundamental and 3rd harmonics

Fourier series representation

Basics of the harmonics phenomena

Harmonic content of a 6-pulse converter

Harmonic components are added to the fundamental

POWER DEFINITIONS UNDER NON-SINUSOIDAL CONDITIONS

Displacement and True Power Factor

Example of Linear loads

Example of Non-linear load

Harmonic distortion Wave form

Voltage and Current Waveform Distortion Phenomenon

Common Sources of Harmonics

Common Sources of Harmonics

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